The Transfer or Generalizability of Learning

The Transfer or Generalizability of Learning

• Definition• Transfer of learning is defined the influence

that experience or practice of one task has on some other subsequent task.

• 1. Positive transfer : Performance on one task may facilitate performance on another task.

• 2. Negative transfer : Performance on one task may actually interfere with or inhibit subse-quent performance on a second task

• 3. Neural : Performance on one task may have no effect whatsoever on performance of an-other task.

왜 치료사에게 Transfer 와 Learning 의 관계를 이해하는 것이 중요한가 ?

• 1.Therapeutic Standpoint : Facilitate Posi-tive Transfer & Avoid Negative Transfer

• 2.The use of various instructional strategies is based on knowledge about transfer

• 3.The use of simulators to train space shut-tle personnel, commercial pilots , and mili-tary personal to operate expensive and of-ten very complex equipment rests on the assumption that the skills and/or knowledge acquired in training will positively transfer to the actual performance situation Ex. BTE

Transfer 의 이론적 배경• Theoretical views of transfer• 1. Identical - Elements Theory • (Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901;

Thorndike,1914)• Identical-elements theory was that in

order for the transfer of learning be-tween skills and/or movement con-texts to occur, the elements underly-ing the two skills or situations must be identical.

Transfer 의 이론적 배경• The Major assumption of this theory was that

transfer of learning was not based on any general extraction of knowledge, but rather, was very specific in nature

• Osgood(1949) and Holding(1976) extended and modified the ideas proposed by Throndike by ex-ploring the relationship between the stimulus prompting an action and the action itself.

• Holding predicted that in situations where much similarity existed between the stimulus and the response of the first task learned and those of the task currently being practiced, high levels of positive transfer would occur.

Transfer 의 이론적 배경• 2. Transfer-appropriate processing• TAP framework의 가장 큰 가정은 어떠한 움직임의 학습이든지에 하나의 연습으로부터 파생된 다른 움직임 형태라든지 , 혹은 다른 performance

context 안에서 일어나는 같은 종류의 skill 형태가 기초가 되는 연습의 경우 그 processing 안에 진행되는 activity의 nature가 포함되어 있을 경우 그 학습은 강화될 수 있다 .• The major assumption underlying the TAP framework is

that the learning of any movement skill is enhanced if the nature of the processing activities engaged in during the practicing of that skill is similar to the type of processing that underlies the performance of the same skill in a dif -ferent performance context or in a different movement pattern from the one practiced.

• (Bransford,Franks, Morris, & Stein,1979; Morris, Brans-ford, & Frank,197) --사람들이 어떻게 verbal skill을 배우는가?

Transfer 의 이론적 배경• Identical-elements theory - The

similarity of task elements• TAP - The similarity of the cogni-

tive processing

• Lee(1988)• Practicing a variety of structurally dis-

similar skills that nevertheless require the same types of cognitive processing needed to perform other related move-ment skills should promote positive transfer.

• 형태적으로 유사하지 않은 다양한 skill 들을 연습시키더라도 다른 movement skill 을 하는데 관련된 같은 형태의 cognitive function 이 포함되어 있다면 positive transfer 가 촉진된다 .

• 실질적인 관점으로 보자면 치료사가 TAP 관점으로 학습 환경을 구축하고자 한다면 학습자가 미래에 transfer situation(different move-ment context or the performance of a new but similar movement pattern)에서 필요할 연습이 포함되어야한다 .

• Positive transfer is thought to be op-timized making the processing activi-ties similar between the practice and the transfer situation.

• Ex. 체조선수가 새로운 기술을 배우거나 어려운 공중회전을 연습해야할 때 코치는 trampolin 위에 멜빵을 매달고 연습하는 환경을 만든다 .• 이 상황은 비록 운동선수가 최종적으로 할 상황은 아니지만 , 운동선수가 이 연습에 참여하고 있는 동안에 cogni-

tive processing 은 후에 그 기술이 floor 에서 시행할 때 필요한 cognitive processing 과 매우 유사하다 .• 재활 환경도 이와 유사하게 환자가 일상생활에서 다양하게 행할 환경과 비슷한 관정을 치료 환경속에 포함시키고

positive transfer 를 기대할 수 있다 .( 단 본질적인 부분이 포함되어져야한다 .)

• Transfer of training• Two commonly used transfer of

training methods in motor skills are presented

• 1.adaptive training(AT): is a method that is performance sen-sitive. basically, the difficulty of the task is adjusted through feedback from performance

• AT방법으로 training 시키는데 기본적으로 필요한 3가지요소• 1) a task variable (eg, some measure of performance) that

reflects performance of the trainee• Ex. 환자의 상태에 따라 standing의 첫 단계는 modified

position(Walker, quadcane..)으로 training을 시작하고 perfor-mance 가 향상되면 BOS를 줄여가며 독립적으로 서있을 수 있도록 train-ing 의 계획을 짠다 .

• 2) an adaptive variable that is some dimension of the task along which difficulty is regulated (eg, precision, speed)

• Ex. practice의 처음에는 speed를 느리게 시작하고 performance 가 증진 되면서 점차 그 속도를 늘여가는 방법이 있겠다 .• 3) adaptive logic that prescribes the relationship between

the adaptive variable and the performance measure.

• 2. Part-task training : practice on some com-ponents of the whole task as a pretraining for performance of the whole task.

• PT 의 경우 neurotherapetic intervention 에 많은 경우가 있다 .• 예를 들어 환자에게 standing up 연습을 시킬 때 환자는 등을 펴서 hip 앞쪽으로 이동하고 다리 쪽으로 숙여서 cog를 이도시키는 방법을 배우게 된다 . 이와 같은 방법은 보통 의자에서 시작해서 각 구성요소를 숙달 시키게 된다 .• ( 비록 직관적으로 AT & PT 가 motor learning 에 효과가 있다는 것을 추측하고 있지만 확실한 증거들은 없다 .)

Application of theory

• Three methods• Outlined by Christina & Bjok

(1991)• 1.Make Practice difficult• 2.Vary the type of practice• 3.Reduce the frequency of feed-

back

• 1.Make Practice difficult• practice can be made more difficult by having

learners practice several skills interchangeably• This practice method, known as contextual in-

terference, has been shown to promote signifi-cantly better retention and transfer of certain movement skills.

• Introducing high levels of contextual interfer-ence to the practice situation promotes the development of cognitive strategies that guid-ing the performance of other skills in different movement contexts.

• 2.Vary the type of practice• The second method creates a less complex practice situation

by simply providing learners or patients with the opportunity to practice many variations of one movement skill in a variety of different contexts

• Having learners practice many variations of one movement skill in a variety of different contexts promotes positive trans-fer

• CI program을 시작하기 어려운 어린이 초기 환자들에게 적용하기 좋다.(Wrisberg & Mead, 1983)

• 여러 가지 다른 연장을 가지고 다른 크기 &모양의 물건을 치는 연습을 할 경우 물건을 치는 일반적인 기술이 증가할 뿐만 아니라 전에 경험하지 않은 물건을 칠수 있는 skill 이 transfer 된다 .• CVA 환자의 경우 다른 크기 ,모양의 물건을 시작점이 다른 곳에서 reach & grasp 연습을 한다 이와 같은 동작은 일상 생활 동작에서 positive transfer를 촉진시켜준다 .(슈퍼마켓 선반 집안의 싱크대 위의 물건)

• 3.Reduce the frequency of feedback• 지나치게 많은 feedback 은 학습자에게 외적 feed-

back 에 대한 의존성을 증가시키고 같은 상황에서 feedback 이 없을 때 혹은 한 skill 에서 경험해보지 않은 다른 skill 을 학습할 때 negative transfer 효과가 나타난다 .

• 반대로 외적 feedback 을 적게 받고 학습자 자신의 feedback(proprioception & vision) 등의 내적 sensory feedback 을 이용 문제를 해결할 과정을 갖도록 유도할 경우 이어지는 다른 환경에서 문제를 해결할 수 있는 능력이 향상된다 .

• ADAPTIVE TRAINING• Two main hypothesis• 1. Learning a complex skill will be better if the

learner starts with a less difficult version of the task and makes a gradual transition to the more difficult version.

• 2. Learning is presumed to be better if the transitions in difficulty are performance-based rather than fixed externally by the trainer

• * The level of task difficulty can be adjusted during performance so an optimal level of diffi-culty is maintained throughout practice.

• PART-TASK TRAINING• 계속적으로 질문 시 되어왔던 문제들은 연습초기부터 전체과제를 연습 시키는 것이 좋을지 아니면 부분적인 연습이 효과적인가 ? 하는 문제들이었다 .• 일반적으로 예전에 실험되었던 연구들은 부분적 연습의 효율적인 면은 과제가 행해졌던 형태의 범위에 의존한다고 보았다 .• schmidt & young 은 최근에 부분적 연습 방법 중 transfer 의 효율성은 본래 이루어질 (criterion task) 의 형태를 고려해야만 한다고 말했다 .• 지시자의 경우 motor control representation 상에서

whole task 를 part 로 나누는데 있어 naturally 하게 나누지 못했을 경우 동떨어진 unnatural part practice 는 crite-rion task 의 같은 동작과는 다르게 표현된다 .

• Part-task training for locomotion• 최근에 postacute hemiparetic subjects 에게 dynamic

weight-shifting part-task practice 가 locomotor performance 로 transfer 되는가에 대하여 실험을 했다 .

• 1. Two group of matched subjects in this study• 2.one group : standing weight - shifting pt with a

specially designed video feedback- dynamic visual information & standard gait training

• 3.The other group : standard gait training ( whole- task)

• 3-4주 치료 후 teston standing weight-shifting & lo-comotion performance

• 결론 more symmetrical standing pos-ture after treatment than did the whole- task trained group, a corre-spondingly greater improvement in locomotor performance was not ob-tained

• Indeed, in this study Part-task train-ing was as effective for locomotor performance as whole task training

• This suggests that the individual parts or phases of a locomotion cycle may represent relatively inseparable portions of a rapid short-duration, centrally gener-ated action.

• Part-task training a complex per-ceptural -motor task

• Organizing the practice environment• These issues include the length and num-

ber og practice sessions per week, the types of activities to be practiced during each session, the order in which they are to be practiced, and the time allotted to each activity.

• Practice sessions that are relatively short but of high quality generally foster more effective learning than practice sessions that are long and unstructured

• Organizing the practice environment• These issues include the length and num-

ber og practice sessions per week, the types of activities to be practiced during each session, the order in which they are to be practiced, and the time allotted to each activity.

• Practice sessions that are relatively short but of high quality generally foster more effective learning than practice sessions that are long and unstructured