This paper was prepared within the UNESCO’s extra budgetary programme on “Comprehensive Literacy Programme Development in Nepal – Strengthening Linkages between Policy, Practice and Research”. This paper was prepared in collaboration with the World Education Nepal. The research team includes Ms. Anju Khadka, Mr. Tikaram Chaudhary, Mr. Keshar Jung Magar, Mr. Ananda Chaudhary and Mr. Rajan Pokhrel. The author is responsible for the choice and presentation of the facts contained in this publication and for the opinion expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. The designation employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of UNESCO concerning legal status of any country, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitations of its frontiers or boundaries. Published in 2006 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation office in Kathmandu. KAT-ED-2006/05 REV Front page photo © UNESCO Kathmandu Printed by Office Support Service Center Chhapakhana P. Ltd., Teku, Kathmandu, Nepal. For more information please contact: The UNESCO Office in Kathmandu Jawalakhel, Lalitpur, P.O. Box 14391 Kathmandu, NEPAL E-mail: kathmandu@unesco.org Tel: +977-1-5554396/769 Fax: +977-1-5554450 http://www.unesco.org/kathmandu

Literacies from a Multi Lingual Perspective: Learning from Tharu, Tamang, Newar, and Limbu

language communities of Nepal

Anju Khadka Tikaram Chaudhary Keshar Jung Magar Ananda Chaudhary

Rajan Pokhrel

UNESCO Kathmandu Office

Jawalakhel • Lalitpur • PO Box 14391 • Kathmandu • Nepal Phone +977-1-5554-396/769 • Fax +977-1-5554-450

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Table of contents

Literacies from a Multi Lingual Perspectives: Learning from the Tharu,

Tamang, Newar, and Limbu language communities of Nepal ......................................... 1

1. Context ........................................................................................................................... 1

2. Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 2

3. Modality/methodology ............................................................................................................... 3

A Study of literacy/NFE development and good practice in different language communities... 4

1. Literacy/NFE in the Newar community ......................................................................... 4

2. Literacy/NFE in the Limbu community ....................................................................... 10

3. Literacy/NFE in the Tamang community ................................................................................. 16

4. Literacy/NFE in the Tharu community .................................................................................... 20

Implication for a comprehensive literacy/NFE plan ......................................................................... 27

Reference.............................................................................................................................. 28

Appendix ........................................................................................................................................... 29

List of Tables

Table 1: Impact of good practice on the lives of literacy/NFE programme participants ....... 8

Table 2: Impact of good practice on the lives of Limbu participants in literacy programme............................................................................................................................ 14

Table 3: Impact of good practice on the lives of Tamang participants in literacy/NFE classes ............................................................................................................. 19

Table 4: Impact of good practice on literacy/NFE beneficiaries' life .................................. 25

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Acronyms

NNEPC Nepal National Education Planning Commission

ARNEC All-round National Education Committee

NESP National Education System Plan

NEC National Education Commission

HEC Higher Education Commission

CRED Research Centre for Educational Innovation and Development

CDC, Curriculum Development Center

CRED Centre for Research, Education and Development

FGD Focus Group Discussion

GOs Government Organization

CLC Community Learning Centre

CIDA Canadian International Development Association

NCED National Center for Educational Development

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Literacies from Multi Lingual Perspectives: Learning from the Tharu, Tamang, Newar, and Limbu

language communities of Nepal 1. Context Nepal is a land of multiple languages. Linguists have classified in terms of their literary traditions and orthography (their own scripts). Some languages such as Maithili and Newari have their own literary traditions, others such as Limbu and Tamang have their own orthography. In addition, there are some other languages which have neither literature nor orthography but do have a distinct oral tradition. Such languages include that of the Raute from the hills of Nepal and the language spoken by the Rajbanshi from the Terai (the plains bordering India). Traditionally, literacy was taught in the home by members of the family or by scribes who taught the wider community. It was only in the late 1940s that the government started to finance literacy classes (Sharma, 2058 BS). This was systematized after the implementation of the first five year development plan (1954 – 1959). From then on HMG/N as well as other government and non-government agencies developed and implemented various literacy/NFE programmes. However, it was I/NGO’s, following the establishment of political democracy in 1990, who advocated mother- tongue literacy in Nepal. Some of the ethnic organizations and Indigenous People’s national organizations took the initiative in developing literacy and post-literacy materials. They also implemented mother tongue literacy programs in some parts of the country. Although the existence of multiple languages in Nepal has long been recognized, there have been many shifts of policy concerning their recognition and usage within the education system. For example, the first education plan (NNEPC, 1956) adopted a policy of language transfer, whereas the second education plan (ARNEC, 1962) proposed Nepali as the medium of instruction in public schools, as did subsequent education plans (NESP, 1970). It was only after the advent of democracy in 1990 that language issues in education came to the fore. Consequently, the constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal (1990; article 3:18:2) and the subsequent education plans (NEC, 1992; HEC, 2000) advocated mother tongue education. During BPEP I and II (1991 – 2001) primary education materials were developed in seven languages; Newari, Maithili, Tharu, Abhadhi, Limbu, Tamang, and Bhojpuri. Following this, primary education materials in another six languages were also prepared. These languages

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included Magar, Rai Bantawa, Gurung, Sherpa and Chamling. To date, primary school materials in 12 languages have been developed in Nepal. (CRED, 2005, Chirag, 2001). In addition to the Education Plans, both agencies (international and national) and individuals have also expressed the need for mother tongue education. (CDC, 2004 - 2009; NCLPR, 2051 BS; Fishman1968 cited in CRED, 2005; and UNESCO, 1951). The NCLPR (2051 BS) recommended a ‘Three Languages’ (mother-tongue, Nepali and English) policy which differs somewhat from the earlier approach to mother tongue teaching. However, all of these provisions are related to the formal education system. These languages are used as a medium of instruction, taught as a subject and as a language. (CRED, 2005, Chirag, 2001). As a medium of instruction, teachers translate the classroom discussion into the language of the students and also allow students to talk in their mother-tongue. However, this usually only happens in a mono-lingual setting. In the case of bi-lingual and multi-lingual settings, teachers tend to use Nepali as the medium of instruction (CRED, 2005). Nepali, English and mother tongue are also taught as separate subjects in primary school. The CRED study failed to find any teachers using language conservation and the language promotion scheme. Rather, it was found that both students and teachers use mother tongue languages as the medium of instruction and as separate subjects within the curriculum. Similarly, in the field of literacy/NFE, recent field experience shows that mother tongue is used as medium of instruction and to develop literacy in the mother tongue. However, to date only 7 languages, Tamang, Gurung, Magar, Tharu, Abadhi, Maithili, and Limbu have literacy programmes. In the Gurung, Magar, Tamang, and Limbu languages only literacy primers are available, whereas post-literacy materials have also been developed in Maithili, Abadhi, and Tharu. (Appendix 1) In other languages, however, literacy facilitators use the learners’ language for instruction only, as neither literacy primers nor post literacy learning materials are available. There still remain more than a dozen languages that require literacy promotion. 2. Objectives The purpose of this study is to investigate good practice in the development and promotion of mother tongue literacy and ways in which this can be shared at a national level. The objectives of this study are to:

Identify and compile good practices in literacy /NFE in different minority languages.

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Prepare case studies on good practices in different language groups including looking at the impact of these practices.

Look at linkages between the local language and the official national language

Recommend measures to develop a comprehensive literacy/NFE program for Nepal from a multilingual perspective.

3. Modality/methodology This study took two and a half months to complete and data was gathered from the following sources:

A review of relevant literature:

Interactions, FGD, and meetings with people of different backgrounds including ethnic groups, researchers, government organisations, and I/NGOs.

Reflection sessions with language activists, literacy/NFE practitioners, representatives of UNESCO Kathmandu, and professionals (appendix 6).

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A study of literacy/NFE development and good practice in different language communities

1. Literacy/NFE in the Newar community The Newar community has its own language, Newari, which has two scripts (Ranjana and Bhujimol). However, as most Newars do not know the Ranjana and Bhujimol scripts, they have gradually been replaced by Devanagari, the script that is used to write Nepali, the official language of the country. Within the Newar community there are 64 sub-groups, traditionally identified by profession or livelihood. Although Newars are known as traders, Maharjans are traditionally farmers and are either Hindu or Buddhist. The Maharjan community was, until recently, organized according to the ‘Thakali’ system whereby the old men or women of the community are the custodians, and disseminators of knowledge. In other words they are the power-center of the traditional community. However, with the modernization of society this traditional system has broken down although many older people and women still follow the conventional practices and chant mantras, sing psalms, and conduct or take part in shamanic and priestly rituals in Newari. Research has shown that only 3.73% of the Maharjan community is literate, while the literacy rate of the Newar community as a whole is more than 60%. However, rates of literacy in the Maharjan community tend to correspond with economic status, with poorer members of the community having lower rates of literacy compared to their wealthier

counterparts. Nowadays, many of the new generation of Maharjans who have been through the school system, (in recent times many in private English-medium schools) and lived in close proximity to non-Newars are literate in both Nepali and English. However, many people from an earlier generation (i.e. the 40+ age-group), particularly women, still only speak Newari and are not literate in any language.

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Examples of good literacy/NFE practices from the Newar language community In 2057 and 2058 BS, Tamsipakha CLC (Kathmandu), assisted by UNESCO, organized and conducted literacy/NFE classes for women from the Maharjan community. The women were taught using the ‘language switching’ approach and the bilingual facilitators were also Maharjan and Shrestha (from another Newar community). There were 25 participants with a facilitator in each class. The facilitators were supported through periodic visits, four-day refresher trainings, and individual mentoring. Several approaches and practices were successfully used with the learners in these classes. One such example of good practice was the translation approach to mother tongue teaching, in this case from Nepali to Newari. Several aspects of this approach can be related to the development of mother-tongue teaching at a national level. Practice 1: Using visits as a setting for assessment Ideally the academic ability of learners should be assessed according to a system of evaluation before starting literacy/NFE classes. This has usually involved just a written test but in the case of Tamsepakha CLC, the facilitator, (in cooperation with the UNESCO Club

Education Coordinator) organized a programme of visits. They took the learners to local museums and other public places and asked them to read and write down what they saw. At the end of the day, literacy/NFE learners gathered in a group and shared what they had learned and written and received feedback from the facilitators and the Tamsipakha CLC advisor. One of the learners who took part in the visits described the experience: Practice 2: Code switching as an

approach to teaching in a bilingual setting ‘Naya Goreto’ is a literacy primer in Nepali which aims to address the learning needs of rural people in Nepal. However, learners in the Tamsipakha literacy classes did not

Case 1

“We learnt to read and write together. It meant that our visit program turned out to be a pleasant moment for all of us. We read signboards and wrote them in our exercise book. Similarly we copied the captions of the displayed materials, bus numbers, bus directions, and road signals. We never thought that somebody was taking our exam. In fact this is our learning and laughing opportunity outside home.”

Case 2 “I never realized my facilitator was giving me a test"

Heramaya Maharjan is a resident of Burankhyo,Naradevi of Kathmandu Municipality. She is agrandmother with 10 children. Her five sonsare literate and it was they who encouraged herto join the literacy class. She now uses herliteracy skills to read religious psalms andstories.

"I learnt to read signboards and other forms of public writings when I went to the National Museum at Swayambhu. I never thought that my facilitator was giving me a test"

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understand either the language or the context so the facilitator translated the context and the text into Newari. She frequently shifted from the language in which the primer was written (Nepali) to the learners own language (Newari). "The language shifting approach of the facilitator helped me understand the content of the Naya Goreto in our own language (Newari) and learn Parvate Bhasa (Nepali) from it. I think people like me really benefit from this approach." remarked one learner, Mayaju Maharjan, a mother of five children. Practice 3: Using initial training for all applicants to select the most competent facilitators Initially, Tamsipakha CLC advertised the posts of literacy/NFE facilitators and then the young people who applied underwent four days' training. Over this period, the most

competent applicants were identified and recruited as facilitators. The Advisory Committee Members of the Tamsipakha CLC were also involved in the process of selecting potential facilitators. According to one applicant who subsequently became a facilitator, “Ten of us took part in the training, but only two of us were selected as facilitators.” Efforts are being made to engage them in other activities as well as. Moreover some of the facilitators were give responsibility to manage literacy/NFE classes in other Centers as well.

Practice 4: Teaching English using real objects Learners in Tamsipakha literacy classes asked to learn the names of everyday objects and produce in English. For example, literacy/NFE learners were asked to bring anything they wanted to know the name of in English to the class. One of the learners brought in some sugar (which in Nepal comes in a packet or bag). The word ‘sugar’ is written in Nepali (;'u/) on the packet so the English word is written in Nepali script which made it very easy to learn the English ‘sugar’.

Case 3

“Learning Nepali made me it easier totalk with my sons.”

Sakchhori Maharjan lives in a joint familyat Bhurungkhel, Naradevi in KathmanduMunicipality. All of the thirteen membersof her family, including her mother-in-law, are literate. Her two sons study at aprivate boarding school. She has to speak in Nepali with her sons and Newari withher father and mother in law. She alsosays "Learning Nepali made it easier forme to talk with my sons who preferspeaking in Nepali rather than in ourmother tongue, Newari".

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Case 4 “I favour bilingual rather than monolingual literacy for the Newar community”

Manahara is a dedicated facilitator who has been working as a facilitator for three years and has completed her education up to grade 10. "I have learnt a lot from the experiences of the non-literate people I teach. I use the Nepali alphabet to teach the Newari language" In her experience, Newari is easy to understand and difficult to write so she has asked the literacy/NFE participants to learn the Devanagari script. In this way the literacy/NFE participants are learning to read and write Nepali whilst using their mother tongue and have subsequently become bi-lingual. Manahara feels that this approach has been very successful with the participants in her literacy classes as they have been able to understand concepts in their mother tongue whilst learning how to read, write and speak in Nepali. In her opinion, therefore, enabling Newari speakers to become literate only in Newari limits their opportunities and ability to function in the wider Nepali society. However, teaching only in Nepali would make it difficult for learners to understand the context and meaning of much of the content of the literacy primers they use. In addition, Manahara thinks that the literacy primer Naya Goreto, which is used in literacy/NFE classes, is not relevant to the lives of city people and that they need learning materials with a different context and content

Practice 5: Literacy participants emerging as community volunteers After they have completed their literacy/NFE courses with Tamsipakha CLC, many ‘graduates’ return as volunteers. Some have trained in first aid and others have worked as volunteers for UNESCO. Volunteers might go from door to door in the local community and persuade parents to register births or to have their children immunized. They also work as literacy promoters in their community. In addition, Tamsipakha CLC sometimes organizes training programmes for the volunteers in different areas, including health, and occasionally arranges excursions and visits. In this way they maintain contact with learners who have passed through their literacy/NFE classes and encourage them to become permanent community volunteers. "We have the opportunity to be with our old friends, laugh for a while, and work together as volunteers outside our homes" said Beni Maharjan from Deko Tole, Kathmandu. Impact of these good practices Through discussions with some of the people who had participated in the literacy programme, the four examples of good practice identified above were found to have had a positive impact on their learning experiences and lives in several ways. These are detailed in the table below.

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Table 1: Impact of good practices on the lives of literacy/NFE programme participants.

Impact of practice 1: Using visits as a setting for assessment.

Impact of practice 2: Code-switching in a bi-lingual setting

Impact of practice 3: Using an initial training for all applicants to select the most competent facilitators

Impact of practice 5: Literacy participants emerging as community volunteers

Literacy/NFE beneficiaries developed the habit of reading signboards, captions, and directions

Newar literacy/NFE beneficiaries developed the confidence to speak in Nepali.

Tamsipakha CLC recruited the most competent and dedicated facilitators to implement their literacy/NFE program. Participants were encouraged to share their learning with others.

Literacy/beneficiaries had the opportunity to participate in development activities outside the home. In addition, several have developed the habit of saving.

How literacy development in Newari can be linked to the official language, Nepali Three ways were identified in which Newari could be linked with Nepali, the official language of the country, in the context of literacy development. The first practice identified above, using the setting of a visit in order to assess learners’ language abilities, enabled learners to read captions and signboards in Nepali. As a result, people who have taken part in literacy/NFE classes are now interested in reading all kinds of signs and labels in Nepali that they come across in their everyday lives. Gnyani Maharjan of Suntagalli Tole, a literacy/NFE participant, says she has been encouraged to read invitation cards, children's story books, and a Newari, Nepali, and English dictionary.

The second practice of language shifting as an approach to teaching in a bilingual setting also enabled exclusively Newari-speaking women to speak Nepali as well. Laxmi Maharjan of Maru Tole said, "I'm encouraged to talk in Nepali language with my children who study at a private boarding school. Now I can understand them even if they switch from one language to the other. I am also interested in learning English because my children also speak English."

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Because many of the participants in literacy/NFE classes were motivated to become community volunteers, they had the opportunity to interact and work with Nepali-speakers. "This has been a new experience for me, to speak Nepal with non-Newari speakers." said Beti Maharjan of Deko Tole. “I got the chance to practice Nepali and learn more," she added. As a consequence of attending and benefiting from literacy classes, participants often encouraged their non-literate neighbors and friends to join classes as well. Anar Maharjan from Kalimati is one such promoter of literacy programmes in her neighborhood. She also encourages her friends to participate in volunteer activities and advises them to try to learn Nepali. Conclusion In conclusion, the experiences of Newari language literacy learners have shown that a monolingual group can gain access to the official language of the wider society through literacy classes conducted in their mother tongue both within their home and family setting and also by interacting with the wider community. Recommendations: On the basis of the above findings and conclusions, this study recommends that the following practices in developing mother tongue literacy in a multi-lingual context should be adopted:

• Introduce a code-switching approach in teaching non-literate people from ethnic groups who only speak in mother tongue.

• Introduce programmes of visits as an approach for assessing learners’ levels of literacy.

• Encourage ‘graduates’ of literacy/NFE programmes to become community volunteers or to organize their own savings and credit groups.

• Identify the most competent literacy/NFE facilitators and develop them as a permanent core team.

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2. Literacy/NFE in the Limbu Community Limbus of Rajghat and Singh Devi village of Morang district are a mongoloid ethnic group with their own language, Limbu, which has its own script, Srijunga. Limbu belongs to the Munda group of languages and is derived from the language of the Yakthumba who were the original Limbu migrants from the north.

Pilot programmes in mother tongue literacy were started on the 25 Mangsir of 2055 BS in Rajghat and Singh Devi VDCs by local community. The classes in Raighat VDC were established by Tek Bahadur Limbu (the VDC Secretary at the time) and a lone voice in advocating reading and writing in Limbu. He took the initiative in getting together a group who wanted to learn to read and write in their mother tongue. Similarly another community leader,

Dilli Lingdom, a member of the Chumlung Central Committee (a Kirat organization), was also responsible for starting Limbu literacy classes in Singha Devi VDC. The mother tongue literacy /NFE Chotlung (programme) was only set up as a pilot course from 2055/56 BS. It was initially envisaged to run for nine months but when it was extended to other tole and VDCs in Morang district (Durgapuri and 8 Chakretole, Sanichare, Jate and Tadi) it was reduced to a six month course. Kirat Yakthung Chumlung’s Central Office in Kathmandu and its district committee, along with some other language activists, were actively involved in organizing Limbu mother tongue literacy. They determined the following objectives for Limbu mother tongue literacy at central level:

To protect and promote Limbu culture, mother tongue and the Shrijunga script.

To enable the people of ‘Limbuwan’ to speak, read and write in the Limbu language.

To encourage the habit of reading in Limbu by publishing a Limbu newspaper ‘Tanchhopa’ (published by the Chumlung Central Office)

To trial the Limbu literacy primer ‘Chotlung’ with literacy /NFE learners. The Chumlung Central Committee was supported in their development of a literacy/NFE curriculum by CIDA/Canada Fund and World Education. In 1994, the Kirat Yakthum

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Central Committee organized a text book development workshop in which trained teachers participated. Most of the participants were Limbu members women groups who ranged in age from 16 to 60. Facilitators for the Limbu literacy/NFE program were selected from amongst public school teachers. They then received additional training in spoken Limbu and the Srijunga script from NCED (Nepal’s highest teacher-training body). Initially, the Nepali language literacy primer Naya Goreto was used in the classes. However, as some Limbus have difficulty in understanding Nepali, the ‘translation’ approach was used for teaching from Nepali into Limbu. Following the development of a Limbu literacy primer Chotlung, the Nepali Naya Goreto was gradually replaced and both spoken Limbu and Srijunga script was used in the classes. Initially, a large number of people participated in literacy/NFE classes but gradually many of them dropped out. This was partly because many people moved away from the area and partly due to the demands on their time in running households and making a living. Good literacy /NFE practices from the Limbu language community Following the adoption of the Limbu literacy primer and the use of spoken and written Limbu in the literacy/NFE classes, several noteworthy examples of good practice have been identified: Practice 1: Agaman bidhi (Inductive method) for introducing content Facilitators often used pictures as a stimulus for discussion and encouraged learners to be imaginative and creative in their interpretations of the pictures presented to them. For example, in the primer there is a picture of a man and a woman sitting together at the foot of Mt. Kumbhakarna. Nearby is a trail leading to the top of the mountain. The woman is sitting on the right of the man and she is pointing to the written word chotlung with her index finger. The facilitators asked the class participants to explain this picture and encouraged them to describe whatever they noticed. Interestingly, their interpretations differed widely. For example, some said that the woman was pointing out the mountain, whilst others disagreed and said she was pointing out the word chotlung. Interpretations also differed between generations, with younger women saying that the man and woman in the picture were not husband and wife. They asserted that the couple in the picture was not married as, if they were, the husband would sit on the woman’s right (as a husband he would be a thulo manchhe, a respected person, who automatically sits on the right). A woman sitting on the right of a man would mean that she was the thulo manchhe and the wife cannot be a thulo manchhe in a patriarchal society such as the Limbu. In

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contrast to the younger women, older women asserted that they were husband and wife (the way they were sitting was irrelevant) because unmarried members of the opposite sex would never sit next to each other anyway. The facilitator accommodated and valued these different interpretations by saying, “For traditional people they may be husband and wife and for modern people they may be just friends.” She used this example to illustrate how “We interpret things from different perspectives.” Practice 2: The creation of their own literacy material. As there was no specific literacy materials, apart from the primer, available, one of the facilitators, Dili Lingdom wrote her own book called Mana Chaita (‘A picture of Human Beings’) and used it in the class. Participants were also encouraged to write songs and sing them to each other, a process that made the class interesting and lively. It is interesting to note that this process of teaching and learning through song was borrowed from the Mundhum, the Veda of the Kirat. Mundhums chant songs and singers repeat the songs many times thereby gradually deducing the song’s meaning. Practice 3: Flexibity of content based on learners’ needs and interests Discussions involving local elites, Limbu language activists and some participants from literacy programmes were held to consider the content of the literacy courses. The following guidelines for the content of courses to be run at local level were subsequently drawn up:

The content must be taught in Limbu and use the Limbu script

Content must be based on Limbu culture and values.

Content must be flexible to meet the requirements of the learners

One example of cultural considerations in literacy materials concerns the custom of ‘Sunauli’, a ritual in which a pig’s carcass, a plentiful amount of alcohol and a considerable sum of money are taken from groom’s to the bride’s home. Literacy materials promoted the view that although this custom should still be followed as part of Limbu culture, at the same time the extravagance (and the

subsequent debts that are often incurred) should be controlled. Therefore, it was decided that literacy materials should present issues for discussion and present the opportunity for literacy participants to critique aspects of their own culture.

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Practice 4: Communal organization of mother tongue literacy programmes Traditionally, Limbus work cooperatively and discuss issues and problems that arise in the community. An example of this cooperative approach was the way in which the people of Nibuwatar village got together and decided that they wanted literacy classes in their community. During discussions, they raised the point that it should be compulsory for all adults in the community to be involved in the programme. The majority of people participating in the discussion session decided to attend literacy classes and showed a great deal of interest in learning about their own language. There were a few people in village, however, who disagreed, saying, “Madanile gheu bereu, samaya chhaunjel ke hereo?” (“Why should we attend literacy classes in our old age? A programme like this should have been organized before”). Despite this objection, they attended this literacy class but, according to a local woman, those who had been unenthusiastic about participating remained sapko tap (illiterate as they were before). However, she said that the majority of people were enthusiastic about the classes and motivated to learn. Practice 5: Programmes run by Swajatiya (ethnic) organizations The ethnic organization ‘Kirat Yakthumba Chumlung’ has conducted mother tongue literacy classes in the all the VDCs in Morang district, involving the local Limbu communities. Local communities themselves have also run literacy class with the support of the Kirat Yakthumba Chumlung in Sanichare, Jante and Tandi VDCs. In addition, the people of Pathari VDC demanded the use of mother tongue at the DDC office. Moreover, local leaders have played an important role in all these initiatives. Indeed, the literacy programmes which have been run were often successful due to the dedication of the local leaders to the preservation and development of their language, script, and culture. They raised the awareness of their local communities and motivated them to help in the running of literacy

I can decide what is right or wrong for myself

Sani Maiya Limbu, age 30 years is a resident of Rajghat VDC. “I can decide myself what is wrong and what is right,’ she said, ‘because I have learnt a lot about decision making from the literacy primer, Chotlung. In the classroom, our facilitator consulted us about what to do in the class and he also he gave us the chance to chose after class activities. I also found out a lot about health issues concerning food and drink. Now I advise my husband, “Don’t drink a lot of alcohol - it ruins your health. I want you to be thumbi (a healthy person).” Then my husband gradually gave up his drinking habit and his health is improving now. Besides this, I don’t want to have any more children, as I already have one son and two daughters. My husband wants to have another son but I managed to convince not to have any more children by telling him what the Health Officer in the village told me in class, “You are poor, so you should teach your children. Therefore, you should cut your coat according to your cloth.” My learning helped me to convince my husband. Now I want to share this advice with my neighbors and friends.

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programmes. Consequently, the mother tongue literacy/NFE programmes become a movement initiated and organized at the local level. Impact of good practices The positive impact of the good practices identified above on the lives of participants in literacy/NFE programmes in the Limbu language community were ascertained by holding discussions with the participants themselves and other key informants (Appendix 3). They are detailed in the table below: Table 2: Impact of good practice on the lives of Limbu participants in literacy programmes

Impact of practice 1: Agman bidhi (the inductive approach to content)

Impact of 2: The creation of own literacy material

Impact of practice 3: Flexibility of content based on learner needs and interests

Impact of practice 4: Communal organization of literacy programmes

Impact of practice 5: Programmes run by ethnic organizations

This method of discussing pictures helped to develop learners’ skills in critical thinking, analysis and interpretation, and helped develop an understanding of the learning material

Learning through songs encouraged learners’ active participation in the class

Learners given the chance to chose the content of their own learning promoted decision-making skills and a feeling of ‘ownership’ of the learning content

Organization based on traditional communal values encouraged greater participation and communal feeling

Ethnic organizations evolved as literacy providers as well as the conservers of the language and script.

Ways to link mother tongue with the official language Four of the examples of good practice mentioned above were found to promote connections between Limbu mother tongue literacy/NFE and the national language. ‘Agman Bidhi’, the inductive approach to content (in this case pictorial) encouraged learners to think critically and analyses and interpret for themselves skills which are valuable in any field of learning, including acquiring and functioning in Nepali. Participants in Limbu literacy courses may well go on to study Nepali in literacy bridging classes.

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Learning language through memorizing songs enabled learners to then start to understand and develop their knowledge of Nepali through listening to and learning Nepali songs. Moreover, this is a learning method people easily incorporate into their daily lives. The practice of giving learners the opportunity to choose the content and topics of their literacy material (rather than being limited to a literacy primer) encourages learner autonomy and a feeling of control over the learning process. Mother tongue learners are therefore often interested in becoming literate in Nepali as well as they have already gained confidence and a level of autonomy in their own language. Through encouraging discussion in their mother tongue in literacy classes, issues can be raised that link with and encourage non-literate people to have an interest in the wider society and the language used therein (Nepali) The facilitator can also begin to introduce Nepali into the classroom by writing down ideas generated in class discussion in Nepali, thereby establishing a link in learners’ minds with Nepali language literacy programmes. Conclusion In conclusion, the above examples of good practice motivated local people to join and actively participate in literacy classes. In addition, literacy classes raised the awareness of non-literate local people and helped to conserve the Limbu language and script, as a participant, Soni Maya Limbu of Rajghat personally testified. These approaches also encouraged participants to take an active role in their own learning and develop critical thinking skills Recommendations: On the basis of the above discussion and presentation the following recommendations have been made:

Develop additional literacy materials based on local content for non-literate people from ethnic groups.

Take advantage of existing communal frameworks to organize and promote literacy/NFE programmes.

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3. Literacy NFE in the Tamang Community Tamangs are the third largest ethnic group in Nepal and are of Indo-Burman extraction. They have their own language, Tamang, with its own script, Tamangi. The Tamang originally lived in the mid-hills of Nepal but many have migrated to different parts of the country. Tamangs are Buddhist or animist and have their own priests called Lamas or Bonpos. Traditionally, Tamang communities have their own leaders, who are both their cultural and elected representatives, called ‘Mulmi’ (Gautam and Thapa-Magar, (1994). The Mulmi is entrusted with festival management, tax collection, forest protection, and settling disputes. Nowadays, however, this traditional system of organizing Tamang communities is gradually disappearing, although ethnic organizations such as Tamang Gheduing Sangh have been trying to restore traditional cultural values and practices. Background to literacy /NFE in the Tamang language community As the vast majority of Tamangs speak their own language Tamangi they tend only to use Nepali if they have to go to government offices. Tamang women, in particular use Tamang language everywhere, for example when visiting fairs and during religious festivals, working on their farms and in the homes. Most women are non-literate in both Tamangi and Nepali. Traditionally, some Tamangs have studied the Tamangi script in the gumpa (monasteries)

However, the literacy rate amongst the Tamang is at present only about 5%. Tamang mother tongue literacy/NFE classes were first started by Nepal Tamang Ghedung Sangh (a Tamang ethnic organization), with support from the INGO Plan International, in 2053/4 BS in Nibuwatar, Vaise and Amvanjyang VDCs in Makwanpur district.

Good literacy/ NFE practice in the Tamang language community Practice 1: Code switching from Nepali to Tamangi and Tamangi to Nepali The Tamangi literacy primer Hoaishore was originally based on Naya Goreto (the Nepali primer) and was written in Devanagari script. The content of the book was translated into Tamangi by the facilitator while using it in the classroom. Later a literacy primer was developed in Tamangi script and the content was drawn from the Tamang cultural context.

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However, when using both of these primers the facilitators switched languages (from Tamang to Nepali and Nepali to Tamang). This ‘code switching’ approach made it easier for the Tamangi-speaking learners to understand the concepts and content of what was being taught in the class. The learners also related to the content of the Tamangi primer (such as including material on the ‘rithim’ festival) as it was drawn from their own lives and culture. Use of Tamangi and inclusion of indigenous cultural contents were both recognized as good practices by participants.

Mother tongue literacy made me literate very fast

Pampha Maya Tamang is a 35 mother of five and lives in Nibuwatar VDC. She said, “I attended all the classes and I learned how to read and write in the Tamang language. Now I can write my name and a few words and I have also taught my mother-in-law how to write her name. I feel I am cleverer than before. Nobody can cheat me when I have to deal with money transactions in our village. I also really like singing songs and now I can read the words of Tamang songs and I can also write my own songs and share them with my friends. I have learned all this because our “master” (facilitator) taught us through songs and also used picture discussion. Being taught in this way meant I was able to understand more easily and faster than through other teaching methods.” Pampha Maya also added,” I feel that these literacy classes have awakened people like me and made us literate. It was like spreading light in a dark room.”

Practice 2: Local initiative in setting up literacy/NFE classes Prominent members of Nibuwatar village including Gyan Bahadur Dhing, Harka Lama and Dil Bahadur Lama felt there was a great need to improve literacy levels in their community so got together to discuss the setting up of mother tongue literacy classes in their community. Following these discussions, some community representatives visited the district and central offices of the Tamang Ghedung Sangh and the Ministry of Education and Sports to ask for support in starting mother tongue literacy classes. However, they were unable to raise financial support for their initiative until Tamang Ghedung approached Plan Nepal for financial assitance. Tamang Ghedung Sangh provided technical and administrative backup and, Gyan Bahadur Gurung, with one person from Nibuwatar village, Gyan Bahadur Gurung, even providing the use of his house for classes at no charge.

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We made literate from our long effort Gyan Bahadur Lama of 40 years old is a local resident of Nibuwatar VDC. He is still thinking of running a literacy program in this village. According to him, there were friends with whom he discussed the need for a literacy class in the village. ‘We shared this idea with our other neighbors. At last, we decided to run the mother tongue literacy class and then we went to district Nepal Tamang Ghedung for agreement. It was accepted and discussed at district level. Language experts at the central office of Kathmandu extended their cooperation. It took long time and we were harassed too.At that time we decided to see the Education Minister. Nonetheless, it did not work. At last, Nepal Tamang Ghedung Centre Office Kathmandu showed interest to run a mother tongue literacy program in collaboration with Plan International.

Now the village people have benefited from this Tamang literacy class. Unfortunately, this Tamang literacy class does not exist now. I don’t know why Tamangs have been disinterested in Tamang literacy, may be they did not see the utility of mother tongue literacy while going to the big cities like Hetauda said Gyan Bahadur.

Practice 3: Teaching two languages In the literacy classes held in Kisedi village of Vaise VDC, all the participants except for two were Tamang. They were taught in both Nepali and Tamangi as they wanted to learn Nepali to be able to communicate when they had to visit government offices and deal with officialdom.

I realized the importance of literacy in life

Inimaya Ghising said that she became interested in learning Nepali because she was embroiled in a court case and could not understand what the lawyer representing her in court was saying on her behalf. Then, I joined the literacy/NFE classes to learn Nepali. The facilitator taught us in both languages and now I can speak and write Nepali. This has also made it much easier to follow the progress of my court case.

Informants like Kamala Glan of Amvanjang VDC said, “Our women folks were living animal like life like me. But this mother tongue literacy class gave bright light to me and the women folks of my village. The problem with us is that there are no reading materials for us in Tamang language".

Practice 4: District initiatives in developing the literacy curriculum and textbooks. Budha Ratna Lama is the president of the district-level office of the Tamang Ghedung in Solithung village in the Amvanjang VDC and he described the process involved in developing a curriculum for the literacy classes that his office initiated in 2054 BS. The curriculum and textbooks in Tamangi were decided upon by members of the district-level working committee. They then sent their draft curriculum and choice of textbook for approval to the Central Office of Tamang Ghedung in Kathmandu. The Central Office, with

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input from Plan Nepal, added some suggestions and comments to the draft proposals which were incorporated into the final course design by the district-level committee. Impact of the good practices from the Tamangi language community Table 3: Impact of good practice on the lives of Tamang participants in literacy/NFE classes

Impact of practice 1: code-switching Tamangi/Nepali

Impact of practice 2: local initiative in setting up classes

Impact of practice 3: bi-lingual teach-ing

Impact of practice 4: district initiative in developing curriculum

A habit of reading and writing has been developed.

Local leaders were dedicated to implementing literacy programmes in their villages.

Participants in classes developed the ability and confidence to speak in Nepali with government officials

Literacy beneficiaries developed a feeling of ‘ownership’ of the curriculum.

The above impacts encouraged local people to join literacy/NFE classes

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4. Literacy/NFE in the Tharu community The Tharu are probably the original inhabitants and largest tribes in the Terai region. Their ancestral land is known as Tharuwan, which includes the northern section of Terai and inner Terai valleys across the length of Nepal’s plains. They do not have a single language like the other ethnic groups as it varies between the eastern, central and western Terai.

The Tharu make up 6.5% of the total population of Nepal (CBS, 1991). Nowadays, they are mainly tenant farmers or

landless labourers (Kamaiyas) and have never joined the army or emigrated as have other ethnic

groups in Nepal. The following study concentrated on the Tharus of Narayanpur VDC who are known as the Dangaura. Their tribal priest is known as the Guruwa, and the ‘social’ leader is the Mahatawan who works both as a priest and as caretaker of the irrigation canal in the village. The Guruwa conducts the worship of gods and goddesses in the community but if a dispute arises among the local people, both the Mahatawan and the Guruwa play an active role in trying to reconcile the problem. The local people have a strong sense of social cohesion and are committed to community work. There is a local belief that if someone fails to donate some portion of their earnings towards community work, the gods will be angry with them. Background to literacy development amongst the Tharu of Naraynpur Although the rate of literacy among the Tharu is around 5%, most of the Tharus in the study area are non-literate. The few local people who were literate had attended adult literacy classes which were conducted a few years ago. BASE is one of the NGOs who have been instrumental in promoting Tharu literacy in this area, by organizing literacy/NFE classes with the support of World Education.:

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Good literacy/NFE practices obtained from the Tharu language community Practice 1: A joint initiative between the local community and central level representatives to develop mother-tongue literacy BASE took the initiative of conducting a baseline survey to articulate the needs of mother tongue literacy in the Tharu language. The findings of this survey were shared with the local community and a mother tongue literacy class was organized. Later, a local FM radio station Swargadwari FM invited the facilitator and two participants from Besahi literacy center to share their experiences. Both the facilitators and literacy participants claimed that "it was easier to learn in the Tharu language than in Nepali." Following the airing of the programme, people from three neighboring villages came to the facilitator and asked for mother-tongue literacy classes. A similar level of interest in mother-tongue literacy was raised amongst local people in Banki Village in Deukhuri by a woman from the Ghoraha Tharu community who had come to visit relatives. At the time Aanada Chaudhary was visiting to assess the situation of mother-tongue literacy and had organized a discussion in the village. The woman from the Ghoraha also joined in and began explaining the contents of Sosanse Sikshyaor, the festivals, songs, information about gods and goddesses that define the Tharu. Her explanation fascinated and surprised many people, as one woman explained, "We don’t do as the Parwati do; we have our own customs and traditions. The community people then insisted that they too be taught in the Tharu language as a way to preserve their own unique form of Tharu culture. Practices 2: Incorporating local input into Literacy/NFE materials The local community, together with both the local and central BASE Offices, was instrumental in setting up Tharu literacy classes in the VDC. (At the community level, Tharu literacy program is going to introduce a literacy primer called “Thalani” as a saving and credit package, which is three months package). The reason is that the Tharu communities are desperately poor, said BASE's director. Facilitators consulted local people about the content of the literacy/NFE classes and discovered how proud they were of their traditions and cultural heritage. Moreover, they wanted their culture and religion to be

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incorporated into the content of literacy primers and post-literacy materials. A team of participants in literacy classes then got together to develop ideas and they subsequently produced a set of literacy materials which are now being used as a literacy package. These materials are in the process of being translated by the support organization, World Education. Form 2042 BS onwards, the local BASE office used literacy materials such as Naya Goreto, Naulo Bihani and Mahila Shikshya, which had been developed by HMG and other organizations. However, they later became aware that these NFE materials were not community-specific and that their way of life and culture was not depicted in them. BASE then decided to hold meetings with governmental and non-governmental agencies in order to discuss the development of community specific literacy/NFE materials. MS-Nepal and World Education offered their support to develop literacy materials in the Tharu language. A week-long meeting was held with SCF/US and BPEP, following which a need-assessment survey was conducted and the existing literacy materials were analyzed. In a separate meeting at Chakhoura Village, local BASE leaders, staff and intellectuals reflected upon the ongoing efforts of producing literacy materials in Tharu language. As result of these meetings and discussions ‘Naya Goreto’ was replaced by the Tharu literacy primer called ‘Paschim ko Phool’. BASE also published a Tharu grammar called ‘Lirausi Byakaran’ by Mahesh Chaudhary. In addition, ‘Gurbaba Dictionary’ edited by Ashok Tharu and Gopal Dahit was also published and other reading materials such as Barki Maar, music cassettes and posters in the Tharu language were developed. Furthermore, in 2002, Mr. Churna Chaudhary, Director of BASE, presented a paper on Tharu background and literacy at a Conference on Indigenous Literacy Material Development in Bangkok which was organized by UNESCO. Following the recommendations of the Bangkok meeting, World Education and UNESCO helped produce another 3-volume set of literacy materials called Sosanse Shikshyaor. (Please refer Appendix for further planned publications) BASE also intends to produce educational materials in Tharu for both formal and non-formal educational sectors.

Indeed, Deeplal Chaudhary asserted that the success BASE had in freeing the Kamaiya (bonded labourers) from slavery also inspired them to develop such materials in the Tharu language In 1997 World Education brought together three experts each on the Tharu and Limbu languages at a 3-day workshop on mother-tongue literacy and a programme to develop literacy materials was initiated. This resulted in the production of the book ‘Muthlihai’ in Tharu and ‘Chotlung’ in Limbu the following year (97/98 or 2055 BS). Classes based on

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Muthlihai were conducted in Bardiya but they suffered from lack of resources despite efforts being made to ensure that resources were available to classes. However, thanks to funding by UNESCO in 2005, a baseline survey was carried out in eight communities of Dang district and following the study recommendations, some of the literacy primers such as Muthlihai and ‘Sosanse Shikshyaor’ were improved. This process illustrates the way in which the local community, the local and central offices of BASE (with INGO support) co-operated in developing materials and solving any problems that arose with resourcing. Consequently Tharu organizations have been able to produce many literacy and post literacy materials that depict Tharu culture, religion and tradition. Practice 3: Literacy/NFE management committee worked as link between people and the Local BASE Office BASE ascertained the demand within the community for literacy/NFE classes and in response asked the community itself to select the literacy facilitators. In addition, the community provided classrooms and met electricity expenses. Class Management Committees have been formed in each location and they are responsible for solving minor problems and ensuring the smooth running of classes. Although the BASE Village Committee was actively involved in managing the literacy classes, the class management committees became a bridge between the Tharu community and BASE at the local level and meant that the running of literacy classes was a collaborative undertaking. Practice 4: Use of cultural-relevant content and inductive teaching method The literacy primer Sosanse Shikshyaor depicts Tharu culture and uses only a few non-Tharu words such as Vatabara’ and ‘oxygen’, words for which there are no alternatives in Tharu. As both facilitator and participant were from the same community, the Tharu language was used for classroom discussion and hence there was no need for language/code switching. The only language problem the literacy participants encountered was that the book contains a mixture of words from the Dang and Deukhuri dialects of Tharu and some of these words needed translation into the local dialect. The ‘key word’ approach was used in teaching the primer Sosanse Shikshyaor in the following ways: Analytical (problem posing/thematic) approach – e.g. using a poster as a stimulus for discussion. Discussing in Tharu helped develop decision-making and leadership qualities among the participants. It also increased creativity, expressive ability, knowledge and self-esteem

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amongst the Tharu learners.

• Motivational approach – initially the literacy/NFE participants were encouraged to share their experiences and later they are suggested to go beyond their work world. This approach motivated literacy/NFE participants to study further.

• Creative approach –using creative methodologies such as construction and enactment of the games role-plays which helped enhance the creativity and leadership of the literacy/NFE participants.

Practice 5: Joint initiative in implementing literacy/NFE programmes Although the Tharu Welfare Society was involved in launching the Muthlihai book, no formal meetings were held with Tharu organizations and linguists during the implementation of Sosanse Shikshyaor. However, some linguists and organizations such as the District President of Tharu Welfare Society and members of Tharu Intellectual Council, MS-Nepal, SCF/US and Banyan Tree Foundation were told about the classes by the Director of BASE. The DDC and CDO were also informed and informal talks were held with the District Education Office. Information about the classes was also disseminated through the Dang local FM radio stations, Naya Yugbodh (a national daily newspaper) and Sanghari (mouthpiece BASE’s own newspaper). There was, however, a great deal of coordination within the BASE organizational structure. Village and District Committees of the BASE were asked to identify communities where literacy classes could potentially be set up and gather background information from them. Similarly, the staff of other BASE projects supervised and monitored the on-going activities of the literacy/NFE classes. Practice 6: Literacy programmes helped to preserve the Tharus' way of life Tharus were taught about their culture, traditions, and ancestral history. For example, they learned about words, and cultural practices, even traditional utensils and tools that have either disappeared or are on the verge of disappearing. In the Besahi community, for example, Tharus celebrated the Astimki festival by following the literacy/NFE primer. Awareness of environmental issues was also raised by the Class Management Committee members who challenged literacy participants, “Why are you dumping your rubbish in the streets even after completing the lesson on cleanliness?” Mother tongue literacy class empowered Tharu women

Sunita Tharu, 25, is a married woman from Uttar Kapradevi. Her husband did not like her attending literacy/NFE classes. Once he even came into the classroom and started to beat his wife. In response the literacy/NFE participants rallied around his wife and stopped him. They also tried to convince him about the importance of education. As a result of this incident, literacy/NFE participants formed a united front against abuse by their men-folk. They also began a savings and credit scheme which reduced their dependency on men. IN addition, they became more interested in wearing traditional ornaments and clothes.

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If I want to know about my rights, I must speak in Nepali

Phulmaya Chaudhari is a married woman of 35 with four children who lives in Basahi village. Six months ago she needed a citizenship certificate so she went to the District Office to make an application. However, when she arrived she found that her inability to speak Nepali meant that she was unable to explain what she wanted and she was sent away. This experience made her reflect on the importance of knowing Nepali, “I want to learn Nepali in literacy class because I am certain that if I could speak Nepali it would be easy to get my citizenship certificate."

Practice 7: Reinforcing learning through songs The TTLP is a three year-long project with 11 Tharu-language literacy classes held in Motipur and Bijouri VDCs in the Dang Valley. The materials provided in these classes include songs that summarize the contents of the literacy/NFE materials. Literacy/NFE participants sing these songs in Tharu and internalise the message from the literacy primers. Impact of the good practices Table 4: Impact of good practice on literacy/NFE beneficiaries' life

Impact of practice 1: joint local /central initiative to develop mother-tongue literacy

Impact of practice 2: Incorporating local input into literacy materials

Impact of practice 3: Literacy management committee as link between community and local BASE office

Impact of practice 4: Using culturally relevant content and inductive teaching approach

Impact frompractice 5: Joint initiative in implementing literacy/ NFE programmes

Impact from practice 6: Literacy programmes helped to preserve the Tharus’ way of life

Impact from practice: Learning reinforced through songs

Local people express a demand for literacy classes to the BASE authorities.

Literacy/NFE primers developed containing both local and national knowledge

Literacy/NFE program promoted through mutual co-operation

Literacy beneficiaries are more knowledgeable about their culture and practices

Literacy/ NFE beneficiaries have been articulated for language choice for them

Literacy /NFE beneficiaries felt proud of their Tharu identity

Learning content reinforced through songs.

Because of the above positive impacts, BASE authorities, literacy/NFE facilitators, and the participants have been encouraged to conduct mother tongue literacy programmes. Meanwhile, many Tharus have realized the importance of Nepali in empowering them as Nepali citizens. Ways to link local with the official language The first and second examples of good practice mentioned above show that it is possible to successfully promote mother-tongue literacy at the same time as allowing learners’ Nepali

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language needs to be responded to. Moreover, learners should, from the beginning, be given the choice as to which language is used in literacy classes; mother tongue, Nepali, and/or bilingual. The fourth and sixth examples of good practice show the way in which literacy materials can be developed which blend

contexts from different cultures and provide a link between the mother tongue culture and mainstream culture which uses Nepali. Finally, the successful use of songs in Tharu literacy classes was extremely effective. As a result of this efforts are being made to develop song based materials and link these with the Nepali language literacy programs. Conclusion The ways in which mother tongue literacy programmes in Tharu have linked with Nepali through literacy materials which reflect and promote Tharu culture is a positive model for the development and use of ‘cultural-mosaic’ materials and the implementation of a three languages (Tharu, Nepali, and English) policy in literacy/NFE programmes Recommendations:

Develop bi/tri-lingual materials to meet the learning needs of the Tharu people

Introduce songs into literacy classes and encourage learners to present songs in their chosen language.

Introduce bilingual literacy/NFE programmes for heterogeneous language groups, monolingual for homogenous group, and the language co-existence approach for multiple language groups (Yadav et. al, 2005).

Encourage literacy material developers and facilitators to produce literacy/NFE materials that reflect the learning needs of different ethnic/caste groups but which also depict and promote the cultural links that exist between them.

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Implications for a comprehensive literacy/NFE plan Many of the good practices and recommendations mentioned in this study for developing individual mother tongue literacy programmes have implications for the development of a comprehensive literacy plan for the country as a whole. Some of the ways in which these could be incorporated into such a comprehensive plan are as follows:

1. It was found that non-literate mother-tongue speakers found it easier to develop literacy skills through being taught in their mother tongue using materials that were relevant to their own culture and experiences. However, the content and context of mother tongue literacy materials can also reflect the multi-cultural and multi-lingual reality of Nepal, thereby promoting greater mutual understanding and appreciation. This implies that the ‘culture transfer’ approach should also be emphasized when developing mother tongue literacy programmes.

2. As the informants saw the importance of Nepali language while going to the market, talking to the people of different language groups, and going to the government offices, the implication is that bi/tri-lingual literacy programs should be conceived and nurtured.

3. Many of the mother tongue speakers who had joined literacy classes testified that they were disadvantaged in their dealings with government officials by their limited Nepali language. Therefore, each government office should provide a language desk/focal person to assist non-Nepali speakers.

4. As Limbu and Tamang used their scripts in mother tongue literacy programmes, mother tongue literacy learners might be able to learn Nepali by using their own script (the script-transfer approach).

5. Inter and intra-language dictionaries should be developed to enable some literacy learners to become multi-literate.

6. Multi-lingual literacy providers could share their skills and experiences with others and promote mutual learning.

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References

Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal (1990; article 3:18:2)

Chirag (2001). Bilingual Education. Kathmandu: Author.

CRED (2005).Mother Tongue Intervention at Primary Level. Kathmandu: Author.

Sharma, Gopinath (2058 BS) (Ed.). Nepalka Shiksha Yojanaka Pratibedanharu (In Nepali). Kathmandu: Makalu Books and Stationers.

HMG/Nepal. Development Plan (1954 – 1959).

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Appendix 1: NFE/Literacy materials on mother tongue literacy

S.N. Publisher Literary Primer

Post Literacy Content and Presentation Approach

1 United Mission to Nepal Sakajhanu Sakti

2 '' Asan Guaram

3 " Muke Jilak Gawar chhawa

4 " Helsari Nai Kari Don't be careless about T & B Leprosy

5 Tharu Medium Literacy and

Income Generation Project,

Dang/Interprizes

Development International

Registration (birth certificate, citizenship

Birth Registration

6 " Durghata Accident

7 " Drishiya Dhasain Festival

8 " Tina Kheti Vegetable Farming

9 " Paribar Niyozen Family Planning

10 " Aaglagi Fire

11 " Ganti Counting

12 " Sungur Palan Pig Farming

13 " Bachat Saving

14 " Kore Rog Leprosy

15 " Him Kumari Reproductive

16 " Lakard Sadhiyar Child Care

17 Tharu Transitional Literacy & Income Generation Project

Ghotail

18 " Kamlari Female Kamaiya

19 " Safakhana Hygienic Food

20 " Samya Ghar Clean House

21 " Dhuheri

22 " Gurai

23 " Suri Banwa

24 " Magh Maghi

25 Machhar LGM about

mosquito

30

26 Khop Immunization LGM

27 Tharu Transitional Literacy

& Income Generation

Project

Sukh Dukh Happy & Sorrow

28 " Gamihar Jidak

Janny

LGM Pregnant Women

29 " Paharna Rahar Padhne Rahar

30 " Kartabiya

31 " Kukraka Katai Rabbis Dog Bite

32 " Manab Adhikar LGM

33 " Banbaniyar

34 Sayog Samaj Nepal, Tulasipur. Enterprise Development International

Alrim Viyaz

35 " Sapwa

36 Sahayog Samaj Nepal Enterprise Development International

Vakla

37 Tharu Transitional Literacy & IGP and Enterprise

Sangatak Phal

38 Sahayog Samaj Nepal and Enterprise

Kamlari Jaram

39 " Lahurik Jabani

40 Tharu Transitional and Enterprise

Jardaru Alcoholic Borage

41 Sahayog Samaj and Enterprise Jannik Adikar Women Right

42 " Cycle Durghatana

43 Tharu Transitional and Enterprise

Proudh Sikcchiya

Adult Education

44 " Banba

45 Nepal Tamang Ghedung, 2000

Tamyig

Lipi

(alphabeti

cal

approach

to literacy

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Appendix 2: Literacy program beneficiaries of Newar community

S.N. Name of Participants Address

1 Shak Chhori Maharjan Arukhel

2 Sanu Maiya Maharjan Killagal

3 Mishri Maharjan "

4 Laxmi Maharjan Maru

5 Hermaya Maharjan Buriyakho

6 Kamala Maharjan Deko

7 Mayaj Maharjan Nardevi

8 Beti Maharjan Deko

9 Gyani Maharjan Suntagli

10 Anar Maharjan Karlamati

Source: Field Visit October, 2005 Appendix: 3 a: Beneficiaries of 2005 BS and other key informants of Limbu community

S.N. Name of Participants Address

1 Balganga Yonghang Rajght VDC

2 Loke Maya Phiyak "

3 Dhan Maya Yonghang "

4 Nor Maya Pomu "

5 Lok Maya Sherma "

6 Sani Maya Limbu "

7 Tika Sambhangphe "

8 Jusmati Sigu "

9 Shanti Chemjong "

10 Ranju Nembang "

Source: Field Visit October, 2005

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Appendix: 3 b. Beneficiaries of 2005 BS and other key informants of Limbu community

S.N. Name of Participants Address

1 Chandra Maya Lindom Singha Devi , VDC

2 Vim Kumari Samsung "

3 Vuvankala Thebe "

4 Ran Maya Payangu "

5 Panch Rani Sawa "

6 Lal Kumari Lingdom "

7 Budhi Maya Chemjong "

8 Ms. Khim Kumari Nemang "

9 Ms. Chancha Maya Nemang "

10 Jithang Angla "

11 Ranta B. Singu "

12 Mohan B. Manohang "

14 Saili Baju Lama "

Source: Field Visit October, 2005 Appendix 4 a: Beneficiaries and other key informants of Tamang community

S.N. Name of Participants Address

1 Sanu Maya Lama Lekpangdrang, Ward No. 2, Nibuwatar VDC

2 Gyan Bahadur Thing "

3 Man Bahadur Bayu "

4 Dil Bahadur Lama "

5 Surendra Thing "

6 Harka Lama "

7 Udaya Bahadur Tamang "

8 Gore Lama "

9 Manju Maya Lama "

10 Mina Kumari Lama "

11 Pampha Maya Tamang "

12 Dhana Maya Dhong "

13 Durga Rumba "

14 Saili Baju Lama "

Source: Field Visit October, 2005

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Appendix 4 b: Beneficiaries and other key informants of Tamang community

S.N. Name of Participants Address

1 Tulku Blon Kisedi, Ward no. 6, Vaise VDC

2 Kanchhi Maya Sangtang "

3 Suryaba Blone "

4 Ini Maya Ghising "

5 Kamala Glan "

6 Loke Maya Blon "

7 Mai Sani Blon "

8 Dhana Bahadur Santang "

9 Rana Bahadur Thing "

10 Phul Maya Blon "

11 Bishnu Bahadur Blon "

12 Bhim Bahadur Blon "

13 Bhim Kumar Blon "

14 Santi Ghising "

15 Pancha Maya Blon "

Source: Field Visit October, 2005

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Appendix 5 : Beneficiaries and other key informants of Tharu community 1. VDC: Saundiyar- 6 Beshahi Name of Facilitator: Basanta Chaudhary

2. VDC: Gadhawa - 7 Ghoraha Name of Facilitator: Ram Kumari Chaudhary

S.N. Name of Participant Age S.N. Name of Participant Age

1. Bazari Chaudhary 27 1. Labri Chaudhary 35 2. Premkali Chaudhary 25 2. Dukhani Chaudhary 28 3. Budhani Chaudhary 35 3. Sunita Chaudhary 30 4. Tila Chaudhary 34 4. PhulmayaChaudhary 19 5. Champa Chaudhary 35 5. Jhanchi Chaudhary 36 6. Ram Ku. Chaudhaiy 36 6. Rambatal Chaudhary 26 7. Labangi Chaudhary 36 7. Laxmi Chaudhary 25 8. Mina Chaudhary 21 8. Sabitra Chaudhary 24 9. Rita Chaudhary 25 9. Siu Ku. Chaudhary 29 10. Phuhnati Chaudhary 35 10. Kumary Chaudhary 28 11. Pansari Chaudhary 15 11. Sundarkali Chaudhary 40 12. Asmani ChaudhaTy 23 12. Sunderpati chaudhary 26 13. Bir Bahadur Chaudhary 12 13. Krishna Chaudhary 25 14. Sundary Chaudhary 35 14. Asarphi Chaudhary 36 15. Pradeshni Chaudhary 32 15. Sita Chaudhary 14 16. Susma Chaudhary 16 16. Kabita Chaudhary 14 17. Asha Chaudhary 23 17. Prem ku. Chaudhary 14 18. Budhani Chaudhary 32 18. Janki Chaudhary 28 19. Gita Chaudhary 21 19. Shusil Chaudhary 26 20. Parbari Chaudhary 30 20. Ashkumari Chaudhaiy 26 21. Laskari Chaudhary 36 21. Asrmi Chaudhary 26 22. Asha Chaudhary 30 22. Sima Chaudhary 15 23. Asha Chaudhary 35 23. Puspa Chaudhary 16 24. Jagmoni Chaudhary 31 24. Kamala Chaudhary 24 25. Bimala Chaudhary 17 25 Sangita Chaudhary 19 3. VDC: Tulsipur Municipality-6 Utterkapradevi Name of Facilitator: Gokul Chaudhary

S.N. Name of Participant Age 13. Suntali Chaudhary 25

1. Ujyali Chaudhary 36 14. Syani Chaudhary (b) 30 2. Puma Ku. Chaudhary 23 15. Gita Chaudhary 36 3. Sarita Chauclhary 26 16. Asha Chaudhary 35 4. Chulhya Chaudhary 25 17. Ram Kumar Chaudhary 31 5. Sundari Chaudhary 24 18. Lahiya Chaudhary 30 6. Sita Chaudhary 27 19. Budhani Chaudhary 35 7. Raj Kumar Chaudhary 30 20. Sunita Chaudhary 37 8. Pyari Chaudhary 26 21. Tushei Chaudhary 32 9. Kamala Chaudhary (a) 27 22. Pramila Chaudhaiy 34 10. Thachya Chaudhary 24 23. Asha Kumar Chaudhary 32 11. Cheru Chaudhary 28 24. Maya Chaudhary 27 12. Syani Chaudhary 26 25. Kamala Chaudhary 31

35

4. VDC: Narayanpur -6 Dokrena Name of Facilitator: Chandra Kumar Chaudhary

Appendix 6 : List of the participants of Reflection Session

S.N. Name of Participant Age

1. Malati Chaudhary 21 2. Phiriya Chaudhary 20 3. Shanti Chaudhaiy 20 4. Jugmati Chaudhary 18 5. Pabittra Chaudhaiy 32 6. Rita Chaudhary 21 7. Chechu Chaudhary 25 8. Man Kumari Chaudhary 29 9. Chainari Chaudhary 27 10. Sundari Chaudhary 29 11. Kunti Chaudhary 27 12. Jagati Chaudhary 30 13. Bimala Chaudhary 21 14. Dil Kumari Chaudhary 28 15. Nirmala Chaudhary 31 16. Bephaneya Chaudhary 32 17. Kalami Chaudhary 26 18. Parbati Chaudhary 20 19. Gulapya Chaudhary 24 20. Sita Chaudhary 30 21. Siyani Chaudhary 27 22. Urmila Chaudhary 29 23. Gulapi Chaudhary 15 24. Urdi Chaudhary 21 25. Radhi Chaudhary 18

Mr. Shram Lal Chaudhary President Help Society Nepal, Dang Ph:082-521438

Raj Mukut Bhusal Education Advisor -UMN Thapathali Ph: 4228118

Binita Chaudhary Advisor Tharu Mahila Jagaran Kendra Ph:4441524

Dr. Lava Dev Awasthi Under Secretary MOES Ph:4443332

Phulmati Chaudhary President

National Indigenous Women's Federation Ph:4382786

Bome Kumari Budha Magar Chairman

Athar Magarat Mager Language and Cultural Development Academy Ph:4312310

Source: Field Visit October 2005Mahesh Chaudhary Advisor Association For Women Rural Development Ph:082560436

Bhulai Chaudhary General Secretary Tharu Kalyan Karini Sabha Ph:6635447

Keshar Jung Magar Research Assistant Ph:4377109

Anju Khadka Principal Researcher/TU Student

Ph:5529851

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Ram Pyari Sunuwar Anand Mani Khadka General Secretary Education Journalist Group National Indigenous Women Federation Ph:4257655 Ph:4489514 Chij Kumar Shrestha Ms. Koto Kanno Country Director Country Representative World Education UNESCO-Katmandu Ph:5554396 Dr. Bidya Nath Koirala Advisor Mr. Tap Raj Pant World Education National Program Officer UNESCO-Kathmandu Tika Ram Chaudhary Ph:5554396 Program Officer World Education Satya Bahadur Shrestha D. Secretary General Shyam Shrestha NATCOM Coordinator-Swasthya Chautari Program Ph:4428107 World Education Sudha Lal Mulmi Bijaya Gautam President Coordinator-Jivan Ra Jibika Program SEFU World Education Ph:5532285 Hallu Chaudhary Bhagwan Ratna Tuladhar Program Officer Coordinator World Education Community Learning Centre Ph:4219441 Durga Lal Rai Assistant Program Officer Kalyani Shrestha (Joshi) World Education NRC/NFE Education Specialist Ek Raj Joshi Ph:5534416 Program Officer World Education Sangini Rana Magar Chair Person Jyoti Rana Subedi NIWF Program Officer Ph:4770197 World Education Dilli Bahadur Chaudhary Manju Lama President Executive Secretary BASE Nepal World Education Ph:082520055 Rabindra Patel Punita Chaudhary Program Officer Program Coordinator World Education BASE Nepal Ph:082520055

37

UNESCO Kathmandu Series of Monographs and Working Papers:

No. 1 Democracy, Gender Equality and Women’s Literacy: Experience from Nepal No. 2 Celebrating Diversities Through Policy, Practice, and Research: A Case of Literacy

and Non-Formal Education in Nepal No. 3 Review of Research Literature on Girls’ Education in Nepal No. 4 Girls in Science and Technology Education:

A Study on Access, Participation, and Performance of Girls in Nepal

No. 5 Gender Responsive Non-formal Education in Nepal: a Case Study No. 6 Cultural and Religious Diversity: Dialogue and Development No. 7 Diversity and Endangerment of Languages in Nepal No. 8 Forms and Patterns of Social Discrimination in Nepal No. 9 The Functioning and Effectiveness of Scholarship and Incentive Schemes in Nepal No. 10 Science, Research and Technology in Nepal No. 11 A Comprehensive Review of the Practices of Literacy and Nonformal Education

in Nepal