The Treatment of Culture in The Treatment of Culture in American Social Psychology American Social Psychology

TextbooksTextbooks

John Adamopoulos & Christine M. SmithJohn Adamopoulos & Christine M. Smith

Grand Valley State UniversityGrand Valley State University

USAUSA

““Culture” in PsychologyCulture” in Psychology10-15 years ago, when I was the editor of the 10-15 years ago, when I was the editor of the Cross-Cultural Psychology BulletinCross-Cultural Psychology Bulletin, there was an , there was an intense if brief discussion in the cross-cultural intense if brief discussion in the cross-cultural psychology community, reflected to some extent psychology community, reflected to some extent in in BulletinBulletin letters and editorials, about whether or letters and editorials, about whether or not the emerging interest in “culture” among not the emerging interest in “culture” among psychologists was here to stay or purely psychologists was here to stay or purely ephemeralephemeralToday, the optimists among us may want to Today, the optimists among us may want to celebrate about the continuation of this interest. celebrate about the continuation of this interest. It is beginning to appear that “culture” is here to It is beginning to appear that “culture” is here to staystayOf course, the question is “how” will it stay? Of course, the question is “how” will it stay? What is its impact?What is its impact?

A good measure of that is how culture is treated A good measure of that is how culture is treated in college textbooks, since it takes a number of in college textbooks, since it takes a number of years before instances become trendsyears before instances become trends

The overall theme of this presentation, then, is The overall theme of this presentation, then, is the treatment of culture in social psychology the treatment of culture in social psychology textbookstextbooks

It is limited to social texts since general It is limited to social texts since general psychology texts are covered by the other psychology texts are covered by the other symposium participants and because the symposium participants and because the emphasis in our teaching is in social and cultural emphasis in our teaching is in social and cultural psychologypsychology

It is also restricted to American psychology texts It is also restricted to American psychology texts because that is the practical limit of our because that is the practical limit of our experience to dateexperience to date

The main questions we addressed The main questions we addressed concerned concerned (1) the specific content of cultural (1) the specific content of cultural coverage (i.e., topics covered) coverage (i.e., topics covered) (2) the sensitivity of the texts to culture (2) the sensitivity of the texts to culture and to the relevant literatureand to the relevant literature

(3) the extent to which culture was used to (3) the extent to which culture was used to issue a call for the modification or revision issue a call for the modification or revision of mainstream psychological theories of mainstream psychological theories

(4) the broader theoretical context in which (4) the broader theoretical context in which culture was understoodculture was understood

MethodMethodSOURCESSOURCES

We coded information from the following We coded information from the following 10 North American social psychology 10 North American social psychology textbooks:textbooks:

1.1. Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Social Social psychology and human naturepsychology and human nature. Belmont, CA: . Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson (brief version)Wadsworth/Thomson (brief version)

2.2. Moghaddam, F. M. (1998). Moghaddam, F. M. (1998). Social psychology: Social psychology: Exploring universals across culturesExploring universals across cultures. New York, NY: . New York, NY: W. H. FreemanW. H. Freeman

3.3. Worchel, S., Cooper, J., Goethals, G. R., & Olson, J. Worchel, S., Cooper, J., Goethals, G. R., & Olson, J. M. (2000). M. (2000). Social psychologySocial psychology. Belmont, CA: . Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ThomsonWadsworth/Thomson

4.4. Feldman, R. S. (1998). Feldman, R. S. (1998). Social psychologySocial psychology (2 (2ndnd ed.). ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice HallUpper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall5.5. Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (2007). Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (2007).

Social psychologySocial psychology (6 (6thth ed.). Upper Saddle River, ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: NJ: Pearson Prentice HallPearson Prentice Hall6.6. Baron, R. A., Branscombe, N. R., & Byrne, D. Baron, R. A., Branscombe, N. R., & Byrne, D. (2008). (2008). Social psychologySocial psychology (12 (12thth ed.). Boston: ed.). Boston: Pearson Pearson Allyn & BaconAllyn & Bacon7.7. Gilovitch, T., Keltner, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (2006). Gilovitch, T., Keltner, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (2006).

Social psychologySocial psychology. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. New York, NY: W. W. Norton8.8. Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2008). Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2008). Social Social psychologypsychology (7 (7thth ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin9.9. Franzoi, S. L. (2006). Franzoi, S. L. (2006). Social psychologySocial psychology (6 (6thth ed.). ed.).

Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.10.10. Myers, D. G. (2008). Myers, D. G. (2008). Social psychologySocial psychology (9 (9thth ed.). ed.).

Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.

CodesCodesWe started with a rather ambitious set of We started with a rather ambitious set of questions, including information on:questions, including information on:

1.1. The first page “culture” was mentionedThe first page “culture” was mentioned2.2. What about culture beyond Individualism/Collectivism What about culture beyond Individualism/Collectivism

was mentionedwas mentioned3.3. What cultures were mentioned in the definition or first What cultures were mentioned in the definition or first

occasion in which culture was discussedoccasion in which culture was discussed4.4. What topics were coveredWhat topics were covered5.5. Which cultures were comparedWhich cultures were compared6.6. What theoretical explanations were offered for cultural What theoretical explanations were offered for cultural

differencesdifferences7.7. Whether structure (e.g., dimensions) vs. process (e.g., Whether structure (e.g., dimensions) vs. process (e.g.,

causal mechanisms) were emphasizedcausal mechanisms) were emphasized8.8. Whether there was a call to revise mainstream theoryWhether there was a call to revise mainstream theory

Codes (cont’d)Codes (cont’d)

However, some of these simply did not However, some of these simply did not work out, so we focused on a few main work out, so we focused on a few main themes, including when and how culture themes, including when and how culture was mentioned, what topics were covered, was mentioned, what topics were covered, and calls for the possible revision of and calls for the possible revision of mainstream theorymainstream theory

Coding ProcedureCoding ProcedureComplete coverage of full text in each Complete coverage of full text in each case was not feasible case was not feasible

Instead we focused on a procedure which, Instead we focused on a procedure which, if not exhaustive, offered the possibility of if not exhaustive, offered the possibility of gaining insight into the extent to which gaining insight into the extent to which culture was a main or organizing theme culture was a main or organizing theme in the textin the text

Specifically:Specifically:

We examined those index entries that We examined those index entries that mentioned explicitly the word “culture and its mentioned explicitly the word “culture and its derivatives (e.g., “cultural”).derivatives (e.g., “cultural”).

We felt that this would get at the idea that the We felt that this would get at the idea that the material regarding a psychological issue was material regarding a psychological issue was arranged and explained primarily through a arranged and explained primarily through a cultural viewpoint.cultural viewpoint.

In other words, we did not concern ourselves In other words, we did not concern ourselves with whether or not a particular topic (e.g., the with whether or not a particular topic (e.g., the self) was covered in a text, but with whether it self) was covered in a text, but with whether it was covered primarily in the context of cultural was covered primarily in the context of cultural differences, processes or dimensionsdifferences, processes or dimensions

Coding Procedures (cont’d)Coding Procedures (cont’d)

Finally, we compared the “cultural” coverage of Finally, we compared the “cultural” coverage of these texts to the coverage of social these texts to the coverage of social psychological topics offered in two well psychological topics offered in two well received texts in the area of psychology and received texts in the area of psychology and culture:culture:

1.1. From the “cross-cultural” tradition: From the “cross-cultural” tradition: Matsumoto, D., & Juang, L. (2008). Matsumoto, D., & Juang, L. (2008). Culture Culture and psychologyand psychology (4 (4thth ed.). Berlmont, CA: ed.). Berlmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson.Wadsworth/Thomson.

2.2. From the “cultural” tradition:From the “cultural” tradition:Heine, S. J. (2008). Heine, S. J. (2008). Cultural psychologyCultural psychology. New . New York, NY: W. W. Norton.York, NY: W. W. Norton.

Coding Procedure-Cont’dCoding Procedure-Cont’d

It turned out thatIt turned out that(a)(a) the coverage in these two texts is not all the coverage in these two texts is not all

that different from each other andthat different from each other and(b)(b) The majority of the social topics covered The majority of the social topics covered

in these two comparison texts were in these two comparison texts were covered—even if briefly—in many of the covered—even if briefly—in many of the social psychology textssocial psychology textsSo much for the cross-cultural So much for the cross-cultural vsvs. . cultural psychology distinction 15 years cultural psychology distinction 15 years later…later…

Coding Procedure-Cont’dCoding Procedure-Cont’dFinally, we counted the # of references in the ten Finally, we counted the # of references in the ten texts that came from one of the known “cultural” texts that came from one of the known “cultural” journals (e.g., JCCP, Cross-Cultural Research, journals (e.g., JCCP, Cross-Cultural Research, Culture & Psychology), as an index—albeit Culture & Psychology), as an index—albeit imperfect—of the impact of such journals on the imperfect—of the impact of such journals on the fieldfieldWe also counted the % of photographs in each We also counted the % of photographs in each of the ten texts that depicted a non-Caucasian of the ten texts that depicted a non-Caucasian individual in its coverage of two widely discussed individual in its coverage of two widely discussed topics: the self and obediencetopics: the self and obedienceWe considered this a measure of a text’s We considered this a measure of a text’s “cultural sensitivity”“cultural sensitivity”

Results and DiscussionResults and Discussion

Question 1: Topical coverageQuestion 1: Topical coverage

We classified topics covered from a cultural We classified topics covered from a cultural viewpoint in the following 20 categories:viewpoint in the following 20 categories:

1.1. SelfSelf2.2. Attribution TheoryAttribution Theory3.3. Cognitive Processes/Judgment/ReasoningCognitive Processes/Judgment/Reasoning4.4. NormsNorms5.5. Morality/Moral JudgmentMorality/Moral Judgment6.6. EmotionsEmotions7.7. AttitudesAttitudes8.8. StereotypesStereotypes9.9. Attraction/Sexuality/Love/RelationshipsAttraction/Sexuality/Love/Relationships10.10. AttractivenessAttractiveness11.11. Gender DifferencesGender Differences12.12. AggressionAggression13.13. HappinessHappiness14.14. Helping/AltruismHelping/Altruism15.15. ConformityConformity16.16. Social LoafingSocial Loafing17.17. Cooperation/CompetitionCooperation/Competition18.18. Negotiation/Conflict/Negotiation/Conflict/19.19. Group Performance/Groupthink/LeadershipGroup Performance/Groupthink/Leadership20.20. Crowding/Interpersonal Distance/Nonverbal CommunicationCrowding/Interpersonal Distance/Nonverbal Communication

Five Topics Covered Most Frequently from Five Topics Covered Most Frequently from Cultural Viewpoint in the TextbooksCultural Viewpoint in the Textbooks

0

20

40

60

80

100

SELF ATTRIBUTION AGGRESSION ATTRACTION CONFORMITY

Percent Covered

Five Topics Covered Least Frequently from Five Topics Covered Least Frequently from Cultural Viewpoint in the TextbooksCultural Viewpoint in the Textbooks

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

HAPPINESS CONFLICT/NEG CROWDING MORALITY COOP/COMP

Percent Covered

Question 2(a): Cultural sensitivity of texts Question 2(a): Cultural sensitivity of texts to cross-cultural research published in to cross-cultural research published in journals with a clear cross-cultural/cultural journals with a clear cross-cultural/cultural emphasis (e.g., emphasis (e.g., JCCP, Cross-Cultural JCCP, Cross-Cultural ResearchResearch))

Number of References to “Cultural” Journals Number of References to “Cultural” Journals in the Textbooksin the Textbooks

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

FEL MOG BAU WOR ARO MYE BAR FRA KAS GIL

# of cultural journal references

Question 2(b): Sensitivity of texts in the Question 2(b): Sensitivity of texts in the inclusion of photographs of non-Caucasian inclusion of photographs of non-Caucasian individuals to cover two topics—Self and individuals to cover two topics—Self and ObedienceObedience

Percent Photographs with non-Caucasians Percent Photographs with non-Caucasians in Coverage of Two Topics in the Textsin Coverage of Two Topics in the Texts

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

FEL MOG BAU WOR ARO MYE BAR FRA KAS GIL

Self Obedience

Question 3: Were the results of Question 3: Were the results of cultural/cross-cultural research used to cultural/cross-cultural research used to issue a call for the modification of issue a call for the modification of “mainstream” theory?“mainstream” theory?

Answer to question 3:Answer to question 3:

A resounding NO! A resounding NO!

There were suggestions in 2 texts that the There were suggestions in 2 texts that the fundamental attribution errorfundamental attribution error may not in may not in fact be fundamentalfact be fundamental

andand

In one text a challenge to Fiedler’s model of In one text a challenge to Fiedler’s model of leadershipleadership

Question 4: What was the broader Question 4: What was the broader theoretical context in which culture was theoretical context in which culture was discussed or understood?discussed or understood?

There are a number of components to this There are a number of components to this question, and we will address them in question, and we will address them in separate partsseparate parts

1. Definition and Discussion of “Culture”1. Definition and Discussion of “Culture”

a. 90% of texts provide a general a. 90% of texts provide a general statement regarding the importance of statement regarding the importance of cross-cultural researchcross-cultural research

b. 100% of the text mention the word b. 100% of the text mention the word “culture” or its derivatives within the first 50 “culture” or its derivatives within the first 50 pages (which may not be all that pages (which may not be all that significant considering the subject matter)significant considering the subject matter)

c. Only 20% of the texts provide a c. Only 20% of the texts provide a definition of “culture”definition of “culture”

2. How are cultural differences explained?2. How are cultural differences explained?

All 10 texts use Individualism/Collectivism All 10 texts use Individualism/Collectivism as a way of discussing cultural differencesas a way of discussing cultural differences

All 10 texts use the emerging East-West All 10 texts use the emerging East-West distinction as well (which may simply distinction as well (which may simply indicate the interests of American social indicate the interests of American social psychologists at this time)psychologists at this time)

Other theoretical frameworks (e.g., Other theoretical frameworks (e.g., Hofstede, Schwartz) are covered only by Hofstede, Schwartz) are covered only by one or two texts, respectivelyone or two texts, respectively

3. Culture and Evolution3. Culture and Evolution

a. 20% of the texts discuss cross-cultural a. 20% of the texts discuss cross-cultural similarities as pointing to evolutionary similarities as pointing to evolutionary mechanismsmechanisms

b. Only one text mentions culture as a b. Only one text mentions culture as a challenge to evolutionary explanationschallenge to evolutionary explanations

c. 20% of the texts formulate the argument c. 20% of the texts formulate the argument that humans evolved to “do” culture and that humans evolved to “do” culture and that social psychology should pay more that social psychology should pay more attention to itattention to it

Culture and Evolution—Final ImpressionCulture and Evolution—Final Impression

Strong impression that evolutionary Strong impression that evolutionary arguments for causes of social behavior arguments for causes of social behavior were more clearly articulated, which were more clearly articulated, which implies a general lack of understanding of implies a general lack of understanding of cultural transmission mechanisms on the cultural transmission mechanisms on the part of the authors of these textspart of the authors of these texts

Things are not as good for cultural/cross-Things are not as good for cultural/cross-cultural research as they might seemcultural research as they might seem

Thank You!Thank You!