the usda forest service— the first century

United States Department of Agriculture • Forest Service

The USDA Forest Service—The First Century

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CENTENNIAL

COMMEMORATIVE

EDITION

1905-2005

THE USDA FOREST SERVICE — THE FIRST CENTURY

by

Gerald W. Williams, Ph.D.

Historical Analyst

Slightly revised April 2005

FS-650

USDA Forest Service Office of Communication Washington, DC

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Table of ContentsIntroduction ........................................................................................................1

The Beginning Era of Concern About Natural Resources, 1873-1905 .................2 The Visionaries ...........................................................................................3 Federal Involvement in Forestry .................................................................5 The Forest Reserve Act of 1891 ...................................................................8 The National Forest Commission of 1896 ...................................................8 The Organic Act of 1897 ...........................................................................10

The Early Forest Service Organization Era, 1905-1910 .....................................17 The Establishment of the Forest Service in July 1905 ................................17 Land Frauds ..............................................................................................24 New Forest Reserves .................................................................................25 Decentralization ........................................................................................26 Forest Service Research .............................................................................29

The Forest Protection or Custodial Management Era, 1910-1933 ...................31 Forest Products Laboratory and Research ..................................................35 Recreational Developments .......................................................................42 Railroad Land Grants ................................................................................47 World War I and Aftermath .......................................................................47 Timber Sales .............................................................................................53 Recreation and Wilderness ........................................................................56

The Great Depression Era, 1933-1942 .............................................................66 Civilian Conservation Corps .....................................................................66 Shelterbelt Project .....................................................................................71 Wilderness ................................................................................................76 Timber Salvage of 1938 .............................................................................78 Smokejumping and National Defense .......................................................79

The War Years, 1942-1945 ...............................................................................81 The Sustained-Yield Forest Management Act of 1944 and Sustained-Yield Units .................................................................82 Smokey Bear .............................................................................................83

The Postwar Development Era, 1946-1959 .......................................................88 Timber Management .................................................................................88 Research Builds .........................................................................................93 Forest Protection .......................................................................................93 New Specialists and Land..........................................................................94 Mining ......................................................................................................97 Recreation and Timber Demands ............................................................100

The USDA Forest—The First Century ■ i

The Fully Managed, Multiple-Use Forest Era, 1960-1970 ...............................102 Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 ...............................................102 Work Programs .......................................................................................107 Wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers Acts ...........................................108 Using Litigation To Settle Disputes With the Forest Service .....................111

The Environmentalism and Public Participation Era, 1970-1993 ....................112 National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 ............................................112 Controversies Over Clearcutting .............................................................114 Youth Conservation Corps, Young Adult Conservation Corps, and Related Programs .....................................................................117 National Forest Volunteers ......................................................................120 RARE and RARE II ..................................................................................121 Endangered Species Act of 1973 .............................................................121 National Forest Planning .........................................................................122 Internal Struggles ....................................................................................129 Owls and Other Wildlife .........................................................................133 Yellowstone Fire in 1988 .........................................................................137 Development of Partnerships ..................................................................138 International Forestry .............................................................................139

Ecosystem Management and the Future Era, 1993-Present ............................143

Changes in the National Forests—Over 100 Years of Progress .......................149 Summary - 100 Years and More of National Forests .......................................154

Further Reading ..............................................................................................156

Chiefs of the Forest Service:

Gifford Pinchot—First Chief of the Forest Service, 1905-1910 .................14 Henry S. Graves—Second Chief, 1910-1920 ............................................34 William B. Greeley—Third Chief, 1920-1928 ...........................................52 Robert Y. Stuart—Fourth Chief, 1928-1933 ..............................................64 Ferdinand A. Silcox—Fifth Chief, 1933-1939 ...........................................70 Earle H. Clapp—Sixth Chief, 1939-1943 ..................................................79 Lyle F. Watts—Seventh Chief, 1943-1952 .................................................82 Richard E. McArdle—Eighth Chief, 1952-1962 ........................................94 Edward P. Cliff—Ninth Chief, 1962-1972 ...............................................105 John R. McGuire—Tenth Chief, 1972-1979 ............................................119 R. Max Peterson—Eleventh Chief, 1979-1987 ........................................128 F. Dale Robertson—Twelfth Chief, 1987-1993 ........................................132 Jack Ward Thomas—Thirteenth Chief, 1993-1996 .................................146 Mike Dombeck—Fourteenth Chief, 1997-2001 ......................................147 Dale N. Bosworth—Fifteenth Chief, 2001-present ..................................153

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The USDA Forest—The First Century ■ iii

Special Topics Arthur H. Carhart and the Boundary Waters Canoe Wilderness ................60 Caribbean National Forest—First in the Western Hemisphere ..................15 Civilian Conservation Corps (1933-1942) ................................................67 Clearcutting on the National Forests .......................................................115 Ecosystem Management ..........................................................................145 Forest Fires and Firefighting .....................................................................31 Forest Products Laboratory—Madison, Wisconsin ....................................36 Forest Service Badges and Patches .............................................................21 Forest Rangers ..........................................................................................19 Grazing on the National Forests ................................................................74 Hallie M. Daggett—Woman Lookout ........................................................51 International Forestry .............................................................................140 Aldo Leopold and “The Land Ethic” ..........................................................61 Robert Marshall.........................................................................................77 Mining on the National Forests .................................................................98 John Muir ...................................................................................................9 Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 ...............................................105 National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 ............................................113 National Forest Management Act of 1976 ...............................................127 National Grasslands ..................................................................................95 Recreation on the National Forests ............................................................42 Research on the National Forests ..............................................................39 Shelterbelt Program on the Great Plains ....................................................72 The Story of Smokey Bear .........................................................................84 State and Private Forestry ..........................................................................27 Timber Harvesting From the National Forests ...........................................54 Tree Cutting Technology ...........................................................................90 Weeks Act of 1911 ....................................................................................37 Wilderness Act and Howard Zahniser .....................................................109 Wildlife and the National Forests ............................................................135

iv ■ The USDA Forest—The First Century

The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �

Introduction

hefoundingoftheNationalForestSystemandtheForestService, anagencyoftheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,hasitsrootsinthe lastquarterofthe19thcenturyandwasdirectlyrelatedtothreevision-arymen:FranklinB.Hough,BernhardE.Fernow,andGiffordPinchot.Thesethreecontributedcountlesshours,strongleadership,andassistancetothenewfieldofforestryandespeciallyFederalforestry.Theirexpertisehelpedtocre-atemillionsofacresofforestreserves(nowcallednationalforests)intheWest.TheyalsolaidthefoundationforthedevelopmentofthenewForestServiceintheDepartmentofAgriculture.Thesevisionaries,alongwithwillingpresidents(especiallyTeddyRoosevelt),scientificandconservationorganizations,andnewlytrainedforestryprofessionals,ledthesuccessfuleffortinretainingmillionsofacresofFederalforestlandforfuturegenerations.

TheprideandprofessionalismsharedbytheseearlyleaderscontinueintheFor-estServicetoday.TheseforestrycrusadersweresosuccessfulintheirbattleforprotectionofpublicforestdomainlandthattodaytheUnitedStateshasasystemof155nationalforests,20nationalgrasslands,and20researchandexperimentalforests,aswellasotherspecialareascovering191millionacresofpublicland.TheForestServicehasevolvedintoa35,000-employeeagencythatmanagesthenationalforestsandgrasslandsforanumberofmultipleuses,includingtim-ber,wilderness,recreation,minerals,water,grazing,andwildlife.Thepeoplewhowork“ontheground”inthenationalforestsincludespecialistssuchasecologists,foresters,silviculturists,engi-neers,rangeconservationists,firefighters,surveyors,hydrol-ogists,landscapearchitects,archeologists,soilscientists,fisheriesbiologists,wildlifebiologists,andgeologists.Sup-portingthesespecialistsareanassortmentofplanners,econo-mists,publicaffairsspecialists,socialscientists,budgetandfi-nancialadministrators,humanresourcespecialists,civilrightsspecialists,computerprogram-mers,accountants,technicians,clerks,writers,editors,carpen-ters,mechanics,heavyequip-mentoperators,andothers.

LibraryofCongress

President Theodore Roosevelt

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� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century

ollowingthedevastatingCivilWar,theUnitedStatesexperienced tremendouschange,especiallyintheWest.AmericanIndians, buffalo,trappers,andpioneershadalreadygivenwaytominers,tim-bercutters,andotherpeoplebentonexploitingthelandandresourcesofourquicklygrowing,resource-richNation.HerdsofcattleandsheepsoonspreadoverthegrasslandsoftheGreatPlainsandSouthwest.

Yet,eventheseuseswerebeginningtobereplacedbyhomesteadingfarmerswhobrokethesodandsowedthegrainontheprairiesandplains.Hard-rockandhy-draulicminingweremajorindustriesintheSierraNevada,theCascades,andtheRockyMountainranges.Miningextractedvaluableminerals,butoftenseverelyerodedtheland.RailroadshadjustfinishedlinkingthefarWest(California)withtherestoftheNation,andplanswerebeingmadetoconnectalloftheWest’smajorpopulationcentersbyrail.Congressgavemassivelandgrantstomanyrail-roads,especiallyalongthenortherntierofStates(fromMinnesotatoWashing-ton)toencouragetherailroadstobuildraillinesconnectingcitesandtowns,aswellasspawngrowthintheWest.Timbercompanies,whichhadexhaustedthevirginforestsoftheEast,werequicklyclearingthegreatpineforestsoftheLakeStates(Minnesota,Wisconsin,andMichigan)andwerecontemplatingmovingtheiroperationstotheSouthandfarWest.

The Beginning Era of Concern About Natural Resources, �873-�905

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“Log Stacks” - Michigan White Pine Before 1900

USDAForestService

The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 3

Acquisitivenessandexploitationwerethespiritofthetimes,withlittleregardfortheethicsofconservationortheneedsofthefuture.ThereactiontotheabuseoftheNation’snaturalresourcesduringthisperiodgaverisetoAmerica’sforestryandconservationmovement.

The Visionaries

ThebeginningofAmerica’sconcernabouttheconservationoflandforthepeoplecanbetracedbacktoGeorgePerkinsMarsh,whoin1864wrotethebookMan and Nature: Or Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action.ThisinfluentialbookdrewonthepasttoillustratehowhumanactionshadharmedtheEarth–leadingtothedemiseofearliercivilizations.Marshwantednotonlytowarnhiscontemporariesagainstthisfate,butalsotoinitiateactionstopreventit.OnemeasurethatMarshadvocatedwastheprotectionofforests–yetfewheededhisimportantmessage.

Erosion - Effects of Deforestation in Colorado, 1915

USDAForestService

TwootherinfluentialpersonsintheearlyconservationmovementwereJohnWesleyPowell,whosurveyedandreportedonlargeportionsoftheWestanditsmajorriversfortheU.S.GeophysicalandGeologicalSurvey,andF.V.Hayden,whomadeseveralimportantinvestigationsoftheRockyMountains—especiallytheYellowstonearea—fortheU.S.GeologicalandGeographicalSurvey(prede-cessorsoftheU.S.DepartmentoftheInterior’sGeologicalSurvey).Severalland-scapephotographersoftheera—TimothyH.O’Sullivan,WilliamHenryJackson,andCarltonE.Watkins—werealsoimportantingeneratingconcernaboutthemarvelousandunusualfeaturesoftheunpopulatedWest.TheimpressiveimagestheyproducedinformedAmericansofthestarkbeautyandimpressivemajestythataboundedinthewesternmountainsandvalleys.Theseelementscameto-


gethertoprotecttheYellowstoneareainnorthwestWyoming.Hayden’sscientificreportsofitsremarkablefeaturesaccompaniedbyO’Sullivan’sspectacularpho-tographsswayedCongresstoestablishYellowstoneNationalParkin1872—thefirstsuchparkintheworld.

Half Dome, Yosemite Na-tional Park

CarltonE.Watkins-WilliamsCollection

Othersbecameconvincedthatthemoreordinaryforestedareas,whichwerestillinpublicownership,alsoneededprotection.ThiseffortwasspearheadedbyDr.FranklinB.Hough—aphysician,historian,andstatistician.HenoticedthattimberproductionintheEastwouldfalloffinsomeareas,whilebuildingupinothers,whichtohimindicatedthattimbersuppliesinsomeareasoftheUnitedStateswerebeingexhausted.Asaresultofhisstudy,Houghpresentedapaper,“OntheDutyofGovernmentsinthePreservationofForests,”totheannualmeet-ingoftheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience(AAAS),heldatPortland,Maine,inAugust1873.Thefollowingday,AAASpreparedandap-provedapetitiontoCongress“ontheimportanceofpromotingthecultivationoftimberandthepreservationofforests.”Theysoughtcongressionalaction,butnolegislationwaspassedfor3years.


Federal Involvement in Forestry

OnAugust15,1876,arider(amendment)wasattachedtothefree-seedclauseoftheAppropriationsActof1876.Thisamendmentprovided$2,000infundingforaper-sonwith“...approvedattain-ment,whoispracticallywellacquaintedwithmethodsofstatisticalinquery[sic],andwhohasevincedanintimateacquaintancewith[forestrymatters]....”ThiswasthefirstFederalappropria-tiondevotedtoforestry.Dr.Houghreceivedcongressionalappointmenttoundertakeastudyencompassingforestconsumption,importation,exportation,nationalwants,probablesupplyforthefuture,themeansofpreserva-tionandrenewal,theinflu-enceofforestsonclimates,andforestrymethodsusedinothercountries.In1878,his

Franklin B. Hough

USDAForestService

650-pagereport,titledsimply“ReportonForestry,”soimpressedtheCommis-sioner(latertheSecretary)ofAgricultureandCongressthattheyauthorizedtheprintingof25,000copies.

Thus,anewgovernmental“organization”wasformedthatconsistedsolelyofDr.Hough,asthefirstforestryagent,andwasplacedunderthesupervisionoftheCommissionerofAgriculture.However,Houghastheforestryagentdidnothaveanyauthorityovertimberedareasthatremainedinpublicdomain.In1881,theDepartmentofAgricultureDivisionofForestrywastemporarilyestablishedtostudyandreportonforestrymattersintheUnitedStatesandabroad;Houghwasnamedits“Chief.”

InHough’s1882report,herecommended“thattheprincipalbodiesoftimberlandstillremainingthepropertyofthegovernment...bewithdrawnfromsaleorgrant.”HisideawasthatthisprotectedFederaltimberwouldbecutunderleaseandthatyoungtimbergrowthwouldbeprotectedforthefuture.In1883,Na-thanielH.Egleston,whohadalsoplayedanactiveroleintheAmericanForestryAssociation,replacedHough.


Eglestonserveduneventfullyuntilthespringof1886,whenhewasreplacedbyDr.BernhardE.Fernow,whowastrainedinforestryinhisnativeGer-many(therewerenoAmericanforest-ryschoolsatthetime).FernowwasaleaderinthenewfieldofforestryandafounderoftheAmericanForestryAssociation.AsChiefoftheDivisionofForestry,hebroughtprofessional-ismtoit.HesetupscientificresearchprogramsandinitiatedcooperativeforestryprojectswiththeStates,includingtheplantingoftreesontheGreatPlains.OnJune30,1886,theDivisionwasgivenpermanentstatusaspartoftheDepartmentofAgricul-ture.Thisprovidedtheneededstabil-ityforthefledglingorganization.

Nathaniel H. Egleston

USDAForestService

Bernhard E. Fernow

USDAForestService

Inearly1889,CharlesS.Sargent,professorofarboricultureatHarvardandeditorofGarden and Forest,wroteaneditorialforhismagazinethattooktoheartHough’s1882recommenda-tiontonotpermitthesaleorgrantofGovernmenttimberland.Sargentproposedthreethings:Thetemporarywithdrawalofallpublicforestlandsfromsaleorhomesteading;useoftheU.S.Armytoprotecttheselandsandforests;andPresidentialappointmentofacommissiontoreporttoCongressonaplanofadministrationandcon-trolofforestedareas.AsGiffordPin-chotpointedout,“thefirstsuggestionwaspoliticallyimpossible,thesecondpracticallyunworkable,butthethird,intheend(some7yearslater),putGovernmentforestryonthemap.”


InAprilofthesameyear,thelawcommitteeoftheAmericanForestryAssocia-tion,consistingofFernow,Egleston,andEdwardBowersoftheU.S.DepartmentoftheInterior’sGeneralLandOffice(GLO),metwithPresidentBenjaminHarrison.ThecommitteerecommendedthattheNationadoptanefficientforest-rypolicy.In1890,afterthePresidenttooknoactiononthematter,theAmericanForestryAssociationpetitionedCongresstomakeforestreservationsandprovideacommissiontoadministerthem.Again,nonoticeableactiontookplace,buttherewasastronggroundswelltoretaintheforest-coveredpublicdomainforthepeople.TheBooneandCrockettClubralliedaroundtheissueofprotectingYel-lowstoneNationalPark,aswellasotherforestedareasintheWest.Thissports-men’sclubwasfoundedin1887withmemberssuchasTheodoreRoosevelt,GiffordPinchot,GeorgeBirdGrinnell,HenryCabotLodge,HenryL.Stimson,andmanyothers.Theirinfluenceinnationalpoliticssubstantiallyhelpedthefledglingnationalforestmovementintheearly1890’sandthedecadestofollow.

Theweightofthedataandtherec-ommendationsofHough,Fernow,Sargent,theBooneandCrockettClub,andtheAmericanForestryAssociationledtothegenesisoftheNationalForestSystemasweknowittoday.Intheearly1890’sitwasappar-enttomanythattheremainingforestsrepresentedagreat,butvulnerable,nationalassetthatneededtobeprotect-edfromunbridleddespoliationforthesakeofposterity.

John Muir

8 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century

The Forest Reserve Act of �89�

Inthespringof1891,whenCongresswasdebatingtheissueoflandfrauds(theillegalpurchaseordeceitinthehomesteadingofFederalland)relatedtotheTim-ber-CultureActof1873andseveralotherhomesteadlaws,ariderwasattachedtoabilltoreviseaseriesoflandlaws.Thissmall,one-sentenceamendment(Section24)allowedthePresidenttoestablishforestreservesfrompublicdomainland:

SECTION24—ThePresidentoftheUnitedStatesmay,fromtimetotime,setapartandreserve,inanystateorterritoryhavingpubliclandbearingforests,inanypartofthepubliclands,whollyorinpartcov-eredwithtimberorundergrowth,whetherofcommercialvalueornot,aspublicreservations;andthePresidentshall,bypublicproclamation,declaretheestablishmentofsuchreservationsandthelimitsthereof.

Sincereferredtoasthe“CreativeAct”ortheForestReserveActofMarch3,1891,itwasusedbyPresidentHarrisononMarch30thofthesameyeartosetasidethefirstforestreserve—theYellowstoneParkTimberlandReserve(nowpartoftheShoshoneandBridger-TetonNationalForestsinWyoming).BytheendofHar-rison’stermasPresidentinthespringof1893,hehadcreated15forestreservescontaining13millionacres.TheseforestreservesweretheWhiteRiverPlateau,PikesPeak,PlumCreek,SouthPlatte,andBattlementMesaallinColorado;theGrandCanyoninArizona;theSanGabriel,Sierra,TrabucoCanyon,andSanBernardinoinCalifornia;theBullRuninOregon;PacificinWashington;andtheAfognakForestandFishCultureReserveinAlaska.

OnSeptember28,1893,hissuccessor,PresidentGroverCleveland,addedtwoforestreserves—thehugeCascadeRangeForestReserveandtinyAshlandForestReserve—totaling5millionacres—inOregon.Clevelanddidnotaddanymoreforestreservesforalmost4years,untilCongresswaswillingtopasslegislationtoallowforthemanagementofthepublicforests.

The National Forest Commission of �89�

Meanwhile,therewereeffortsinCongresstochangetheprocedureforestablish-ingFederalforestreserves.Inthesummerof1896,theNationalForestCom-mission,thebrainchildoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,wasfundedbyCongress.Thecommission,whichconsistedofCharlesSargent(chair),HenryL.Abbot,WilliamH.Brewer,AlexanderAgassiz,ArnoldHague,GiffordPinchot(secretary),andWolcottGibbs(memberex-officio)traveledthroughouttheWesttouringexistingforestreservesandareaswherenewreserveswereproposed.JohnMuirandHenryS.Gravesaccompaniedthecommissiononpartsoftheirinvestigations.Althoughmembersofthecommissiondisagreedwithoneanothermuchofthetime,theydidagreeontheneedforMt.RainierandGrandCanyonNationalParksandonanumberofnewforestreserves.


OnFebruary22,1897,PresidentCleveland,asaresultoftheCommission’srecommendations,proclaimed13newforestreservesintheWest,knownthere-afterasthe“Washington’sBirthdayReserves.”Thefollowingforestreserveswereestablished:SanJacintoandStanislausinCalifornia;UintahinUtah;Mt.Rainier(renamedfromPacificandenlarged)andOlympicinWashington;BitterRoot,LewisandClarke,andFlatheadinMontana;BlackHillsinSouthDakota;PriestRiverinIdaho;andtheTetonandBigHorninWyoming.Thefurorofoppositiontotheseforestreserveswasunprecedented,andtheoutcryresultedinCongresspassingcertainamendmentstothe1897SundryCivilAppropriationsbill.

JOHN MUIR

JohnMuir(1838-1914)lefthisnativeScotlandin1849tostartanewlifeontheWisconsinfrontier.HeattendedtheUniversityofWisconsininhismid-twenties.Afterrecoveringfromaseriousaccidenttohiseyes,hefeltcompelledtoundertakea5-month,1,000-milewalkfromIndianatothetipofFlorida.Thefollowingyear,MuirvoyagedtoCalifornia,livingattimesinthewondrousYosemiteValley,wherehestudiedbotanyandthegeologyofthenewStatepark.Muirwasastrongadvocateoftheneedtopreservethepublicforestsandprohibitsheepgrazinginthealpinemeadows.Hemar-riedin1880,settlinginMartinez,California,wherehebecameasuccessfulfarmer.

Returningtohisworkasanadvocateforwildernessandforestpreserva-tion,hewrotemanyarticlesabouttheneedtotransferYosemitebacktotheFederalGovernmentandrenameitasanationalpark.Theeffortwassuc-cessfulin1890.TwoyearslaterhehelpedtoorganizeandbecomethefirstpresidentoftheSierraClub.TheclubgainednationalrecognitionforitseffortstoreserveandpreservescenicandforestareasfirstinCaliforniathenacrosstheNation.Muirlosthislastmajorbattle,when,in1913,CongressauthorizedtheHetchHetchyreservoirinthevalleyadjacenttoYosemiteValley.BothwerepartoftheYosemiteNationalPark,butforcesfromSanFrancisco,especiallyafterthe1906earthquake,weresuccessfulinhavingadambuilttosupplycleanwaterandpowertothecity.Muirdied2yearsbeforethedamwasconstructed.

HiseffortsattryingtohavethenationalforestsbemorelikenationalparkswerecounteredbyGiffordPinchotwiththenotionthatforestsweretobeused,whileparksweretobepreserved.Theirdisagreementwasespeciallyevidentovergrazingintheforestreserves.Muirdidnotwantany;Pinchotfeltthatrestrictinggrazingwouldbebetterthannograzingorunrestrictedgrazing.Bothmenwerepartofthe1896NationalForestCommission,whichtraveledthroughouttheWestlookingatexistingandpotentialforestreserves.DespitetheirdifferencesoversheepgrazingandeventuallyHetchHetchy,theyremainedfriendsandoftenwrotetoeachotherabouttheirwonderfulexperiencestogetherinthewesternmountains.

�0 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century

Muirwasaneloquentspokespersonforthepreservationmovementinthelate1800’sandearly1900’s.Eventodayhisnameevokesadeeplyfeltad-mirationandresolvethatcharacterizesmanyenvironmentalorganizations.Hewrotemanyarticlesfornationalpublication,aswellasseveralbooksincluding:The Mountains of California(1894),Our National Parks(1901),andMy First Summer in the Sierra(1911).Hiswritingsaddressedmanycon-troversialissues,includingthenotionthattheEarthanditsresourceshadbeenmadeforpeopletouseandtouseupforthebenefitofsociety.Muirarguedthatalllivingthingswereequallyimportantpartsofthelandandthatanimalsandplantshaveasmuchrighttoliveandsurviveaspeople.Unlikemanyofthenaturewritersofhistime,Muirtendedtowriteabouttheenvironmentthroughhisownexperiences.Inan1897articlefortheAtlantic Monthly,Muirwrote:

Anyfoolcandestroytrees.Theycannotrunaway;andiftheycould,theywouldstillbedestroyed—chasedandhunteddownaslongasfunoradollarcouldbegotoutoftheirbarkhides....Godhascaredforthesetrees,savedthem...buthecan-notsavethemfromfools—onlyUncleSamcandothat.

The Organic Act of �897

OnJune4,1897,PresidentWilliamMcKinleysignedtheSundryAct.Oneoftheamendments,theso-called“PettigrewAmendment”(laterreferredtoasthe“OrganicAct”)providedthatanynewreserveswouldhavetomeetthecriteriaofforestprotection,watershedprotection,andtimberproduction,thusprovid-ingthecharterformanagingtheforestreserves,latercallednationalforests,formorethan75years.Theactalsosuspendedthe“Washington’sBirthdayReserves”for9months.Thissuspensionwasseenasaclevertactictoovercomewesterndemandsfortotallyeliminatingthenewforestreserves.

Basically,theOrganicActallowedforthepropercare,protection,andmanage-mentofthenewforestreservesandprovidedanorganizationtomanagethem.Oneofthefirst,ifnotthefirst,GLOemployeewasGiffordPinchot,whowashiredinthesummerof1897,asaspecialforestryagenttomakefurtherinvesti-gationsoftheforestreservesandrecommendwaystomanagethem.TheDepart-mentoftheInterior’sGLOwasabletopoliticallyappointsuperintendentsineachStatethathadforestreserves.Thefollowingsummer,1898,sawtheappointmentofforestreservesupervisorsandforestrangerstopatrolthereserves.

The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ ��

GLO Division “R” Staff With Filib-ert Roth (L) and H.H. Jones (R) in Washington, DC

LibraryofCongress

For7years,until1905,forestreservesuperintendents,supervisors,andrang-erswereappointedbytheU.S.senatorsandtheGLOfromtheaffectedStatesthroughtheDepartmentoftheInteriorratherthantheDepartmentofAgricul-ture,wherealltheforestryexpertswerelocated.

USDAForestService

Bill Kreutzer - 1st GLO Forest Ranger, 1898

OneofthefirstmenappointedasarangerwasFrankN.Ham-mitt,anativeofDenver,Colorado.Hewenttoworkinthesummerof1898ontheYellowstoneParkTimberlandReserve.PriortohisappointmentwiththeGLO,hehadbeenchiefofthecowboysinColonelWilliamF.Cody’sWildWestShow.Likemanyoftheold-timeGLOrangers,hewasselectedfromthelocalarea,buthehadnoknowledgeofforestry.Yethewasa“rough-and-ready,”practicalmanwithgreatknowledgeofthemoun-tains.Hestayedwithrangeringuntilhisuntimelydeathinthesummerof1903afterfallingfromacliffonthatreserve(nowtheShoshoneNationalForest).

�� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century

Meanwhile,backEastatthenationallevel,BernhardFernowperformedhisdutiesasChiefoftheDivisionofForestrywithgreatdistinctionuntilApril15,1898,whenheresignedtobecometheDirectorofCornellUniversity’snewfor-estryschool.Inthe25yearssinceHoughhadpresentedhispaper“OntheDutyofGovernmentsinthePreservationofForests,”theNationhadmadesignificantprogressinitsmovementfromthefrontierexploitationofthenaturalresourcesintheforestedareastowardapolicyofwiseuseandconservation.

Fernow’sreplacementwasGiffordPinchot—America’sfirstnative-bornprofes-sionalforester.HehadbeenschooledatYale,thenspentonesummerinFranceandGermanystudyingforestry,gainedexperienceinmanagingGeorgeVanderbilt’sBiltmoreEstateinAsheville,NorthCarolina,andbecamepersonallyfamiliarwithmanyofthenewforestreservesthroughservingontheNationalForestCommission.AsthenewandcharismaticChiefoftheDivisionofForestry,Pinchotwasinchargeof60enthusiasticanddedicatedemployees.Thehead-quarterswasonthethirdfloorandasmallplaceintheatticoftheDepartmentofAgriculturebuildinginWashington,DC.Pinchotchangedhistitle“Chief”to“Forester,”astherewere“manychiefsinWashington,butonlyoneforester.”Thetitleof“Forester”wouldremaininuseuntilthe1930’s.

GLO Ranger on the Battlement Mesa Forest Reserve

USDAForestService

The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �3

Forest Service Office in Washington, DC, 1901-1938

USDAForestService

PinchotwasinstrumentalinobtainingfullbureaustatusfortheDivisionofFor-estry.ItbecametheBureauofForestryonMarch2,1901.In1902,theMinnesotaForestReservewasthefirstreservecreatedbyCongressratherthanbyPresiden-tialproclamation.StrongsupportbytheFederationofWomen’sClubs,whichhad800,000membersin1905,madetheestablishmentofthisforestreservepossible.


Gifford Pinchot—First Chief of the Forest Service, 1905-1910

BornonAugust11,1865,inSimsbury,Connecticut,GiffordPinchot’sNewEng-landfamilywasmadeupofwell-to-do,upper-classmerchants,politicians,andlandowners.HebecameinvolvedwiththeNationalForestCommissionduringthesummerof1896,asittraveledthroughtheWesttoinvestigateforestedareasforpossibleforestreserves.AfterthepassageoftheOrganicActof1897,Pinchotwas

hiredasaspecialforestagentwiththeGeneralLandOfficetoreportontheforestreservemanagementsituation.Thefollowingsummer,theSecretaryofAgricultureinvitedhimtobecome“Chief”oftheDepartmentofAgri-culture’sDivisionofForestry.Duringthesameperiod,theassassinationofPresidentMcKinleyin1901elevatedhisfriend,TheodoreRoosevelt,tothePresidency.Pinchot,withRoosevelt’swillingapproval,restructuredandpro-fessionalizedthemanagementofthenationalforests,andgreatlyincreasedtheareaandnumberofthesenationaltreasures.

In1905,themanagementoftheforestreserveswastransferredfromtheDepartmentoftheInteriortotheDepartmentofAgricultureandPinchot’snewForestService.In1907,theforestreserveswererenamednationalfor-ests.DuringPinchot’sera,theForestServiceandthenationalforestsgrewspectacularly.In1905,therewere60forestreservescovering56millionacres;in1910,therewere150nationalforestscovering172millionacres.ApatternofeffectiveorganizationandmanagementwassetduringPinchot’sadministration,andthe“conservation”(anideaorthemeheinvented)ofnaturalresourcesinthebroadsenseofwiseusebecameawidelyknownconceptandanacceptednationalgoal.HewastheprimaryfounderoftheSocietyofAmericanForesters,whichfirstmetathishomeinWashington,DC,in1900.Heservedwithgreatdistinction,motivatingandprovidingleadershipinthemanagementofnaturalresourcesandtheprotectionofthenationalforests.Hewasreplacedin1910byHenry“Harry”S.Graves,DeanofForestryatYale.

GiffordPinchotwrote:

WhenIcamehome[fromFrance]notasingleacreofGovern-ment,State,orprivatetimberlandwasundersystematicforestmanagementanywhereonthemostrichlytimberedofallcon-tinents....WhentheGayNinetiesbegan,thecommonwordforforestswas“inexhaustible.”Towastetimberwasavirtueandnotacrime.Therewouldalwaysbeplentyoftimber.…Thelumber-men...regardedforestdevastationasnormalandsecondgrowthasadelusionoffools....Andasforsustainedyield,nosuchidea


hadeverenteredtheirheads.Thefewfriendsoftheforestwerespokenof,whentheywerespokenofatall,asimpracticaltheo-rists,fanatics,or“denudatics,”moreorlesstouchedinthehead.WhattalktherewasaboutforestprotectionwasnomoretotheaverageAmericanthanthebuzzingofamosquito,andjustaboutasirritating.

Withoutnaturalresources,lifeitselfisimpossible.Frombirthtodeath,naturalresources,transformedforhumanuse,feed,clothe,shelter,andtransportus.Uponthemwedependforeverymaterialnecessity,comfort,convenience,andprotectioninourlives.Withoutabundantresourcesprosperityisoutofreach.

CARIBBEAN NATIONAL FOREST— FIRST IN THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE

AdaptedfromTerryWest’sCentennial Mini-Histories of the Forest Service(1992)

FifteenyearsbeforePresidentBenjaminHarrisonproclaimedthefirstFed-eralforestreserveintheUnitedStates—theYellowstoneForestReservein1891—theSpanishCrownestablishedreservesinPuertoRico—thenpartoftheSpanishEmpire.ThepresentCaribbeanNationalForestwasformedfrompartsofthesereserves.

Inthe19thcentury,increasedpopulationacceleratedtherapidandwide-spreaddestructioninPuertoRico’sforestresourcesastreeswereclearedforagriculturalland—theeconomicbaseoftheNation.In1816,colonialwarsofindependenceandillegaltimbertradeledtheisland’sGovernortorestrictthesaleofwoodconsideredimportantfornavaluse.Ifmilitaryconcernsledtothefirstconsiderationofforestdepletion,itwastheimpactoffarmingthatreallyledtoconservationmeasures.In1824,alarmedbytheextentofdeforestationthatgovernment-sponsoredfarmingcaused,Gover-norMiguelDeLaTorreissuedPuertoRico’sfirstconservationlaw(circular493)—adecreetostemharmtowatershedsbyplantingtrees.

PuertoRicoremainedunderthedominionofSpain,whichdraftedthefirstcomprehensiveforestlaws(1839)andsetupforestrycommissionsthatledtothefirstisland-wideforestinventoryin1844.Theseinventorieswereconductedbyingenieros de montes(forestengineers)forthecuerpo de montes(forestcorps),adepartmentdirectedbytheministerofpublicworksandstaffedbygraduatesoftheSpanishforestryschool.


ThePuertoRicangovernment’sprotectionoftheforestresourceserodedinthenextdecadesasSpain’sabilitytofunddistantprogramsfadedalongwithitseconomicstatus.Yet,in1876KingAlfonsoXIIstrovetoensurecontinuedconservationofsoilsandwaterqualityandflowsinPuertoRicobycreatingforestreserves.Becausetheforestsweresourcesofroofingmate-rial,fuelwood,andsawtimberforpeople,regulationsforextractionneededtobeenforcedbytheservicio de monteros(forestservice).

AspartofthesettlementoftheSpanish-AmericanWarof1898,controlofPuertoRicopassedtotheUnitedStates.TheLuquilloForestReservewasdeclaredbyPresidentialproclamationin1903.ItbecametheLuquilloNationalForestin1907whenalltheforestreservenameswerechangedtonationalforestnames.(Ithasthedistinctionofbeingtheonlyearlyforestreservethatwasnotestablishedunderauthorityofthe1891act.Instead,theluquilloreservewasestablishedundera1902actofCongressthatgavethePresident1yeartoreserve“Crownlands”cededtotheUnitedStatesbySpainintheTreatyof1898.)In1935,additionallandwaspurchasedandtheLuquilloNationalForestnamewaschangedbyexecutiveordertobecometheCaribbeanNationalForest.In1939,theTropicalForestEx-perimentStation(nowtheInternationalInstituteofTropicalForestry)wasestablishedinPuertoRico.TheCaribbeanNationalForestistheonlytropi-calecosystemintheNationalForestSystemandservesasaninternationalmanagementmodelfortropicalforests.


The Early Forest Service Organization Era, �905-�9�0

D uringtheearly20thcentury,theadministrationoftheFederalforest reserveswasdividedbetweenthesupervisorsandrangersoftheGLO andthesurveyorsandmappersoftheGeologicalSurvey(USGS),bothintheDepartmentoftheInterior.TheforestryexpertsintheDepartmentofAgri-culture’sBureauofForestrywerelimitedtotechnicalforestryadviceandassis-tance.Pinchotwastheprimaryadvocate(withthestrongagreementofhisfriendPresidentTheodoreRoosevelt)ofmovingtheresponsibilityofforestmanagementawayfromtheDepartmentoftheInterior.

The Establishment of the Forest Service in July �905

OnFebruary1,1905,PinchotwasabletounifyallFederalforestadministrationundertheDepartmentofAgriculture’sBureauofForestry.TheForestServicewasfinallyestablishedonJuly1,1905,replacingtheBureauofForestryname.ThecreationoftheForestServicewasfollowedbyachange—thecustomofGLOfor-estrangersgainingemploymentviapoliticalappointmentsended,andselectionsweremadethroughcomprehensivefieldandwrittencivilserviceexaminations.Thesenewstandardshelpedcreateaworkforcethatwaswell-qualified,satisfied,andinspiredbyPinchot’sleadership.

USDAForestService

Agriculture Secre-tary James Wilson at the Department of Agriculture Building in Wash-ington, DC


TheForestService’searlyyearswereaperiodofpioneeringinpracticalfieldfor-estryonthenationalforests.ForestrangersweredirectedfromWashington,DC,andbylocalnationalforestsupervisors.AUse Book,writtenin1905andupdatedyearly,containedalltheForestServicelawsandregulationsusedbytherangers.Today,ofcourse,thelawsrequireabookof1,163pages,whiletheregulationsrequiredtomanagethenationalforestsfillseveralbookshelves.TheForestSer-vicemanualsandhandbooksarenowavailableontheForestService’scomputersystem.

USDAForestService

Arkansas Na-tional Forest Supervisor’s Office

Muchoftheranger’sactivitycenteredonmappingthenationalforests,providingtrailaccess,administeringsheepandcattlepermits,andprotectingtheforestsfromwildfire,gamepoachers,timberandgrazingtrespass,andexploiters.Inotherwords,theyactedascustodiansofthenationalforestsduringthis“Stetsonhat”era.Animportantandcontroversiallandmanagementdecisionwasmadetochargeuserfeesforsheepandcattlegrazingonnationalforests.Alawwaspassedin1906totransfer10percentoftheforestreceipts(throughgrazingfeesandsometimbersales)totheStatestosupportpublicroadsandschools.Twoyearslater,paymentstotheStateswereincreasedto25percent.


FOREST RANGERS

AfterthepassageoftheOrganicActof1897,theGeneralLandOffice(GLO)establishedaforestryunit—latercalledDivision“R”(Forestry)—toadministerthenewforestreserves.Statesuperintendentswereappointedfirst,theninthesummerof1898,moremenwerepoliticallyappointedassummerforestrangers,usuallytofightforestfires.TheseappointmentsweremadebytheGLOStatesuperintendents,theGLOinWashington,DC,orbyaU.S.Senator,whowasappointedbytheStatelegislature.Thereweregreattemptationsandopportunitiesforpoliticalfavoritismandgraftintheseappointments,resultinginmanyGLOrangersbeinglessthancompe-tentinmanagingthelandandresources.

TherearemanystoriesoftheseearlyGLOrangersnotdoingthejobstheywereassigned,goinghomeeverydaytoworktheirfarmsorbusinesses,beingunwillingorunabletoundergotherigorsoflivinginthewildernessforlongperiodsoftime,orsimplynothavinganyknowledgeofwhattheyweredoing.Inafewcases,GLOrangerswereactivelyinvolvedinlandfraudscommittedbytheirfriendsorinacceptingmoneyto“assist”home-steadersinobtainingforestlandthatwasimmediatelysoldtospeculatorsortimbercompanies.

Sheep on theWay to Summer Range on the Beaverhead National Forest (Montana) in 1945

USDAForestService


Inthespringof1905,managementoftheforestreserves(latercalledna-tionalforests)wastransferredfromtheDepartmentoftheInterior’sGLOtotheDepartmentofAgriculture’sBureauofForestry.OnJuly1,1905,theForestServicenamecameintobeing.GiffordPinchot,asthefirstChiefoftheagency,wasintentonbuildingaforceofforestrangerswhoweretrainedinorhadgoodknowledgeofpracticalforestry.Heconsideredthewordsonthe“InvalidsNeedNotApply”poster(circa1905)tobe“aslapattheLandOffice...andcertainlywelldeserved.”PinchotwasdeterminedtotransformthenegativestigmaoftheGLO’sreignfrom1897through1905toaposi-tiveimageofprofessionalForestServiceemployees,dedicatedto“scientificforestry”andpublicservice.

WhentheforestreserveswereturnedovertotheForestService,withafewexceptions,theGLOrangersquitGovernmentservice.TheGLOrangerswhodidtransfertothenewagencywereverypracticalandgreatlyexperi-encedmenwhohelpedformacadreofhighlytalentedrangers.

Beginninginthesummerof1905,thenewForestServicerequiredthatapplicantsfortheforestrangerposition(nowunderCivilServicerules)takepracticalwrittenandfieldexaminations.Thewrittentest,althoughnothighlytechnical,wasquitechallenging.Questionswereaskedtodetermineanapplicantknowledgeofbasicranchingandlivestock,forestconditions,lumbering,surveying,mapping,cabinconstruction,andsoon.Thefieldexamination,heldoutdoors,wasalsoquitebasic.Itrequiredapplicantstodemonstratepracticalskillssuchashowtosaddleahorseandrideatatrotandgallop,howtopackahorseormule,howto“throw”adiamondhitch,accuratelypacethedistancearoundameasuredcourseandcomputetheareainacres,andtakebearingswithacompassandfollowastraightline.Inthefieldexamination’searlyyears,theapplicantswerealsorequiredtobringarifleandpistolalongwiththemtoshootaccuratelyatatarget.Atsomerangerexaminations,theapplicantswererequiredtocookameal,thenEATit!Theapplicants,aswellastherangersthemselves,werenotfurnishedwithequipment,horses,orpackanimals—theywererequiredtohavethemforthetestandforwork,attheirownexpense.Thepaywas$60permonth.

Theforestrangerjobchangedlittleforseveraldecades,withthepracticalforesterservingtheagencywell.University-trainedforesters,or“technicalforesters,”begantoentertheagencyafter1910,comingfromthefewcol-legesanduniversitiesofferingdegreesinforestry.Bythe1920’s,jobspecial-izationwasbecomingcommon.ThechangingneedsofsocietyafterWorldWarIIpromptedtheagencytoopenthenationalforeststotimberharvest-ing,whichmeantthattheroleofthegeneralpracticalforesterwasout-dated—university-trainedspecialistswouldtakethisagencyintoanewera.Today,agencyemployeesarenolongerrequiredtotakepracticaltestsforemploymentanduniversity-trainedspecialistsareeverywhere,butpracticalexperiencestill“counts”highlyintheForestService.


FOREST SERVICE BADGES AND PATCHES

AdaptedfromFrankHarmon’s1980Article“WhatShouldForestersWear?”intheJournal of Forest Historyandothersources

AschiefoftheBureauofForestry,GiffordPinchotbeganthinkingabouttheneedforauniquebadgeofauthorityforhisagencyemployeesevenbeforetheforestreservesweretransferredfromtheDepartmentoftheInteriortoAgriculture.Whentheshiftfinallytookplaceearlyin1905andthebureauwasdesignatedastheForestServiceinthesummerofthesameyear,Pin-chotsetaboutatoncetogetanewofficialbadgefortheforestrangers(theearlierGeneralLandOfficeusedanickel-plated,roundbadge).

Forcreationofthebadge,PinchotannouncedacontestamongWashingtonOfficeemployees.Ahighlyvariedcollectionoftree-relateddesignsresulted,includingscrolls,leaves,andmapleseeds.Althoughthejudgesappreci-atedtheemployees’artisticmerits,theyweredissatisfiedbecausenoneofthedesignsincludedgenerallyrecognizedsymbolsofauthority.ThegroupagreedthatthevastresponsibilitiesofthenewForestServicerequiredsuchasymboltohelpassurepublicrecognitionoftheagencyandrespectforitsofficersandtheirauthority,bothinWashington,DC,andinthefield.AreliablesymbolwasespeciallyneededforthosemeninthefieldwhowerechargedwithapplyingandenforcingFederallawsandregulationsinthefaceofanoftensuspiciousandhostilelocalpopulace.

EdwardT.Allen,oneofthejudges,stronglybelievedthataconventionalshieldwasthebestauthoritysymbol.Asitturnedout,heandanassociate,WilliamC.Hodge,Jr.,(who,likeAllen,workedbothintheWashingtonOfficeandinCaliforniabetween1904and1906)cameupwiththedesignthatbecametheofficialbadge.Inthespringof1905,thetwomenwereto-getherinAllen’sofficeor,perhaps,atarailroaddepotinMissoula,Montana.Allen,whowasattractedbythetypeofshieldusedbytheUnionPacificRailroad,begantracinganoutlineoftheshield(fromaUnionPacifictime-table)onasheetofpaper.HeinsertedthelargelettersUandShalfwayfromthetoptothebottomoftheshield,leavingaspacebetweenthem.Hodge,lookingon,wasinspiredtosketchafirtreeonasheetof“roll-your-own”cigarettepaperhetookfromhispocket.HethenlaidthisbetweentheUandS.Thetwomenthenquicklywrote“FORESTSERVICE”acrossthetopand“DEPARTMENTOFAGRICULTURE”acrossthebottom.Theplacementofthetwonameswasprobablydictatedbyavailablespaces.Whetherthisdesignhadanyinfluenceonthesoon-to-developandstillwidelyusedbutunofficialexpression“U.S.ForestService”isdebatable.Inanycase,Pinchotandhisassistant,OvertonPrice,werepleasedwiththedesignandcalledoffaplannedsecondcontest.


BRONZE BADGES

Alargebronzebadge—about3inchesindiameter,slightlyconvexwithraisedlettersandtree—wasissuedtoallfieldofficersbyJuly1,1905.Lessthan2yearslater,Pinchotissuedanorderonthewearingofthebadge:“HereafterthebadgewillbewornonlybyofficersoftheWashingtonOf-ficewhenoninspectionoradministrativedutyonthenationalforests,byinspectors,andbysupervisors,rangers,andguardsandotherofficersassignedtoadministrativedutyunderthesupervisors.”Thepresentbronzebadge,firstissuedin1915,issmallerthantheoriginal.

Badgesforfireguardswerenickel-platedbronzewiththewords“FORESTGUARD”acrossthetop,“U.S.”ontheleftofthetree,“F.S.”ontheright,and“DEPARTMENTOFAGRICULTURE”onthebottom.Anotherforestguardbadgetypewasmadewith“FORESTGUARD”acrossthetop,“U.S.”leftofthetree,“D.A.”ontheright,and“FORESTSERVICE”atthebottom.Nei-theroftheseForestGuardbadgeshadaraisededgearoundtheborderofthebadge.Thewordswerestampedintothesurfaceandthetreewashighlysymmetrical.

Anotherbadgewasissued,probablytoforestguardsorlookouts,thatwasthesameastheregularForestServicebronzebadge,onlynickel-plated.Around1922,asmaller1-inchbronzebadgewasauthorizedforuniformwear.Thisbadgewasasmallerversionofthelargerbadge.Itwasusedondressuniformsuntilaround1972.Finally,aflatbronzebadgehasbeenrecentlyissued.

Inadditiontothethreesizevariationsandthreeforestguardvariations,thereweretwootherminorimagechanges:In1920,thelargelettersUandSwerelengthened,butthetreeremainedthesameand,in1938,ChiefF.A.Silcoxapprovedrevisingthetreeimageinthemiddletomakeitlonger/taller.Thetreeandrootshapesontheshieldalsochangedslightly—thetreebecamemoresymmetricalandtherootsbecameslightlyshorter.Sincethelate1930’s,therehavebeennoadditionalchangestotheimageontheofficialbadge.ThesechangeswereevidentonboththebadgesandForestServiceshieldseverywhere.

ForestServicelawenforcement,however,hasadifferentofficialbadge.ThisunusualshieldstylisticallyresemblestheregularForestServicepatchinshape,butithasseveralvariations:Anadditionalpointatthetopofthebadge,aneaglewithwingsoutspreadandheadfacingtotheleftsittingonthetop,andaslightly“fatter”mainbody.ThebadgewasdesignedbyAgentDixonfromRegion8inthe1970’s.Itissimilartootherlawenforcementbadgesofdifferentagencies.Atthetopofthesilverbadgearethewords“FOREST”and“SERVICE.”Thewordsareseparatedfromtheremainingwordsbyabaracrossthenarrowpartofthebadge.TheroundUSDAsym-bolisinthecenter,includingthewords“UNITEDSTATESDEPARTMENTOFAGRICULTURE”intheupperthree-quartersofthecircle.Oneachside


oftheroundsymbolarethehighlystylizedletters“U”ontheleftand“S”ontheright.Immediatelyabovetheseletters,betweenthelettersandtheword“SERVICE”aretwofive-pointedstars,oneoneachside.Atthebottomofthepatcharethewords“LAWENFORCEMENT”ononelineandthe“&INVESTIGATIONS”onthesecondline,bothinsidearaisedbanner.

CLOTH PATCHES

Sincetheearly1960’s,aclothshoulderpatchwasauthorizedforwearontheleftshoulderofofficialuniformshirtsandjackets.Thefirstauthorizedpatch,issuedin1962,wasflatonthebottomandsides,butroundedonthetop.Acurvedoverheadbarwasaddedtodesignatewhichnationalforestorotherofficethewearerwasfrom.In1974,thecurrenttheForestServiceshieldpatchwasauthorized.Thenewpatch,inthesameshapeasthebadge,hastheshieldoutlinedinyellow,withthewordsandtreealsoinyellowagainstagreenbackground.

Therearetwovariations:Anolder,smaller2-inchForestServiceflatbottompatch,sometimescalledthewomen’spatch,whichisidenticaltothelarger4-inchpatchandthenewer,smaller2-inchForestServiceshieldpatch,alsoreferredtoasthewomen’suniformpatch,whichisidenticaltothelarger4-inchpatchexceptthattheword“DEPARTMENT”isabbreviatedto“DEPT.”andtheword“AGRICULTURE”isabbreviatedas“AGRIC.”

Therewerealsotwoshoulderpatchesthataredistinctlydifferentfromtheotherpatches:Acolorvariation—thatoftheForestServicepatchforwintersnowrangeruniforms—orangeborderwithblacklettersandtreeonawhitebackgroundandanothersnowrangerpatchwithaslightlysmallerblack-borderedshieldwithalargerorangeshieldoutline.Apparently,thesnowrangerpatcheswerewornduringthe1960’sand1970’s.Severalreasonsforthisunusualpatchwere:Thepatchcouldbewornontheoutsideofheavywinterclothing(thebronzebadgecouldbeunderneathlayers),itwashighlyvisibleagainstadarkgreenjacket,andwhentherangerfellinthesnow,thebronzebadgewouldnotbelostorcauseinjury.

AnotherspecialpatchisthatofForestServicelawenforcement.Thisre-semblestheregularForestServicepatchinshape,size,andcolorwiththefollowingvariations:Atthetopofthepatchthewords,inyellowthread,“FOREST”and“SERVICE”areontwolines.InthemiddleisaroundsymboloftheUSDAinthecenter(outlinedinyellow)andalargercirclewiththewords(ingreen)“DEPT.OFAGRICULTURE”circlingtheuppertwo-thirdsoftheyellowcircle.Oneachsideoftheroundsymbolaretheletters“U”ontheleftand“S”ontheright.Immediatelyabovetheseletters,betweenthelettersandthetopword“SERVICE”aretwofive-pointedstars-oneoneachside.Atthebottomofthepatchistheword“ENFORCEMENT”(ingreen)insideayellowthreadribbon.


AverydifferentshoulderpatchhasbeenauthorizedinrecentyearsforForestServicevolunteers.Thisoff-whitepatchissomewhatliketheolderForestServiceuniformpatches:About31/4inchestalland21/4incheswide,withaflatbottomandroundedtop.Thepatchisoutlinedinanolivegreenthread.Theoff-whitebackgroundhassewnwitholivegreenthreadthewords“FORESTSERVICE”withtheword“VOLUNTEER”underneath.Abovethewordsisashallow“V”inapea-greencolorwhichhastwoolivegreenevergreentrees(withoutneedles)havingthreebranchesoneachsideofthemainstem.Thetreesoverlayapea-greensun.

Land Frauds

Assomeoftheforestreserveboundarieshadbeenhastilydrawn,theForestHomesteadActofJune11,1906,allowedhomesteadinginsideforestreserveboundariesonlandthatwasconsideredprimarilyagricul-tural.However,thereweremanyinstancesoflandfraudonagri-culturalandStateschoollands.Tomeettheintentofthelaw,unscrupulousspeculatorswouldpaypeopletofraudulentlyclaimthattheyweremakingahomeontheland.Aftersuch“ownership,”whenthehomesteadedlandwastransferredfromtheFederalGov-ernment,thenewownerswouldimmediatelytransferthatland’sownershiptoalandspeculator,timber,orminingcompany.Theterms“land-officebusiness”and“land-officerush”cameaboutduringthisperiod—reflecting

USDAForestService

Forest Ranger Camp in Logan Canyon, Cache National Forest (Utah) 1914

thelegitimateandnot-so-legitimatepeoplelininguptosecurelandclaimsatthelocalGLO’s.

FederalinvestigationsaboutlandfraudwerestartedinseveralStates,andafewelectedofficialswereindicted.Thefirstsuccessfulfraudprosecutions,involv-inglandspeculatorsandvariousState,county,andGLOemployees,occurredinOregonbetween1905and1910.GLOheadBingerHermannresignedafterbeingindicted,butwaslaterfoundinnocent;Oregon’sSenatorMitchellwasconvicted.ManyminorFederalandStateofficialsspenttimeinjailoversuchwrongdoings.


New Forest Reserves

InJanuary1907,therewasconsiderableoppositiontoaPresidentialprocla-mationthatreservedthousandsofacresofprimeDouglas-firtimberlandsinnorthernWashingtonState.Thelocalpress,chambersofcommerce,andtheWashingtonStatecongressionaldelegationprotestedthatthereservewouldcauseunduehardshiponresidentsbytakingawayhomesteadand“prime”agricul-turallands(theland,infact,wasnotagricultural,butheavilyforested)aswellasimpedingthefuturedevelopmentoftheState.Afterconsiderablepressure,PinchotandPresidentRooseveltrelented,bysayingthatthereservehadbeena“clericalerror.”Soonthereafter,SenatorCharlesW.FultonofOregon,whohadbeenimplicatedinthelandfraudsinthatState,introducedanamendmenttotheannualagriculturalappropriationsbill.Thisamendment,theFultonAmendment,prohibitedthePresidentfromcreatinganyadditionalforestreservesinthesixWesternStatesofWashington,Oregon,Idaho,Montana,Wyoming,andColo-rado;tookawaythePresident’spowertoproclaimreserves,establishedundertheForestReserve(Creative)Actof1891;andgaveCongressalonetheauthoritytoestablishreserves.However,beforethisbillcouldbesignedintolawonMarch7,1907,GiffordPinchotandthePresidentcameupwithaplan.

Forest Ranger Tying Equipment and Supplies on a Horse, Umpqua National Forest (Oregon), 1923

USDAForestService

Ontheeveofthebill’ssigning,ChiefForesterPinchotandhisassistantArthurC.Ringlandusedaheavybluepenciltodrawmanynewforestreservesonmaps.Assoonamapwasfinishedandaproclamationwritten,thePresidentsignedthepapertoestablishanotherforestreserve.OnMarch1stand2nd,Rooseveltes-tablished17neworcombinedforestreservescontainingover16millionacresinthesesixWesternStates.TheseincludedtheBearLodgeinWyoming;LasAnimasandOurayinColorado;LittleRockiesandOtterinMontana;Cabinet,Lewis&Clark,Palouse,andPortNeufinIdaho;ColvilleandRainierinWashington;andtheBlueMountains,Cascade,Coquille,Imnaha,Tillamook,andUmpquainOregon.Thesehavebeensincereferredtoasthe“MidnightRe-serves.”ThePresidentdefendedhisactionsbyclaimingthathehadsavedvast


tractsoftimberfromfallingintothehandsofthe“lumbersyndicate.”TheFultonamendment,atthesuggestionofPinchot,alsochangedthenameofthe“forestreserves”to“nationalforests”tomakeitclearthattheforestsweretobeusedandnotpreserved.ThefirstnationalforestsestablishedeastoftheMississippiRiverweretheOcalaandChoctawhatcheeNationalForestsinFloridainNovember1908.

Decentralization

Duringthesamemonth,sixdistrictofficeswereestablishedinvarioussectionsofthecountry:Denver,Colorado;Ogden,Utah;Missoula,Montana;Albuquerque,NewMexico;SanFrancisco,California;andPortland,Oregon.TheywerepartofasuccessfulefforttodecentralizedecisionmakingfromWashington,DC,tothedistricts,whichwereclosertoandmorefamiliarwithlocalandregion-wideproblems.ThesenewdistrictswerestaffedthefollowingDecemberandJanuarybyemployeesfromtheWashingtonOfficeandvarioussupervisor’soffices.

USDAForestService

Fire Equipment Warehouse in Missoula, Montana

DecentralizationwascarriedfurtherwiththecreationoftheOgden(Utah)Sup-plyDepotin1909.ThisnewdepotwascentrallylocatedintheWestandtookadvantageofthere-ducedshippingcostsandshortenedtimethatittookremoterangeroutpoststoreceivesupplies.To

respondtolocalconditions,localnationalforestsupervisorsweregivengreaterfiscalresponsibilities.Aseventhdistrict,coveringtheadministrationofthenationalforestsinArkansasandFlorida,wasaddedin1914.Alaskawasmadeaseparatedistrictin1921;thenanewdistrictwascreatedin1929tocovertheEasternStates.AllthedistrictswererenamedregionalofficesonMay1,1930.(Region7waseliminatedin1966,leavingnineregionstoday.)

PinchotrecognizedtheneedtocontinuecooperationwiththeStatesandtheprivatesectorwhenin1908heorganizedtheDivisionofStateandPrivateFor-estry(S&PF)withintheForestService.ThenewdivisionimmediatelybeganacooperativestudywiththeStatestolookatforesttaxation.WiththepassageoftheWeeksActof1911,theS&PFfocusedonworkingwithStateforestryandfirepreventionassociations—acooperativerelationshipthatcontinuestothisday.


STATE AND PRIVATE FORESTRY

TheForestServiceanditspredecessorshavebeeninvolvedwithcooperativeassistancetoforestlandownerssince1876.Severalforestreserveswerecre-atedtoprotectcitywatersupplies(suchastheBullRunTimberlandReservein1892,Portland,Oregon’swatersupply).SincetheearlyUSDADivisionofForestryandlaterBureauofForestrydidnotdirectlymanagethefor-estreserves,themaindutyofUSDA’sforestryexpertswastoassistprivatelandowners—includingwritingplansformillionsofacresofprivatetimberland.After1905,whenmanagementoftheforestreservestransferredtotheUSDAandthenewForestService,theDepartment’sforesterswerequicklymovedtofieldpositionsintheWest.However,providing“practicalfor-estry”assistancetoprivatelandownersremainedoneoftheagency’smostimportantmissions.

In1908,GiffordPinchotrecognizedtheForestService’sobligationtotheprivatesectorwhenheformallyestablishedtheBranchofStateandPrivateForestry(S&PF)intheWashingtonOffice.Thiswasthesecond“leg”oftheagency—theotherbeingtheNationalForestSystem.CooperationwasongoingwiththeUSDA’sBureauofEntomologyforpestcontrolworkandwiththeBureauofPlantIndustryonforesttreediseases.

OneofthenewS&PFDivision’sfirsteffortswastoaidStatesinthestudyofforesttaxation.Theagencypublishedwholesalelumberpricelistsandsupportedlumberindustryeffortstoretainatariffonlumber—withtheunderstandingthattheseeffortswereinthepublicinterest.ThelumberindustrywantedtheForestServicetokeepFederaltimberoffthemarket.Withthevast“storehouse”ofnationalforesttimber(muchofitinaccessi-

USDAForestService

Perry Davis on Early Speeder Looking for Railroad Fires, Pisgah National Forest (North Carolina), 1923


ble),sellingthetreesbeforetheywereneededinthehousingmarketwouldreduceprivatetimberpricesandgenerallyweakenthelumberindustry.YettheForestServicecontinuedtosellsmalltimbertractstoensurethatthenationalforestswereused,notsetasideasparks.

ChiefHenryGravesnotedthatcooperationfellintothreecategories:Advis-ingStatesinestablishingforestpolicies,assistingtheminsurveyingtheirforestresources(mainlytimber),andfinallyhelpingforestownerswithpracticalforestryproblems.Section2oftheWeeksActof1911codifiedChiefGraves’ideas.ItauthorizedtheForestServicetoworktogetherwithitsStatecounterpartstofightfireonFederal,State,orprivateland.(Pre-viously,ifafirestartedonprivateorStateland,theForestServicecouldnothelpuntilthefireenterednationalforestland.)WiththeWeeksActinplace,itdidnotmatterwherethefirestartedorended,themainpremisewastoputitoutandtakecareofthemoneylater.TheWeeksActalsoau-thorized$10,000inmatchingfundsforStatefireprotectionagencies’localfirepreventionprograms.

TheClarke-McNaryActof1924greatlyexpandedtheWeeksAct.Thenewactusedcooperationandincentivestoimproveconditionsonprivateforestland.Fireandtaxesweretheprimarycomponentsoftheact—whichal-lowedFederal,State,andprivateintereststoworktogether.Section3oftheClarke-McNaryActauthorizedtheForestServicetostudytaxlawsandtheireffectonforestlandmanagement.BecauseofconcernsovertheNation’sfuturewoodsuppliesrelatedtocapitalinvestments,loggingactivities,andevenfire,theForestServiceassumedaresponsibilityinthetaxmatter.However,whenProfessorFredR.Fairchild’s1935reportonthetaxmatterfailedtofindanyrelationshipbetweentaxesandmanagement,thereportquicklyfellintoobscurity.

BasedontheLeaActof1940,whichwasdesignedtounifyandcoordinateeffortstocontrolthewhitepineblisterrustproblem,irrespectiveofproper-tyboundaries,theForestPestControlActof1947recognizedaFederalre-sponsibilityforforestinsectanddiseaseprotectiononallownerships.ThislawalsoofferedtechnicalandfinancialassistancetoStateforestryagenciestocontrolinsectsanddiseaseoutbreaksinforestedareas.

Themostfamouscooperativeeffort,whichcontinuestothisday,involvestheforestfirepreventionprogram(seetheSmokeyBearsidebar).Begunduringthefirstfewmonthsof1942,cooperationbetweentheForestSer-vice,Stateforesters,andtheAdvertisingCouncilcontinuetospreadthefirepreventionprogramacrossthecountry.

TheCooperativeForestManagementActof1950expandedtheForestService’scooperativeeffortsofthepost-wardecade,providedfortechni-calassistance,andextendedmanagementassistancetoallclassesofforestownership.TheForestServicegaveprioritytoassistingsmallforestland-


owners.In1952,theForestServiceinitiatedamajorfieldinventory,theTimberResourcesReview(TRR),toanalyzetheforestconditionsonsmallforestlandownerships.Althoughdraftsofthereportwerecirculatedwithin2years,theforestproductsindustryprotecteditsresultssomuchthatthefinalreportwasnotpublisheduntil1958!TheTRRreportfoundthatforestpracticeswouldneedtobeintensifiedtomeetfuturedemandsandthatsmallownershipswereinthegreatestneedofassistance.AlthoughtheFor-estServicemadeeffortstoinstituteaprogramtoremedythissituation,itprovedtobetoocontroversialandexpensive.

TheSmallWatershedProgram(PublicLaw566)in1954expandedtheForestService’sauthoritytoincludefloodpreventiononfarmlandwater-shedsnotexceeding250,000acres.Theprogramcoveredfloodpreventionstructures,upstreamprotection,andlivestockcontrol.TheForestServiceworkedcloselywiththeUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture’sSoilConservationService(nowNaturalResourcesConservationService)andAgriculturalResearchService,U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,andtheStatestoimplementsuchprojects.

TheprimarystatutoryauthorityformanyofthecurrentS&PFprogramactivitiesistheCooperativeForestryAssistanceActof1978,asamendedbythe1990farmbill.Inthepast,thecooperativeforestryprogramhasbeenbasedontimberproduction,woodutilization,fireprotection,andinsectanddiseasecontrol,buttheemphasisischanging.Cooperativeforestryisnowinvolvedinurbanforestrytomaintaintreeswithinurbanareas,reachouttonewconstituencies,andbuildnewpartnershipsintheinnercit-ies.Anewforeststewardshipprogramseekstohelp,bothtechnicallyandfinancially,nonindustrialprivateforestownerstomanagealltheresourcesontheirforestlandsbasedontheirownobjectives.Theruraldevelopmentinitiativeisdesignedtohelpsmallcommunitiesdiversifyandstrengthentheirlocaleconomies.

RegionalforestersareresponsiblefortheS&PFprogramswiththeexcep-tionoftheNortheasternArea,whichislocatedinNewtownSquare,Penn-sylvania.TheNortheasternAreaisareflectionofthelargenumberofnonin-dustrialprivatewoodlandownerswhoresideintheNortheasternStates.

Forest Service Research

Thefirstforestexperimentstationwasestablishedin1908atFortValleyontheCoconinoNationalForest,Arizona,followedbyotherresearchstationsinColo-rado,Idaho,Washington,California,andUtah.Today,thereare20researchandexperimentalareasintheNationalForestSystem.


Priorto1910,theFor-estServiceundertookmajoreffortstoevalu-atesitesforpossibleon-the-groundforestmanagementcampscalledrangerstations.Rangerstationswereestablishedbecauseoftheneedtohavelocalcontrolonmanyofthenationalforests.Aboutthesametime,manyofthelargerforestsweredividedintosmaller,easier-to-managena-tionalforests.

Regional Office, Southwest Region (Region 3) in Albuquer-que, New Mexico, circa 1916

USDAForestService

USDAForestService

Oakridge Ranger StationTelephone Operator, Cascade Na-tional Forest (Oregon)

Theheightofthenationwideconservationmovementwasbetween1907and1909,justbeforeandafterTheodoreRoosevelt’sNationalConferenceofGover-norsmetattheWhiteHouseinMay1908toconsiderAmerica’snaturalre-sources.ThePresidenttoldconferenceattendeesthat“theconservationofnatural

resourcesisthemostweightyquestionnowbeforethepeopleoftheUnitedStates.”Thecon-ferencerecommendedthatthePresidentappointaNationalConservationCommissionto“inquireintoandadvisehimastotheconditionofournaturalresources.”Thecommissionreturnedwithathree-volumereport,whichRooseveltusedintheefforttoconservetheNation’snaturalresources.Rooseveltleftofficein1909andwassucceededbyWilliamHowardTaft.PinchotranintoproblemswiththenewTaftAdministration’sSecretaryoftheInterior,RichardA.Ballinger,overcoalleasinginAlaska.Aftermonthsofnationaldebateandpersonalattacksfrombothmen,TaftfiredPinchotforinsubordi-nationinJanuaryof1910.Pin-chotwasreplacedas“Forester”byHenryGraves,hislong-timeassociateandpersonalfriend.

The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 3�

The Forest Protection or Custodial Management Era, �9�0-�933

T henext23yearswastheForestService’seraofforestprotection throughcustodialmanagement.Mostimportantwasasystemfor detectingandfightingforestfires.Duringthesummerof1910,whenextremelydryconditionsprevailedintheWest,widespreadfiresflaredintheNorthwestandthenorthernRockyMountains,burningover3millionacresinIdahoandMontanaalone.Seventy-eightforestfirefighterslosttheirlivesnation-widetryingtoprotectthenationalforestsandremotecommunitiesfromthesedevastatingfires.SoontheFederalGovernmentmadefirefightingfundsavailabletocombatsuchfires.Asaresultofthe1910fires,cooperationbetweenthevari-ousStateforestersandtheForestServicebecameadrivingforce.

Duringthisera,theForestServicealsobeganseveralimportantprogramstobettermanagethenationalforests,includinganextensivesystemofbasicandappliedresearch,timbermanagement,recreation,andhighwaystobetterprovideaccesstotheforests.

FOREST FIRES AND FIREFIGHTING

Controlofforestfireshaslongbeenconsideredasoneofthemostimpor-tantaspectsofforestry.VerylargescaleforestfiresareprimarilyaNorthAmericanphenomena,althoughmanyothercountriesfaceseriousforestandbrushfireconditions.EarlyEuropean-trainedforesters,underwhosetutoragePinchotandotherslearnedthebasicsofforestry,hadnotdealtwithlargefirespotentiallycoveringhundredsofthousandsofacresinonefire.Asaresult,forestfiresintheUnitedStatesweremuchmoreseriousthanthosetheyhadeverencountered.

Firehaslongbeenusedtoclearland,changeplantandtreespecies,sterilizeland,maintaincertaintypesofhabitat,andformanyotherreasons.Indiansarewell-knowntohaveusedfireasatechniquetomaintaincertainpiecesoflandortoimprovehabitats.AlthoughearlysettlersoftenusedfireinthesamewayastheIndians,majorfiresonpublicdomainlandwerelargelyignoredandwereoftenviewedasanopportunitytoopenforestlandforgrazing.Iffireswerefoughtatall,theywerefoughtwithshovels,brooms,rakes,firelines,andbackfires.Whennearfarms,plowscouldbeusedtomakefirelinesincropsornearhouses.

EspeciallylargefiresragedinNorthAmericaduringthe1800’sandearly1900’s.Thepublicwasbecomingslowlyawareoffire’spotentialforlife-threateningdanger.ThefirstverylargefiresweretheMiramichiandPiscataquisfiresof1825thatburnedaround3millionacresinMaineandNewBrunswick.OtherlargeanddeadlyfireswereintheLakeStates,includingthePeshtigofireof1871thatcoveredover1millionacresand

3� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century

tookover1,400livesinWisconsin.Atthesametime,fireswereburninginMichigan,cinderingabout2.5millionacres.Tenyearslater,thesedevastat-ingMichiganfireswerefollowedwithanother1millionacresgoingupinsmoke.In1894,alargefirearoundHinckley,Michigan,tookthelivesof418people.In1903and1908,hugefiresburnedacrosspartsofMainetoUpstateNewYork.Inresponse,thefirstStatefireorganizationintheEastwasestablishedinMaine.

Federalinvolvementintryingtocontrolforestfiresbeganinthelate1890’swiththehiringofGeneralLandOfficerangersduringthefireseason.Largelyineffectual,therangerswereatleastawareofmanyremotefiresandcouldnotifytownsandsettlersifafirewasheadingtheirway.Whenthemanagementoftheforestreserves(nowcallednationalforests)weretrans-ferredtothenewForestServicein1905,theagencytookontherespon-sibilityofcreatingprofessionalstandardsforfirefighting,includinghavingmorerangersandhiringlocalpeopletohelpputoutfires.

OfgreatimportancetothiscausewerethedevastatingfiresintheWest.Thefirstonewasthe1902YacoltfireinsouthwesternWashington,whichburnedmorethanamillionacresinWashingtonandOregonandcostthelivesof38people.AresultofthefirewastheformationoftheWesternForestryandConservationAssociationin1909,ledbytheEdwardT.Allen.Inthepreviousyear,AllenhadbeenappointedasthefirstForestServiceRegionalForesterinthePacificNorthwestRegion.Oneyearlater,inthenorthernRockies,some3millionacreswereburnedinthe“BigBlowupof1910,”andanother2millionacresinotherareas.Withinayear,CongresspassedtheWeeksActof1911which,inpart,allowedtheForestServicetocooperatewiththevariousStatesinfireprotectionandfirefighting.TheForestServicealsobeganaprogramoffireresearch,whichcontinuestothisday.

Lookouthouses(manystartingjustasplatformsatoptrees)wereusedtolocatefiresfrommountaintopsduringthefireseason.Thehousesvariedfromlowgroundhousestoverytalltowers,sometimesover100feettall.JustafterWorldWarI,theForestServicecontractedwiththeArmyAirSer-vice(Corps)toprovideairplanesandpilotstospotfiresfromtheair.Thisprogramworkedsuccessfullyformorethan10yearsuntilacomprehensivenetworkoflookouthousesandtelephonesystemswereinplace.Today,acomputernetworktrackseverylightningstrikeandaerialpatrolsmonitorforactivefiresitesafterlightningstorms.Thefewremaininglookoutsstilloperatingarevaluableforlocatinghuman-causedfires.TheClarke-McNaryActof1924allowedtheForestServicetoadministergrants-in-aidtoequaltheamountscontributedtofirefightingbytheStatesandtosetstandardsforfirefightingandequipment.

Duringthe1930’s,theCivilianConservationCorps(CCC)programofferedachangefromjusthavingForestServiceemployeesorhiredpeopletofight


fires.CCCenrolleesweresentbythethousandstohelpfightfiresthrough-outtheWest.TheCCC’ssuccessfullytestedandthenuseda40-man(therewerenowomenfirefightersatthistime)firesuppressioncrew.TheCCCprogramalsobuiltandstaffedthousandsoflookouthousesandtowersacrossthecountry.

Neartheendofthe1930’s,anothernewtacticwasemployed—havingfirefightersjumpfromairplanestoremotelocationstoputoutfiresbeforetheybecametoolargetofight.In1939,smokejumpingwastestedontheOkanoganNationalForestinWashington.ThefirstsmokejumpingonaforestfiretookplaceJuly12,1940,ontheMartinCreekfireontheNezPerceNationalForestofIdaho.ThetwosmokejumperswereRufusRobinsonandEarlCooley.

In1935,theForestServicedevelopedthe“10a.m.”policythatstipulatedthatafirewastobecontainedandcontrolledby10a.m.followingthereportofafire,or,failingthatgoal,controlledby10a.m.thenextday,andsoon.Facedwiththenecessityofcontrollingafireovernight,theForestServicewascompelledtocalloutmassivenumbersoffirefighterstotryandcontroltheseblazesintheinitialattack.Anewdivisionofforestfirere-searchbeganoperationin1948,withthreelaboratoriesopeningsoonthere-after.OnAugust5,1949,13smokejumperslosttheirliveswhenafireinMannGulchonMontana’sHelenaNationalForestsuddenlyflaredinhighwinds,leaptoutofcontrol,andenvelopedthefirefighters.ThistragiceventpromptedtheForestServicetoestablishcentersinMontanaandCaliforniathatwerededicatedtodevelopingandtestingnewfirefightingequipment.

Bythemid-1950’s,theForestServicegraduallyassumedtheprimaryresponsibilityforcoordinatingwildlandandruralfireprotectionintheUnitedStates.Duringthistimeperiod,morethan$200millionworthofWorldWarIIsurplusequipmentwaspassedtoStateandlocalcooperators.By1956,airtankers,oftenmilitarysurplusB-17’sfilledwithaboratemix-ture,andhelicoptersfortransportwereinuse.

In1971,theForestServicemodifiedthe10a.m.policytohandlefiresinwildernessesbyusinga10-acrepolicyasaguideforplanning.Thus,somefireswereallowedtoincreaseinsizeto10acresonlyiftheydidnotdestroyorthreatentodestroyprivatepropertyoriftheyendangeredlifeorpropertyadjacenttothewilderness.Anotherso-called“letburn”policycameintobeinginthe1980’s,itessentiallyallowedsomefires,asinwilderness,toburnonthenationalforestsdependingonconditions.The1988firesinthegreaterYellowstoneecosystemweredevastatingtolargeareasinandaroundthenationalpark.In1994,aforestfireclaimedthelivesof10hotshotcrewfirefighterswhentheytriedtoescapethefastmovingSouthCanyonFireonStormKingMountaininColorado.


Henry S. Graves— Second Chief, 1910-1920

Pinchot’sclosefriend,Henry“Harry”SolonGravesbornonMay3,1871,inMarietta,Ohio,wasalsooneofthesevenoriginalmembersoftheSocietyofAmeri-canForesters.Graves,aneminentprofes-sionalforester,servedasthefirstprofessoranddirectorofthenewlyfoundedYaleForestrySchool.In1910,hewasselectedtotakeoverthereinsofthe5-year-oldForestService.

His10-yearstintasChiefoftheForestServicewascharacterizedbyastabiliza-tionofthenationalforests,thepurchaseofnewnationalforestsintheEast,andthestrengtheningofthefoundationsofforest-rybyputtingthemonamorescientificba-

Result of the 1910 Fires Along St. Joe River on the Coeur d’Alene National Forest (Idaho)

USDAForestService

sis.HisgreatcontributionwasthesuccessfullaunchingofanationalforestpolicyfortheUnitedStates—apermanentandfar-reachingachievement.DuringhistenureasChief,theForestProductsLaboratorywasestablishedatMadison,Wisconsin;theWeeksLawof1911wasenacted—allowingfortheFederalGovernmenttopurchaseforestlands(mostlyintheEast);andtheResearchbranchoftheForestServicewasorganized.


HenryGraveswrote:

WhenthepolicyofdeedingawaythepublictimberlandswasatlastfoundtobeanunsafeonefortheNation,itwaschangedandthebulkoftheremainingpublictimberlandswerewithdrawnfrompublicappropriationandsegregatedasnationalforests.Inthisway,about155millionacres,nearlyallinthewesternmountainswerereserved….Thepublicforestsarebeingpro-tectedfromfire,thetimberisusedasitiscalledforbyeconomicconditions,andthecuttingisconductedbysuchmethodsasleavethelandinfavorableconditionforthenextcropoftimber.

Theverymagnitudeofthenationalforestenterprisehascreatedinthemindsofmanypeopletheimpressionthattheprobleminthiscountryisalreadyonthewaytodefinitesolution.Inpointoffact,onlycertaininitialstepshavebeentaken….ItismyhopethatwemaysecuresufficientpublicsupporttoenableustoacceleratetheacquisitionbytheGovernmentoftheimportantremainingareas[intheEast]beforeitistoolate….Forestsoncriticalwatershedsshouldbeownedbythepublicfortheirpro-tectivevalue.Publicforestsserve,also,ascentersofco-operationwithprivateownersandasdemonstrationareasforthepracticeofforestryaswellasfurnishingtheirdirectbenefitsinproducingwoodmaterials,asrecreationgrounds,etc.

Forest Products Laboratory and Research

ChiefoftheForestServiceHenryGravesnotedthatwiththeforestpracticesofthisera,loggersweretypicallyleavingasmuchas25percentofthetreesonthestumporgroundandmorethanhalfofthetreesthatreachedthemillwereeitherdiscardedaswasteproductsorburnedonthesite.IncooperationwithWisconsinStateUniversity(nowtheUniversityofWisconsin),theForestServiceestablishedtheForestProductsLaboratory(FPL)in1910atMadison,Wisconsin.TheFPLwastobea“laboratoryofpracticalresearch”thatwouldstudyandtestthephysicalpropertiesofwood;developandtestwoodpreservationtechniques;studymethodstoreduceloggingwaste;improvelumberproductionmethodsinsawmillsanddevisenewusesforwoodfiber;distributewoodproductinforma-tiontothepublic;andcooperatewiththewoodproductsindustry.FPLresearchmadeutilizationofforestproductsanimportantelementinthegreateruseandproductionofwoodfrompublicandprivateforests.

TheWeeksActof1911allowedtheGovernmenttopurchaseimportantprivatewatershedlandontheheadwatersofnavigablestreams,whichmayhavebeencutover,burnedover,orfarmedout.Asaresult,thisactindirectlysupportedthecreationofnewnationalforeststhroughlandpurchasesintheEasternUnitedStateswheretherewaslittlepublicdomainlandleft.Italsoprovidedcoopera-tionwith,andFederalmatchingfundsfor,Stateforestfireprotectionagencies.


By1920,morethan2millionacresoflandhadbeenpurchasedundertheWeeksAct—by1980over22millionacresintheEasthadbeenaddedtotheNationalForestSystem.

TheForestServiceResearchBranch,knownearlierastheOfficeofSilvics,wasestablishedin1915toinvestigatebetterwaysofmanagingthenationalforests,aswellastostudythehundredsoftreespeciesandtoexploremethodstoreseedandreplantforests.Thisperiodsawagreatexpansionofthenumberofnationalforesttimbersales;theconstructionofnumerousrangerstations,lookout,trails,andtrailshelters;andthefirstuseoftelephonesonnationalforests.

FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY— MADISON, WISCONSIN

In1907,McGarveyCline,headoftheForestService’swoodusesection,proposedthatallwoodproductscientistsbebroughttogetherunderoneroof.Asaconsequence,theUniversityofWisconsinconstructedaspe-ciallaboratoryforitsuseinMadison,Wisconsin,andtheForestProductsLaboratory(FPL)beganoperationsonOctober1,1909,andwasofficiallyopenedonJune4ofthefollowingyear.

Scientificresearchonwoodandwoodproductsbeganinearnest,withFPLscientistsreceivingalargenumberofpatentsovertheyears.SomeofthefirstworkatFPLinvolveddryingwoodthroughadrykilnprocess.Hundredsofspeciesofwoodweretestedfortheirfiberstrengths.Apulpandpaperresearchunitwasformedtostudythemechanicalandchemicalpulpingprocesses.Researchstartedonwood’schemicalproperties,distil-lationandextractionofchemicalsfromvariouswoods,themanufactureofchemicalsfromtrees,andthedevelopmentofchemicalsusedtostabilizeandmoisture-proofwoodproducts.

Forest Products Laboratory, Madi-son, Wisconsin

USDAForestService


DuringWorldWarI,theFPLwasinstrumentalineffortstoproducelight-weight,butverystrong,airplanes.Theytestedthestrengthsoffuselages,wings,andpropellers,anddevelopedeffectivewaystousewood,cloth,andpaint(dope)tostrengthenthenewairplaneairframes.DuringWorldWarI,FPL’sworkforcerosefromfewerthan100toabout450.PaperwasinshortsupplyduringWorldWarI,soFPLscientistsbeganresearchontreespeciesnotcommonlyusedforpaperproduction.

In1928,theMcSweeney-McNaryActmadespecialprovisionsforcontinua-tionofresearchattheFPLand,by1931,theFPLhadcompletedconstruc-tionofanewlaboratorybuilding.In1932,FPLgainednotorietyastheplacewherethewoodenladderusedintheLindberghchild’skidnapingwasanalyzed.TheadventofWorldWarIIcausedthenumberofFPLemployeestoriseagain,toaround700.Theyconductedresearchanddevelopmentworkonmanywartimeneedsanduses,suchasairplanes,ships,buildings,containers,paper,andplywood.FPLbecamethemodelfornationallabora-toriesaroundtheworld.

Afterthewar,theFPLbegantoshiftemphasisfromold-growth,high-qualitywood,suchaspineandDouglas-fir,tothelesser-usedspeciesandmoreefficientusesofexistingtimbersupplies,includingsecondandeventhird-growthtimber.Theprivatesectorbecameactiveafterthewar,fundingsmallerlaboratoriestoconductresearchonwoodproducts,manufacturingtechniques,andconsumers.Manyofthesesmallprivatelaboratoriescon-ductedtheirresearchonproprietaryproductswiththeresearchresultsnotreleasedtothepublic.FPL’sresearchfindingsareinthepublicdomain.

Today,FPLconductsbasicresearchworkonmanywood-relatedtopics,includingwoodfiberrecyclingandbetterutilizationofwoodproducts,whilecontinuingthetestingofwoodfibersandbetterwaysofmanufactur-ingwoodproductsandtrainingwoodtechnologyresearchersfromallovertheworld.

WEEKS ACT OF 1911


Floods,fires,andForestServiceforestersallcontributedtothepassageoftheWeeksActof1911,whichmarkedtheshiftfrompubliclanddisposaltoexpansionofthepubliclandbasebypurchaseandwastheoriginoftheeasternnationalforests.Theroleplayedbyfloods,wildfires,andforestersgoesbacktothebeginningsoftheconservationmovementandprofessionalforestryintheUnitedStates.Theimportanceofforestsinwatershedprotec-tion,forexample,wasanearlysubjectofconcernamongthosewhoarguedforforestreserves.


Theplaceofforestsinmoderatingstreamflowwasunclearintheearlystagesoftheforestconservationmovement,butgainedenoughcredencethat“securingfavorableconditionsofwaterflows”wasdefinedasaprimaryfunctionofthenewlyformedFederalforestreservesintheForestManage-ment(Organic)Actof1897.ItmayhavebeenthememoryofthedisastrousJohnstown(PA)floodin1889thathelpeddramatizetheconsequencesofwatersheddeforestationtopeopleintheEast.

Foresters,largelybasedintheUSDAForestService,recognizedtheimpor-tanceofforestsinfloodprotection–theU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineersdidnot.TheCorps’ideaoffloodcontrolwasdamsandlevees.ForestServiceChiefGiffordPinchotfeltthattheCorpsofEngineers’positionunderminedoneofthekeyargumentsforcreatingadditionalforestreserves.Mostoftheover150millionacresofforestreservesestablishedby1907wereintheWest.TheissueoffloodcontrolbecameimportanttogainpoliticalsupportforpurchaseoflandsfornationalforestsintheEast.

RainwasimportanttoirrigatorsinthearidWest,andurbanresidentswantedpuredrinkingwater,sothesetwogroupssupportedwatershedpro-tectionthroughcreationofforestreserves.ItwasrecreationistsintheEast,however,whosoughtcreationofadditionalFederalforests–withsupportersoftheproposedWhiteMountainreserveofNewEngland(MaineandNewHampshire,nowtheWhiteMountainNationalForestestablishedin1918)workingwiththeregionaladvocatesofAppalachianreserves(wholatermanagedtogetaseriesofnationalparksfortheareainthe1920’s).EnlistedintheeffortwasCongressmanJohnWeeks(ofMassachusetts),who,in1906,madeamotioninCongresstoauthorizeFederalpurchaseofprivatelandsforthepurposeofforestreserves.ThenotionofspendingpublicmoneyonrecreationsitesdidnotappealtothepowerfulSpeakeroftheHouse,JoeCannon,whodeclared“notonecentforscenery”inthedebateagainsttheproposal.

In1905,theAmericanForestryAssociationendorsedtheproposaltoestab-lisheasternnationalforeststhroughFederalpurchase,andCongress’sdefeatofthebillledthemandotheradvocatesofforestreservestoshifttheirargu-mentfromnaturepreservationtoutilitarianconcernsoverfloodprotection.Inthemeantime,aneedforfirecontrolofferedasecondreasonfortheshiftofownershipofforestlandstotheFederalGovernment.ThelackoffireprotectioneffortsonthepartoftheprivatesectorandevenStatesmadeitanationalprogramforthenewForestService,thereasonbeingthatwhenscientificforestrybeganinNorthAmericaitspractitionersregardedfireprotectiontobeafundamentalmissionoftheforestryprofession.

Withthemassivewesternfiresof1910acceleratingthetrend,U.S.publicopiniongraduallymovedtowardtheforester’sviewoftheneedforwildfirecontrolofforestedlands.The1910firesinIdahoandMontanaburnedover3millionacresandkilledover80firefighters.CombatingthesefirescosttheForestServicemorethan1milliondollars.Spurredbythecostlyfires,


ChiefGravesinitiatedaprogramofscientificresearchonfirecontrol.Pas-sageoftheWeeksActonMarch1,1911,addedtotheForestService’sfirework.Section2oftheWeeksActauthorizedfirefightingmatchingfundsforStateforestprotectionagenciesthatmetGovernment(ForestService)standards.ThiswasthefirsttimethatCongressalloweddirectfundingofnon-Federalprograms,andsinceitwasbusydevelopingcooperativefirecontrolprograms,theactiongreatlyincreasedthetaskoftheagency’sre-centlyformed(1908)StateandPrivateForestryBranch.

PassageoftheWeeksActledtotheFederalpurchaseofforestlandsintheheadwatersofnavigablestreams—expandingtheNationalForestSystemeastoftheGreatPlains—aregionofscantpublicdomain.ThePisgahNa-tionalForest,thefirstnationalforestmadeupalmostentirelyofpurchasedprivateland,wasestablishedonOctober17,1916.ThecoreportionofthenewforestscamefromtheprivatelyownedBiltmoreForest—oncemanagedbyGiffordPinchot.LandpurchasesforthePisgahbeganin1911,soonafterthepassageoftheWeeksAct.By1920,theendoftheGravesadministra-tion,morethan2millionacreshadbeenpurchased;by1980,purchasesanddonationsbasedontheWeeksActaddedover22millionacrestotheNationalForestSystem.

RESEARCH ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS

AdaptedfromTerryWest’s1990ConferencePaper

GiffordPinchotfounditnecessaryinhisfirstyear(1898)asChiefoftheDivisionofForestrytoestablishaSectionofSpecialInvestigations(Re-search).By1902,itwasanagencydivisiondirectedbyRaphaelZonwith55employeesandaccountingforone-thirdofthe$185,000budget.Zonproposedcreationofforestexperimentstationstodecentralizeresearch.Thefirstareaexperimentstationwasestablishedin1908atFortValleyontheArizonaTerritory’sCoconinoNationalForest.ThesestationswereSpartanoperationsdesignedtoservetheneedsofthelocalforest.Oneexception,however,wastheWagonWheelGapWatershedStudyinColorado,aco-operativeprojectwiththeU.S.WeatherBureautostudytheeffectoftimberremovalonwateryields.

In1909,thesecondpioneer,CarlosBates,chosearemotesiteneartheRioGrandeNationalForestinColoradofortheNation’sfirstcontrolledexperi-mentsonforest-streamflowrelations.LittlewasknownofthehydrologyofmountainwatershedsuntilBates’innovativeresearchonhowwatermovesthroughsoiltosustainstreamsduringrainlessperiods.

Research’simportancetoforestmanagementwasformalizedin1915withthecreationofaBranchofResearchintheForester’s(Washington)Office,withfutureChiefEarleClappincharge.ItwasfeltthatResearchneeded


tobebasedoutofacentralofficetoensureprojectplanningonanationalscale.ThismovemadeResearchco-equaltotheadministrativesideoftheagency.ForestServiceResearch’soriginalfunctionwastogatherdendrologi-calandotherdataneededtomanagethenationalforests.Independencefromadministrativedutiesallowedscientiststodedicatemoretimetoresearchprojects,butrequiredtheagencytodevelopastaffofspecialiststotransferResearch’stechnicalinformationintofieldapplications.

RangeresearchbeganintheUSDA’sDepartmentofBotany(1868-1901)andlaterintheDivisionofAgrostology.USDA’sDivisionofForestrybecameinterestedinrangeresearchinthesummerof1897whenFrederickCovillecarriedoutthefirstrangeinvestigationontheimpactofgrazingontheforestreservesoftheOregonCascades.Thisimportantstudy,theCovilleReport(DivisionofForestryBulletinNo.15),waspublishedin1898andresultedinOregon’sforestreservesbeingreopenedforgrazing.

In1907,JamesJardineandArthurSampsonconductedstudiestodeter-minethegrazingcapacityofOregon’sWallowaNationalForest.Thebulkofrangeresearch,however,tookplaceintheIntermountainRegionattheGreatBasinExperimentStationonUtah’sMantiNationalForest.

Bythe1920’s,theForestServicehad12regionalresearchstationswithbranchfield(experimental)stations.CongresspassedtheMcSweeney-Mc-NaryResearchActonMay22,1928,whichlegitimatizedtheexperimentstations,authorizedbroad-scaleforestresearch,andprovidedappropriations.

OneimpetusforforestryresearchintheUnitedStateswasthelimitedap-plicabilityofEuropeanmodelstothemanagementofU.S.forests,especiallyindealingwiththethreatthatfireposed.EuropeanforestssimplydidnotexperiencethefiredangerthatU.S.forestsdid.TheForestServicebeganitsresearchprogramwithChiefGreeleywritingthat“firefightingisamatterofscientificmanagementjustasmuchassilvicultureorrangeimprovement.”CaliforniaDistrictForesterCoertDuBoisdirectedtestsoflightburningandfireplanningand,in1914,publishedhisclassicSystematic Fire Protection in California.

By1921,theForestServicededicatedtheMissoula,Montana,headquar-tersofthePriestRiverForestExperimentStationtofireresearch.ResearchheadEarleClapppersonallyarrangedforHarryGisbornetobeassignedtothestation.FromthenuntilhisdeathduringafireinspectiontripoftheMannGulchfirein1949,Gisborneworkedonfireresearch.Fireresearchduringthe1920’swassubordinatetoadministration—researchfocusedonfirecontrolratherthanfireitself.Underthispragmaticapproach,fireresearcherswereexpectedtoleavetheirfieldplotsandstatisticalcompila-


tionsforthefireline.FireresearchintheSouthernUnitedStatesfocusedonthefireratherthanfirecontrol,since“lightburning”(human-setfires)wasstillanindustrialpractice.Thus,researchonfireandwildlifemanagementandlongleafpinesilviculturewascarriedonintheSouthernRegion.WhentheForestServicecreatedaseparateDivisionofFireResearchin1948,oneobjectivewastohaveanationalfireresearchagendasupervisedbyforester-engineersandforester-economists.

Althoughresearchfundingdeclinedinthe1930’s,thiswasanerawhenfacilitiesexpanded.ProgramssuchastheCivilianConservationCorpsandWorksProgressAdministrationprovidedlaborandmaterialstoconstructresearchfacilities.By1935,therewere48experimentalforestsandranges,andtheirphysicalplantswerebeingfurtherdeveloped.Forestgeneticsresearchreceivedaboostin1935whenJamesG.EddydeededtheEddyTreeBreedingStationtotheGovernment.InspiredbytheworkofLutherBurbank,lumbermanEddyfoundedthestationin1925.ItisnowpartoftheForestService’sPacificSouthwestForestandRangeExperimentStationinCalifornia.

Researchdidnotreallyexpanduntilthepost-WorldWarIIeconomicboomandcoldwargeneratedfundingincreases.Employmentoflargenumbersofprofessionalscientistsallowedprojectsinpureresearch–suchasforestgeneticsandfirespread.Inthelate1950’s,thestructureofForestServiceResearchchangedfromoneofcenterstooneofprojects.Underthenewsystem,aseniorscientistledaprojectandsuperviseditsstaff.

RelativetoForestRecreationResearch,ChiefCliffnotedthattheagencywasonlybeginningtoexplorethisnewfield.Inhiswords,“arapidexpansionoftherelativelynewandunexploredfieldofresearch...willprovideabetterbasisuponwhichtohandletheproblemsofpolicyandmanagementoffor-estrecreation...itislongoverdue.”Atfirst,therecreationresearchprogramoperatedwithintheDivisionofForestEconomics;itwasthenshiftedtotheDivisionofRangeManagementResearch.In1959,HarryW.Campwasap-pointedtobethefirstheadofForestServiceRecreationResearch.Between1963and1983,ForestServicerecreationresearchbecamemoreclearlydefinedandgainedinpopularityandscientificsignificance.

TheForestandRangelandRenewableResourcesResearchActof1978,whichsupplantedMcSweeney-McNaryAct,revisedResearch’scharter.Out-sidegroupsputincreasingpressureonForestServiceResearchtodevelopbaselinestudiestoguidemanagementofnationalforestresources.Researchbecamemorecomplicatedand,attimes,isolatedfromlocalneeds–asitua-tionthatisnowchangingwiththenewemphasisonecosystem-basedmanagementandcollaborativestewardship.


Recreational Developments

IntheForestService’searlydays,itwasagainstlegislationtocreateaNationalParkService(NPS)tomanagethenationalparks(theactpassedCongressin1916).TocountertherecreationcomponentofthenewNPS,theForestServiceinitiatedanextensiveoutdoorrecreationprogram,includingleasingsummerhomesitesandbuildingcampgroundsonmanynationalforests.ThefirstForestServicecampgroundwasdevelopedin1916atEagleCreekontheOregonsideoftheColumbiaRiverGorgeontheMt.HoodNationalForest.Apparently,thefirstcooperativecampgroundwasconstructedin1918atSquirrelCreekontheSanIsabelNationalForestnearPueblo,Colorado,atthetimeFederalfundingwaslackingandcommunitiessawtheneedforbettercampingandpicnickingfacili-tiesonthenationalforests.

USDAForestService

Campground on the Cibola National Forest (New Mexico), 1924

RECREATION ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS

AdaptedfromE.GailThroop’s1989ConferencePaperandL.C.Mer-riam,Jr.’s,articleinEncyclopedia of American Forest and Conservation History(1983),Vol.2:571-576.

AlthoughrecreationwasnotspecificallyincludedintheForestReserveActof1891,itcouldbereasonablyinferredtobeincludedamongthecompat-ibleusesoftheforestreserves.TheOrganicActof1897andimplement-


ingregulationsallowedmanyactivitiesontheforestreserves(renamedasnationalforestsin1907),includingcampingandhunting.Mostimportantwasthepotentialforthesevisitorstostartfires:“Largeareasofthepublicforestsareannuallydestroyedbyfire,originatinginmanyinstancesthroughthecarelessnessofprospectors,campers,hunters,sheepherders,andoth-ers,whileinsomecasesthefiresarestartedwithmaliciousintent.Sogreatistheimportanceofprotectingforestfromfire,thatthisDepartmentwillmakespecialeffortfortheenforcementofthelawagainstallpersonsguiltyofstartingorcausingthespreadofforestfiresinthereservationsinviola-tionoftheaboveprovisions.”BeforethefirstforestrangersoftheGeneralLandOffice(GLO)tooktothewoodsinthesummerof1898,picnickers,hikers,mountainclimbers,campers,hunters,andanglers—individuallyandasfamiliesandothergroups—wereamongtheregularusersofthefor-estreserves.

ThefirstlegislationtorecognizerecreationintheForestReserveswasenactedFebruary28,1899.TheMineralSpringsLeasingActpermittedthebuildingofsanitariumsandhotelsinconnectionwithdevelopingmineralandotherspringsforhealthandrecreation.Theactstatedthatregulationswillbeissued“fortheconvenienceofpeoplevisitingsuchsprings,withref-erencetospacesandlocations,fortheerectionoftentsortemporarydwell-inghousestobeerectedorconstructedfortheuseofthosevisitingsuchspringsforhealthandpleasure.”TherevisedGLOregulationssetforthinthe1902Forest Reserve Manualstipulatedtotherightofthepublictotravelontheforestreservesforpleasureandrecreation.However,recreationwasconsideredtobesecondarytotheneedforforestmanagement,especiallythroughgrazingopportunitiesandlaterthroughtimberharvesting.

Inthe1905Use Booktherewerestatementsnotingthatthenationalforestsservedmanypurposes,someofwhichwererelatedtoearlyrecreation-ists:“Thefollowingarethemoreusualrightsandprivileges...(a)Trailsandroadstobeusedbysettlerslivinginornearforestreserves.(b)Schoolsandchurches.(c)Hotels,stores,mills,stagestations,apiaries,miners’camps,stables,summerresidences,sanitariums,dairies,trappers’cabins,andthelike....”The1907The Use of the National Forestsbook(publicversionoftheUse Book),includedsuchstatementsas:“Playgrounds.–Quiteincidentally,also,theNationalForestsserveagoodpurposeasgreatplaygroundsforthepeople.Theyareusedmoreorlesseveryyearbycampers,hunters,fish-ermen,andthousandsofpleasureseekersfromthenear-bytowns.TheyaregreatrecreationgroundsforaverylargepartofthepeopleoftheWest,andtheirvalueinthisrespectiswellworthconsidering.”

By1913,theannualForestServicereportraisedtheissueoftheneedforsanitaryregulationtoprotectpublichealth.Thereportalsolisted1.5mil-lion“pleasureseekers,”ofwhomalittleover1millionweredayvisitors,inthe1912-1913fiscalyear.Campers,includingthosewhoengagedinhunt-


ing,fishing,berryornutpicking,boating,bathing,andclimbingtotaled231,000andguestsathouses,hotels,andsanatoriumscameto191,000.

TheForestServiceundertookdevelopmentofrecreationfacilitiesinthenationalforestsasearlyas1916.ThefirstofficialcampgroundwastheEagleCreekCampgroundalongtheColumbiaRiverHighwayinOregon’sMt.HoodNationalForest.Itwasa“fullymodern”facilitywithtables,toilets,acheck-instation,andarangerstation.Inthesummerof1919,nearly150,000peopleenjoyedtheEagleCreekfacilities.

Atthesametime,theForestServicewasopposedtothecreationofaNa-tionalParkServicetoadministerthenationalparks.Atonetime,theForestServiceproposedthatitcouldmanageallthenationalparks,but,obviously,thiswasnotapprovedbyCongress.WhentheUnitedStatesDepartmentoftheInteriorNationalParkServicewasestablishedin1916,itwasgivenadualrole–preservenaturalareasinperpetuityanddeveloptheparksasrecreationsites.

Earlyin1917,theForestServicehiredFrankA.Waugh,professorofLand-scapeArchitectureatMassachusettsAgriculturalCollege,Amherst(nowUniversityofMassachusetts)topreparethefirstnationalstudyofrecreationusesonthenationalforests.Recreation Uses in the National Forests,Waugh’s1918reportonthestatusofrecreationnotedthatsome3millionrecreationvisitorsusedthenationalforestseachyear.Hesummarizedthetypesoffa-cilitiesfoundintheforests—publiclyowneddevelopmentsconsistedalmostentirelyofautomobilecampsandpicnicgrounds,whiletheprivatesectorprovidedfraternalcamps,sanatoria,andcommercialsummerresorts.Inadditiontherewere“severalhundred”smallcoloniesofindividuallyownedsummercabins.Withthefirstcruderecreationusefigures,collectedduringthesummerof1916,hefiguredarecreationreturnof$7,500,000annu-allyonnationalforestlands.Waughdidnotaddresswintersports,asitwasjustbeginningonthenationalforests–asearlyas1914,theSierraClubwasconductingcross-countryskioutingsonCalifornia’sTahoeNationalForest.

Althoughthedevelopmentofrecreationonthenationalforestswasaslowprogressduringtheperiodfrom1919to1932,itwasnotanerawith-outcontroversyandchange.Responsivetotheneedforimprovedpublicservice,theagencygenerallysupportedtheideaofprofessionalplanninganddesign.Tothisendithireda“recreationengineer,”landscapearchitectArthurCarhart,in1919,tobeginrecreationalsiteplanning.Theyear1920markedthecompletionofthefirstforestrecreationplanfortheSanIsabelNationalForestinColorado.CarhartproposedthatsummerhomesandotherdevelopmentsnotbeallowedatTrappersLakeontheWhiteRiverNationalForestinColorado.In1921,hesurveyedtheQuetico-SuperiorlakeregioninMinnesota’sSuperiorNationalForestwhereherecommendedonlylimiteddevelopment.IteventuallybecametheBoundaryWatersCanoeAreaWilderness.


In1921,whileattendingthefirstNationalConferenceonStateParks,Car-hartdiscussednationalforestrecreationuses.HewaschallengedbyParkServiceDirectorStephenMatherwhostatedthatrecreationwastheworkoftheNationalParkService,nottheForestService.Differencesofopinionoverrecreationhasbeenasourceofcontroversybetweentheagenciesfordecades.TheNationalConferenceonOutdoorRecreationin1924criticizedthetwoagenciesforoverdevelopmentoftheirrecreationprograms.TheconferencewentsofarastoaccusetheNationalParkServiceofswappingtheconceptofpreservingtheNation’snaturalwondersfortheconceptofthecreatinga“people’splayground.”

ArthurH.CarhartandAldoLeopoldbelievedthatwildernesswasarec-reationalexperienceunmatchedbythedrivetodevelopareasforheavyrecreationuse.TheGilaWilderness–theNation’sfirstwilderness—wasestablishedontheNewMexico’sGilaNationalForestin1924.Carhartlaterwrotethat“thereisnohigherservicethattheforestscansupplytoindivid-ualandcommunitythanthehealingofmindandspiritwhichcomesfromthehoursspentwherethereisgreatsolitude.”

Earlyinthedecade,whilegroundwasgainedonthebudgetingfront,professionalexpertiseinplanninganddesignwaslost.ArthurCarhartresignedbecauseofwhatheperceivedasalackofsupportforrecreationintheagency–hewasnotreplacedbyapersontrainedinthelandscapedesigndisciplines.Atthetime,onlythreeregions—Northern,PacificSouthwest,andPacificNorthwest—hadpersonnelassignedtorecreationduties.Otherregionseitherindicatedtoolittlerecreationactivitytomeritspecializedper-sonneloradeterminationtodeveloptheirownforester-recreationists.

Throughoutthedecadeofthe1920’s,theForestServicepursuedacautiousconservativerecreationsitedevelopmentpolicy.Generally,thatpolicyheldthattherecreationroleofthenationalforestswastoprovidespaceforrecre-ation.Publiclyfinancedrecreationfacilitiesremainedlimitedinnumberandusuallysimpleinnature.Yetby1925,thereweresome1,500campgroundsinthenationalforests.ThispolicyoflimiteddevelopmentofnationalforestrecreationsitesfitboththephilosophicaloutlookoftheforestmanagersandthebudgetarygoalsoftheCoolidgeandHooverAdministrationsandofCongress.

A National Plan For American Forestry(theCopelandReport)waspreparedbytheForestServicein1933.Thesectiononrecreationwaswrittenbycol-laboratorRobertMarshall.InMay1937,BobMarshallfilledthenewposi-tionofChiefoftheDivisionofRecreationandLands.Hehadastrongandlong-lastinginfluenceonrecreationpolicyanddevelopment,especiallythatofwilderness.UsingmainlyCivilianConservationCorpslabor,theForestServicebuiltrecreationstructuresfromcoasttocoast.UnderMarshall’sguidance,atremendousvarietyoffacilitieswerebuilt,manyofthemelaborate,thatwereunprecedentedintheForestService.Facilitiessuchasbathhouses,shelters,amphitheaters,downhillskiareas,andplay-


groundswerepartoflargerecreationcomplexes.RecreationwasestablishedasanationaladministrativepriorityoftheForestService.

FollowingWorldWarII,Americansaggressivelysoughtanimprovedqual-ityoflifethatincludedactiveparticipationinallformsofoutdoorrecre-ation.Thesocioeconomicinfluencesofthepost-warbabyboom,increasedaffluence,increasedleisuretime,andimprovedtransportationsystemsandpopulationmobilityledtounprecedentedgrowthindemandforoutdoorrecreation.Visitorstothenationalforestswereseekinghuntingandfishingopportunities,developedcampgrounds,downhillskiareas,picnicareas,wildernessexperiences,wateraccess,andhikingtrails.Thesupplyofrecre-ationsiteswassoonoverwhelmedbythisdemand.

In1958,CongresscreatedtheOutdoorRecreationResourcesReviewCom-missiontoreviewtheoveralloutdoorrecreationopportunitiesintheUnitedStates.Whenthefinalreportwasprintedin1961,thecommissionmadeanumberofrecommendationsthathaveaffectedforestrecreation.Thecom-missionrecommendedpassageoftheWildernessAct—whichwassignedintolawin1964–andthecreationofaBureauofOutdoorRecreationintheDepartmentoftheInterior.InteriorSecretaryStewartUdallappointedEdwardCrafts,formerForestServiceAssistantChief,astheagency’sfirstdirector.

Atthestartofthe1960’s,therewasanothersurgeinthenationalinterestinthe“greatoutdoors.”Thisusheredintheeraofgrowingnationalrecreationinterestsandthedesireforpreservationoflandsandhistory.ThiswasalsoanerawhenAmericalookedtotheFederalGovernmenttosolvetheNa-tion’sproblemsandprovideforsocialneedsofthecitizens.TheWildernessActof1964createdtheNationalWildernessPreservationSystem.NationalRecreationandScenicAreas,WildandScenicRivers,andNationalScenicTrailslegislationfollowedthroughoutthenexttwodecades.

In1985,PresidentReaganestablishedthePresident’sCommissiononAmerica’sOutdoorstoreviewexistingoutdoorrecreationresourcesandtomakerecommendationsthatwouldensurethefutureavailabilityofoutdoorrecreationfortheAmericanpeople.ThethrustofthiscommissionwasawayfromFederalcentralismandstronglytowardpublic-privatepartnerships.TheForestServiceresponsetosocioeconomicchangesofthisperiodtooktheformofanexcitingandimaginativenationalinitiative,theNationalRec-reationStrategy.Thepreferredtooltomeetthisstrategywasthedevelop-mentofpartnershipsbetweenotherpublicandprivateprovidersofoutdoorrecreation.Thisstrategyisoperationalandsignificantprogresstowardtheobjectiveshasbeenmade.


Railroad Land Grants

WhentheSouthernPacificRailroadCompanyfailedtoliveuptothetermsofits19thcenturylandgranttotheOregonandCalifornia(O&C)Railroad(purchasedbySouthernPacific),theU.S.SupremeCourtruledthattheremainingunsoldgrantlandmustbereturned(revested)totheFederalGovernment.Extensivecongressionalhearingsin1916resultedinthereturnof2.4millionacresoftheheavilyforestedO&Clands,whichtodayaremanagedbytheBureauofLandManagement(BLM)andtheForestService.TheNorthernPacificRailroadlandgrant,acrossthenortherntierofStatesfromMinnesotatoWashington,alsocameunderscrutinybyCongress,butownershipremainedwiththerailroad.Interest-ingly,whenMountSt.Helensexplodedin1980,thetopofthemountainwasownedbytherailroad–partoftheoldlandgrant–andwastradedwithForestServicelandtoestablishtheMountSt.HelensNationalVolcanicMonumentin1982.

ThePisgahNationalForest,thefirstnationalforestthatwasfromalmostentirelypurchasedprivateland,wasestablishedonOctober17,1916.ThecoreportionofthenewforestcamefromtheprivatelyownedBiltmoreForest(oncemanagedbyGiffordPinchot).LandpurchasesforthePisgahbeganin1911,soonafterthepassageoftheWeeksAct.

World War I and Aftermath

TwoU.S.ArmyEngineerRegiments(10thand20thForestry)formedin1917and1918tofightinEuropeduringWorldWarI.ManyForestServiceemployeesjoinedtheseregimentsandafterarrivinginFrancewereassignedtobuildsaw-millstoprovidetimbersforrailroadsandtolinetrenches.Oneoftheirleaders,Lt.ColonelWilliamB.Greeley,laterbecamethethirdChiefoftheForestService.AnotheruniqueorganizationformedduringthewarwastheU.S.ArmySpruceProductionDivision.Some30,000ArmytrooperswereassignedtoWashingtonandOregontobuildloggingrailroadsandcutsprucetreesforairplanesandDouglas-firforships.AlthoughtheSpruceDivisionlastedonly1year(1918-19),itaffectedprivateandpublicloggingoperationsandunionsforthenexttwodecades.RemnantsofthesprucerailroadscanstillbefoundontheSiuslawNationalForestinOregonandtheOlympicNationalParkinWashingtonState,whichwasthenpartoftheOlympicNationalForest.

WhilethemenwereofffightingthewarinEurope,womenwereemployedout-doorsasfirelookoutsonmanynationalforests.Womenhadworkedinclericalpositionsformanyyears,butworkingoutdoorswasunusual.

In1919,soonafterthewar,cooperativeagreementsbetweentheForestServiceandtheArmyAirCorpsledtoexperimentsusingairplanestopatrolforforestfiresinCalifornia;thisusewasquicklyexpandedtothemountainousareasofOregon,Washington,Idaho,andMontana.


Before,andforawhileafterWorldWarI,therewerenoradios—communica-tionsbetweenthelookoutsandtherangerstationwerelimitedtomessagesonfoot,horseback,andcarrierpigeon.Soon,however,anextensive(andexpensive)systemoffieldtelephones,connectedbymilesandmilesoftelephonewires,wasusedtocommunicatebetweenthelookoutsatopthemountainpeaksandtherangerstationsinthevalleysbelow.

U.S. Army’s Spruce Production Division Riving (Split-ting) Tree, Washington, 1918

USDAForestService


Helen Dowe, One of the First Female Lookouts, on the Pike National Forest (Colorado)

USDAForestService

ThesephonesystemsalongmajorforesttrailsneededcontinualmaintenanceandrepairastreesoftenfellontheNo.9wire,breakingtheconnections.Manynewforestfirelookouthousesandtowersusingstandardizedconstructionplanswerebuiltduringthe1920’s.Two-wayradioswereinventedduringWorldWarI,andthereweremanyexperimentsafterthewarusingthenewtwo-wayradiosinfiredetection.Theseradioseventuallymadecommunicationmucheasierandlesscostly.


Ranger Using a Heliograph in California, 1912

USDAForestService

Forest Service Air Patrol Airplane at the Eugene, Oregon, Airfieldw i t h L t . D e -Garme (Pilot) and Me-

USDAForestService


HALLIE M. DAGGETT—WOMAN LOOKOUT

AlthoughwomenhavebeenForestServiceemployeessince1905,formanydecadesveryfewwerehiredforfieldwork.Yetasearlyas1902,duringtheGeneralLandOfficedays,wives(whowerenotemployees)sometimesac-companiedtheirforestrangerhusbandsintothewildforests.OneofthefirstaccountsofwomenemployedasforestfirelookoutcomesfromCaliforniaontheKlamathNationalForest.ThelookoutwasHallieM.DaggettwhoworkedatEddy’sGulchLookoutStationatopKlamathPeakinthesummerof1913(andforthenext14years).A1914articleintheAmerican Forestrymagazinedescribedherwork:

Fewwomenwouldcareforsuchajob,fewerstillwouldseekit,andstilllesswouldbeabletostandthestrainoftheinfiniteloneliness,ortheroaroftheviolentstormswhichsweepthepeak,orthemenaceofthewildbeastswhichroamtheheavilywoodedridges.MissDaggett,however,notonlyeagerlylongedforthestationbutsecuredit[thelookoutjob]aftercon-siderableexertionandnowshedeclaresthatsheenjoyedthelifeandwasintenselyinterestedintheworkshehadtodo....

Someofthe[Forest]Servicemenpredictedthatafterafewdaysoflifeonthepeakshewouldtelephonethatshewasfrightenedbythelonelinessandthedanger,butshewasfullofpluckandhighspirit...[and]shegrewmoreandmoreinlovewiththework.Evenwhenthetelephonewireswerebrokenandwhenforalongtimeshewascutofffromcommunicationwiththeworldbelowshedidnotloseheart.Shenotonlyfilledtheplacewithall

USDAForestService

Mr. Adams Demonstrating the First Wireless Radio Used in the National Forests at the Montana State Fair, Helena, Montana, 1915


theskillwhichatrainedmancouldhaveshownbutshedesirestobereap-pointedwhenthefireseasonopensthisyear[1914]....

[Indescribingherlifeasalookout,Halliesaidthat]“Igrewupwithafiercehatredofthedevastatingfiresandwelcomedthe[ForestService]forcewhicharrivedtocombatthem.Butnotuntilthelookoutstationswereinstalleddidtherecomeanopportunitytojoinwhathaduptillthenbeenaman’sfight;althoughmysisterandIhadfrequentlybeenabletohelponthesmallthings,suchasextinguishingspreadingcampfiresorcarryingsuppliestothefiringline.

“Then,thankstotheliberalmindednessandcourtesyoftheofficialsinchargeofourdistrict,Iwasgiventhepositionoflookout...withafirmdeterminationtomakegood,forIknewthattheappointmentofawomanwasratherinthenatureofanexperiment,andnaturallyfeltthattherewasagreatdealduethemenwhohadbeenwillingtogivemethechance.

“Itwasquiteaswiftchangeinthreedays,fromSanFrancisco,civilizationandsealevel,toasolitarycabinonastillmoresolitarymountain,6,444feetelevationandthreehours’hardclimbfromeverywhere,butinspiteofthefactthatalmosttheveryfirstquestionaskedbyeveryonewas‘Isn’titawfullylonesomeupthere?’Ineverfeltamoment’slongingtoretracethestep,thatis,notafterthefirsthalfhourfollowingmysister’sdeparturewiththepackanimals,whenIhadachancetolookaround....Ididnotneedahorsemyself,therebeing,contrarytothegeneralimpression,nopatrolworkinconnectionwithlookoutduties,andmysisterbringingupmysup-pliesandmailfromhomeeveryweek,adistanceofninemiles.”

William B. Greeley— Third Chief, 1920-1928

WilliamBuckhoutGreeleywasbornisOswego,NewYork,onSeptember6,1879.AfterGree-leywasappointedChiefin1920,hefacedanumberofchallenges,includingtheacquisitionofnewnationalforestseastoftheMississippiRiver;makingcooperationwithprivate,State,andotherFederalagenciesastandardfeatureofForestServicemanagement;fightingtheGovernment’srenewedeffortstoreturntheFor-estServicetotheDepartmentoftheInterior;and“blockingup”thenationalforest(exchang-ingorpurchasinglandsinsideorneartheforestboundariestosimplifymanagement).


Duringhisadministration,theClarke-McNaryActof1924,whichextendedFederalauthoritytopurchaseforestlandsandtoenterintoagreementswiththevariousStatestohelpprotectStateandprivateforestsfromwildfire,becamelaw.Thistime,the“RoaringTwenties,”waswhenprosperitybroughtabouttremendousgrowthinrecreationonthenationalforestsandledtotheneedtodevelopandimproveroadsforautomobileuse,camp-groundsforforestvisitors,andsummerhomesitesforsemipermanentusers.

Duringthisera,theForestServicealsobeganseveralimportantprogramstobettermanagethenationalforests,includinganextensivesystemofbasicandappliedresearch,timbermanagement,recreation,andhighwaystoprovidebetteraccesstoandacrossthenationalforests.

WilliamB.Greeleywrote:

Thenationalforestsarenolongerprimevalsolitudesremotefromtheeconomiclifeofdevelopingregions,orbarelytouchedbytheskirmishlineofsettlement.Toaverylargedegree,thewildernesshasbeenpressedback.Farmshavemultiplied,roadshavebeenbuilt,frontierhamletshavegrownintovillagesandtowns,industrieshavefoundfootholdandexpanded.Althoughtheforestsarestillinanearlystageofeconomicdevelopment,theirresourcesareimportantfactorsinpresentprosperity.

ThereisprobablynolargeareaofforestlandintheworldonwhichtheuseandconservationofmultipleresourceshavebeensothoroughlystudiedorsocompletelydevelopedinpracticeasonthenationalforestsoftheUnitedStates….Nothingbet-terillustratesthedemocracyoftheAmericanforestpolicyorthedecentralizationinadministeringnationalforeststhanthecon-scientiouseffortoftheForestServicetoweightheimportanceofdifferentusesoneachunitandtogiveeveryuseitsmeritedplaceinabewilderingregimenofadministrativedetail.

Timber Sales

Theeconomicboomofthe“RoaringTwenties”vastlyincreasedtheneedforwoodproducts.Manyextensivenationalforesttimbersaleswereauthorized,includinga1921saleof335millioncubicfeetofpulpwoodonAlaska’sTongassNationalForest.Withinafewyears,scoresofhugetimbersaleswerebeingmade,includ-inga1922saleontheCalifornia’sLassenNationalForestthattopped1billionboardfeet.Previously,mosttimbersaleshadbeenforrathersmallvolumes—manyofthemrelatedtotimberbeamsforminingandtiesforrailroads.Aconsid-erablenumberofthenewsaleswerelargerailroadloggingoperationsthatweregearedforlengthyharvestingperiodsofseveraldecadesorlonger.ThenationalforestsbegantoplayanincreasingroleinprovidingtimberfortheUnitedStates.


TIMBER HARVESTING FROM THE NATIONAL FORESTS

AlthoughtheForestReserveActof1891establishedPresidentialauthoritytocreateforestreserves,therewasnoprovisionfortheirmanagement.Oneoftheunderlyingpremisesoftheactwasthattheprivatetimberlandswerebeingcutatratesthatcouldnotbesustained,especiallysincereforestationwasmostlyadream.TheOrganicAdministrationActof1897waswritten,inpart,to“furnishacontinuoussupplyoftimberfortheuseandnecessitiesofcitizensoftheUnitedStates....”However,thecongressionaldebateandthe1897Act’simplementingregulationsmadeitclearthattimbercuttingwasalwaysconsideredtobepermitted, not a requiredpartofforestman-agement.TheOrganicActalsoallowedtheGeneralLandOffice(GLO)tomanagetheforestreserves.ThefirsttimbersalebytheGLO(CaseNo.1)wastotheHomestakeMiningCompanyfortimberofftheBlackHillsFor-estReservein1898.Fifteenmillionboardfeetwerepurchasedatadollarperthousandboardfeet.Thecontractrequiredthatnotreessmallerthaneightinchesindiameterberemovedandthataftertheharvestthebrushleftbehindhadtobe“piled.”Thusbegantheefforttoremovebillionsofboardfeetoftimberfromthenationalforests.

WhenthemanagementoftheforestreserveswasmovedfromtheDepart-mentoftheInteriortotheDepartmentofAgriculturein1905,ChiefGiffordPinchotwasconcernedthatthereserves(renamednationalforestsin1907)shouldpayforthemselves,thatis,notbeadrainontheU.S.Treasury.Themostdirectwayofshowingaprofitwasbychargingforgrazingandsell-ingtimber.By1907,timbersoldfromthenationalforestsamountedtojust950millionboardfeet,whichwasonly2percentoftheNation’s44billionboardfeetcutthatyear.Pinchotfinallygaveupbystating“thenationalforestsexistnotforthesakeofrevenuetotheGovernment,butforthesakeofthewelfareofthepublic.”

Fromthelate1910’sandthroughthe1930’s,therewasanemphasisbytheForestServiceandoutsidegroupsto“sell”theideaofacoming“timberfamine.”BasedonovercuttingintheGreatLakeStatesandelsewherecamethewidelyespousednotionthattheNationwasrunningoutoftrees,whichwouldleadtorisingcostofhousing,miningshutdownsbecauseoflackofminingtimbers,railroadswithoutwoodenties,andwaterdiminishedforcrops.A1920ForestService(“Capper”)reporttoCongressalsowarnedofforestdepletionasamajornationalproblem.Ironically,forestnetannualwoodgrowthactuallyreboundednationallyin1920,withtotalforestedareaaboutconstantfromthatdate,afteritsseveredeclineinthe19thcen-turyandfirsttwodecadesofthe20th.Only3yearslatertheSenatepassedaresolution(SR398onMarch7,1923)toprovideforaninvestigation“re-latingtoproblemsofreforestation,withaviewtoestablishingacomprehen-sivenationalpolicyforlandschieflysuitedtotimberproduction,inordertoinsureaperpetualsupplyoftimberfortheuseandnecessitiesofcitizenoftheUnitedStates.”


Throughthe1920’stherewerefewtimbersales,thosethatweremadewereusuallyquitelarge,sellingentiredrainagesatonetime.Otherthansmalloperations,thetimbersalesweredesignedforrailroadloggingoperationsthatwouldharvestthedrainagesoverdecades.Thetimbersalesprogramcollapsedinthe1930’swiththeadventoftheGreatDepression.

Apamphletentitled“DeforestedAmerica”(1928)byMajorGeorgeP.Ahernwarnedoftherisksofdependingonprivateforestsandtheforestindustryforfuturesuppliesoftimber.Instead,Ahernargued,governmentcontrolwasrequiredtoensurethatsustained-yieldforestrywouldbepracticedoncommercialforestlands.TheargumentforFederalregulationofprivateforestrywascodifiedinArticleXoftheLumberCodeeffectiveonJune1,1934.AlthoughthecodewasruledunconstitutionalbytheSupremeCourtlessthanayearlater,thetimberindustrywasgenerallysupportiveofeffortsatself-regulationtoendwidespreadforestdevastationandtodevelopcoop-erationbetweenindustrymembersandaclosercooperationwiththeForestService.

DuetothedefenseneedsduringWorldWarII,timbersalesincreasedintheearly1940’s.TheForestServicebegantothinkabouttheneedsafterthewar,whichsawpassageoftheSustainedYieldManagementActof1944.ThisactallowedtheagencytosignagreementswiththetimberindustryandcommunitiestoestablisheithercooperativesustainedyieldunitsorFederalunits.Onlyonecooperativeunitwaseverestablished(SheltonontheWashington’sOlympicNationalForest).FiveFederalunitswereestab-lishedinWashington,Oregon,California,Arizona,andNewMexico.

Withthereturnoftheveteransafterthewar,ababyboomtookplace(60millionbirthsfrom1946to1964)duringaperiodofeconomicgrowth.Thiswasfueledbylowinterestratesandmassivehousingstarts.OtherFederalagenciesansweredthiscallforgoodsaswell.Therapiddepletionofoldgrowthtimberonprivatelandsinthe1950’sfurtherreinforcedtheneedforincreasedharvestsonFederallands.Duringthe1950’s,timberharvestsonnationalforestsalmosttripledgoingfromabout3billionboardfeetin1950toalmost9billionattheendofthedecade.TheimpactwasfeltmostinPacificNorthwestRegion,themajorproducerofsoftwoodtimberintheNationalForestSystem.

TheMultipleUseActof1960setnewprioritiesfortheagency,essentiallygivingequalfootingtothefivemajorresourcesonthenationalforests:timber,wildlife,range,water,andoutdoorrecreation.Bythelate1960’s,theForestServicefeltincreasingoppositionbecauseofmajorcontroversiesontheBitterrootNationalForestinMontana—involvingclearcuttingandter-racing—andMonongahelaNationalForestinWestVirginia—alsoinvolvingclearcutting.Alawsuit(IzaakWaltonv.Butz)wasfiledontheMonongahelacontroversybytheIzaakWaltonLeague.Acourtrulingin1973onthecasewasagainsttheForestServicepracticeoftimberharvestingundertherulesoftheOrganicActof1897.Congressionalactionwasnecessaryto“fix”the


law.CongresspassedsweepinglegislationcalledtheNationalForestMan-agementActof1976thatpusheddeepintotheagency’straditionalautono-mywithmanynewrequirementsandsubstantiverestrictions,almostallofwhichrevolvedaroundtimberharvesting.

Bytheearly1980’s,thefindingsofdecadesofimportantscientificforestre-searchprovidedmuchneededcluestothelong-termhealthandproductiv-ityoftheconiferousforestsoftheNorthwest.BecauseofextensiveresearchcarriedoutontheH.J.AndrewsExperimentalForest(partoftheWillametteNationalForest),JerryFranklinandChrisMaserwereabletomakesomepreliminaryconclusionsthatindicatedtherewasmoretotheforestthanthetrees.TheybrieflyledtheForestServiceinto“newforestry”and“newper-spectives”inthesearchforalternativewaystomanagetheFederalforests.

Inthesummerof1992,theForestServiceembracedanewconceptcalledecosystemmanagement.Ecosystemmanagementwasnotareinterpreta-tionofcurrentfieldpracticestofitanewnationalagenda,asmultipleusegenerallywas.Rather,itisanewgoalforthenationalforeststhatwasmorephilosophicalandaddressedthelargersocietalquestionsandvaluessur-roundingthemanagementofthenationalforests.

Recreation and Wilderness

Intheearly1920’s,therewasanincreasingneedforimprovedrecreationalfacili-tiesonthenationalforests.Agoodpartofthisneedwascausedbytheincreas-inguseoftheforestroadsandtrailsbyrecreationists’automobiles.Asmorecarsbecamecheaper,reliable,andavailable,morepeoplewerewillingtospendsomeoftheirfreetimeinthemountains,atlakes,andalongstreams—aslongastheseareaswereeasilyaccessible.Existingroadsandhighwayshadtobeimproved.Inthissameera,theForestServicebegantousetrucksandautomobiles—asignifi-cantchangefromthedaysofthehorse,packhorse,andmule.

USDAForestService

Campers at Peralta Canyon near the Superstition Mountains, Tonto National Forest (Ari-zona), 1938


Numerousspecial-userecreationresorts,whichprovidedfordevelopedrecre-ationfacilitiesinpopularareas,beganoperationonthenationalforests.Long-termsummerhomeleaseswereallowedtogivepeoplegreateruseofthenationalforests.Hundredsofnewcampgroundswereopenedasmanythousandsofpeoplenowownedorhadaccesstoautomobiles.

Summer Home Along Big Lake on San Ber-nardino Na-tional Forest (California), 1946

USDAForestService

OneoftheForestService’sfirstwildernessadvocateswasArthurH.Carhart,alandscapearchitect.Inthelate1910’sandearly1920’s,hisinnovativeideas,whichinvolvedleavingsomeforestareasintact(nodevelopment)forrecreationaluse,receivedlimitedsupport.HeproposedthatanareaaroundTrapper’sLakeonColorado’sWhiteRiverNationalForestremainroadlessandthatsummerhomeapplicationsforthatareabedenied.HedevelopedafunctionalplanfortheTrapper’sLakeareatopreservethepristineconditionsaroundthelakeandconvincedhissuperiorstohaltplanstodevelopthearea.Later,herecommendedthatthelakeregionoftheSuperiorNationalForestinnorthernMinnesotabeleftinprimitiveconditionandthattravelberestrictedtocanoe.Thisplanwasapprovedin1926andtheBoundaryWatersCanoeAreawasdedicatedin1964.Carhart,however,frustratedbywhathefeltwasalackofsupportfromtheForestService,resignedinDecember1922.


Arthur Carhart in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness, Su-perior National Forest (Minnesota)

USDAForestService

USDAForestService

Forest Service Ranger Boat, Tongass Na-tional Forest (Alaska)


AldoLeopold,authoroftheSand County Almanac,however,tookupwhereCarhartleftoff.In1922,LeopoldmadeaninspectiontripintotheheadwatersoftheGilaRiveronNewMexico’sGilaNationalForest.Hewroteawildernessplanforthearea,butfacedoppositionfromhisowncolleagueswhothoughtthatdevelopmentshouldtakeprecedenceoverpreservation.HisplanwasapprovedinJune1924andthe500,000-acreareabecamethefirstForestServicewilder-ness—theGilaWilderness.LeopoldtransferredtotheForestProductsLabora-tory,thesameyear,andthenresignedfromtheForestServicein1928.FiveyearslaterhebeganteachingattheUniversityofWisconsin,wherehehadaprofoundinfluenceonstudentsandthepublic.

In1929,theForestServicepublishedtheL-20Regulationsconcerningprimitiveareasthatwerebasicallyundevelopedareas,manyofwhichwouldlaterbecomewildernesses.RegionalOfficeswererequiredtonominatepossible“primitiveareas”thatwouldbemaintainedinaprimitivestatuswithoutdevelopmentactivities—especiallyroads.Within4years,63areas,comprising8.7millionacreswereapproved.By1939,thetotalacreageinprimitiveclassificationhadincreasedto14millionacres.

Manynewforestfirelookouts(housesandtowers)werebuiltintheearly1920’s,whiletwo-wayradioswerebecomingmorepracticalandusedextensivelytocommunicateduringforestfires.TheClarke-McNaryActof1924,anextensionoftheWeeksAct,greatlyexpandedFederal-StatecooperationinfirecontrolonStateandprivatelands.ManyStatesformedfireprotectionassociations.

Forestryresearchcameinto“fullswing”withtheestablishmentoftwonewex-perimentstationsin1922.Today,therearesevenexperimentalstationsscatteredacrossthecountry,with72researchworkunitlocations.

Thenaturalresourcecontroversyoftheearly1920’swasoverahugeincreaseinthenumberofmuledeerontheGrandCanyonFederalGamePreserve(es-tablishedin1906)onArizona’sKaibabNationalForest.In1906,thedeerherdnumberedonlyabout3,000,butafteralmost20yearswithoutbeinghuntedand

USDAForestService

Gila Wilder-ness Sign, Gila National Forest (New Mexico), 1960

withpredatorcontrol,theherdexplodedtomorethan100,000ani-mals.TheForestServicesoughttoreducethenumberofdeerontherefugetopreventmanyfromstarving.In1924,thecasewenttotheU.S.SupremeCourt–thatrulingallowedtheForestServicetohuntexcessdeertoprotectwildlifehabitat.


ARTHUR H. CARHART AND THE BOUNDARY WATERS CANOE WILDERNESS


ArthurH.Carhartwasanationalleaderoftheearly20thcenturyconserva-tionmovement,especiallyinadvocatingwildernessareas.HewasborninMapleton,Iowa,in1892,andreceivedhisbachelor’sdegreeinlandscapearchitectureandcityplanningfromIowaStateCollegein1916.HeservedintheU.S.ArmyMedicalCorpsduringWorldWarI,thenjoinedtheForestServiceasitsfirstlandscapearchitectin1919.

ArthurCarhartviewedwildernessasarecreationalexperienceandproposedthatsummerhomesandotherdevelopmentsnotbeallowedatTrappersLakeontheWhiteRiverNationalForestinColorado.AftersurveyingtheSuperiorNationalForestintheQuetico-Superiorlakeregionin1921,herecommendedonlylimiteddevelopmentandbecameastrongadvocateforwildernessrecreationforthatroadlessarea.Carhartlaterwrotethat“thereisnohigherservicethattheforestscansupplytoindividualandcom-munitythanthehealingofmindandspiritwhichcomesfromthehoursspentwherethereisgreatsolitude.Itissignificantthatpeoplewhohaveexperiencedthefullnessofwildernessliving,specificallymenoftheforests[ForestService],haveinitiatedandlaboredforkeepingsomepartsofthemaswildlandsanctuaries.”

USDAForestService

Sleeping Beauty Lookout, Columbia National Forest (Washing-ton), 1937


CarhartresignedfromtheForestServicein1922topracticelandscapearchitectureandcityplanningintheprivatesector.HisdreamtoprotectwildernessrecreationareasfromdevelopmenttooktheForestService4moreyearstoaccomplish.WithAldoLeopold’ssuccessfulefforttohaveanadministrativewildernessestablishedin1924ontheGilaNationalForest,timewasripeforadditionalwildernessdesignationsonthenationalforests.

SecretaryofAgricultureWilliamH.JardinesignedaplantoprotecttheBoundaryWatersareain1926,anditwasdedicatedastheBoundaryWatersCanoeAreain1964withitfinallybecomingawildernessin1978.ChiefWilliamGreeleywaswillingtoendorsetheconceptofwildernessareasand,in1926,orderedaninventoryofallundevelopednationalforestareaslargerthan230,400acres(10townships).Threeyearslater,wilder-nesspolicyassumednationalscopewiththepromulgationoftheL-20regu-lations.Commercialuseoftheareas(grazing,evenlogging)couldcontinue,butcampsites,meadowsforpackstockforage,andspecialscenic“spots”wouldbeprotected.Itwouldtakemanyyearsuntilanationalwildernesspolicy,setbyCongress,wouldbeenactedastheWildernessActof1964.

In1938,CarhartwasappointeddirectoroftheColoradoprogramforFederalAidinWildlifeRestoration.Hewrotenumerousarticles,manyfortheAmerican Forests,thepublicationoftheAmericanForestryAssociation.Healsowroteanumberofbooksonconservationmattersincluding:The Outdoorsman’s Cookbook(1944),Fresh Water Fishing(1950),Water—or Your Life (1951),Timber in Your Life(1955),Trees and Game—Twin Crops(1958),andThe National Forests(1959).

ALDO LEOPOLD AND “THE LAND ETHIC”

RandAldoLeopoldwasbornonJanuary11,1887,inBurlington,Iowa.Aldo–heneverusedhisfirstname–wastheoldestoffourchildren.Helovedtohunt,fish,andexplorethebluffs,forests,marshes,lakes,andfieldsalongthenearbyMississippiRiver.Hisfather,CarlLeopold,taughtAldodiffer-entwaystoseenaturefirsthand.Aldo’sloveoftheout-of-doorsdidnotsitwellwithhisgradesduringthesecondpartofhishighschoolyearsthathespentattheLawrencevillePreparatorySchoolnearPrinceton,NewJersey.Writingtohismother,Clara,in1904,Aldomentionedthat“IhaveflunkedGeometry....”However,hedidfinishprepschoolandwentontoattendSheffieldScientificSchoolatYaleinNewHaven,Connecticut,thefollowingyear.In1906,LeopoldbeganhisforestrycourseworkattheYaleSchoolofForestry,whichhadbeenfoundedbyagrantfromJamesPinchot.LeopoldreceivedhisB.S.degreein1908fromtheSheffieldSchoolandthengradu-atedin1909withamastersofforestry.


SoonaftergraduationhejoinedtheForestServiceandwasassignedasaforestassistanttothenewSouthwesternDistrict(nowregion).Amonthlater,hewasinchargeofatimberreconnaissancecrewontheApacheNa-tionalForestintheArizonaTerritorywhenhesaw“afiercegreenfire”intheeyesofadyingoldwolf.Heneverforgotthathauntinglookanditaffectedhisthoughtsfortherestofhislife.By1911,Leopoldhadbeenpromotedtodeputyforestsupervisorand,ayearlater,hewaspromotedtoSupervisoroftheCarsonNationalForestintheNewMexicoTerritory.In1912,Aldomar-riedEstellaBergerefromSantaFe,NewMexico(theywouldhavefivechil-drentogether–Starker,Luna,Nina,Carl,andEstella).In1913,healmostdiedofanattackofacutenephritis.Itwasduringhisalmost17-monthrecoverythathewroteaboutsettingasideremoteareasforspecialprotec-tionbasedonwildernessaspartofthenationalheritageandtheimportanceofstudyingnatureinapristinesetting.

In1914,LeopoldwasassignedtotheOfficeofGrazingintheForestServiceSouthwesternDistrictOffice(D-3)inAlbuquerque,NewMexico.Whileworkingonrecreation,fishandgame,andpublicityforthedistrict(ArizonaandNewMexico)lessthanayearlater,hewroteareportrecommendingthatgamerefugesbeestablishedinthedistrictand,then,aGameandFishHandbook–thefirstsuchdirectionintheForestService.Leopold’sgrow-ingconcernaboutstudyingnatureinnatural,undisturbedsettingsarosethroughhisexposuretothenewscienceofecology.(Ecologyasanareaofacademicstudywasformedin1915whentheEcologicalSocietyofAmericawasfounded.)Hebeganhislife’sworkonwildlifemanagementissues,includinggamerefuges,lawenforcement,andpredatorcontrol,aswellasfoundinganumberofbiggameprotectiveassociationsinNewMexicoandArizona.Becauseoftheseinterests,hewontheW.T.Hornaday’sPermanentWildlifeProtectionFund’sGoldMedalin1917.

In1918,LeopoldtookaleaveofabsencefromtheForestServiceandservedastheSecretaryoftheAlbuquerqueChamberofCommerce.HereturnedtotheForestServicethenextyearasAssistantDistrictForesterforOperationsintheSouthwesternRegion.Whileinthisrole,Leopolddevelopednewandefficientproceduresforhandlingpersonnelmatters,fire-controlmethods,andforestinspectionproceduresoversome20millionacresofnationalfor-estland.Hemadeanumberofimportantcontributionstothesoilerosionproblemsinsouthwesternwatersheds.

ConcernedwiththerapidpaceofroadexpansionafterWorldWarI,Leop-oldrecommendedthatroadsandusepermitsbeexcludedontheGilaRiverheadwatersontheGilaNationalForestin1922.Intheearly1920’s,hewasresponsibleforlayingthegroundworkfortheGilaWilderness.Establishedin1924asa500,000-acrewildernessarea,theGilaWildernesswasthefirstadministrativewildernessintheNationalForestSystem.Althoughhisplanwasapproved,itwasonlyalocalpolicy,notnational.LeopoldlefttheSouthwestin1924toserveastheassistant,thenAssociateDirectoroftheForestProductsLaboratoryinMadison,Wisconsin.


LeopoldwasunhappyattheLaboratoryandresignedfromtheForestSer-vicein1928totaketheleadinestablishinganewprofession–gameman-agement–whichhemodeledontheprofessionofforestry.HisgamesurveyofnineMidwesternStateswasfundedbytheSportingArmsandAmmuni-tionManufacturers’Institute.Thesesurveysweresummarizedinhis1931Report on a Game Survey of the North Central States.Leopold’sbookGame Management,publishedin1933,wasbasedinpartonhisgamesurveyworkandhelpeddefineanewfieldofmanagingandrestoringwildlifepopula-tions.Soonafterthepublicationofhisbook,Leopoldacceptedanappoint-menttoanewchairintheDepartmentofAgriculturalEconomicsattheUniversityofWisconsin.AlthoughLeopoldspentthenextseveraldecadeswithwildlifemanagementissues,hisinterestsexpandedtothefieldofecol-ogy,whereheismostreveredtoday.

InJanuary1935,AldoLeopold,BobMarshall,BentonMackaye,HarveyBroome,BarnardFrank,HaroldAnderson,ErnestOberholtzer,andSterlingYardfoundedtheWildernessSociety.LeopoldspentthefallofthatyearinGermanyonaCarlSchurzfellowshipstudyingforestryandwildlifeman-agement.Duringthatsameyearhepurchasedasmall,worn-outfarmalongtheWisconsinRiver—northofBaraboo,Wisconsin,inanareaknownasthe“sandcounties.”Thiswaswherethefamily(wifeEstellaandtheirfivechildren)rebuilttheonlystandingstructureontheproperty–thechickencoop–intoasmallcabin.Thiscabinbecamefamousas“TheShack.”Tryingtorestorethehealthoftheland,heplantedthousandsoftreesontheprop-erty,slowlychangingabandonedfieldstoagrowingforestandrestoringalowareaintoawetlandwherewaterfowlcameflockingintofeedandrest.DaughterNinawrote“ashetransformedtheland,ittransformedhim.Byhisownactionsandtransformation,AldoLeopoldinstilledinhischildren[andstudents]aloveandrespectforthelandcommunityanditsecologicalfunctioning.”Heusedthefarmtoobserveandwriteaboutnature.Graduatestudentswerebroughtto“TheShack”manytimestoobserveanddiscussecologicalmatters.In1936,Leopoldhelpedfoundasocietyofwildlifespe-cialists(itbecametheWildlifeSocietyin1937).

Hisphilosophybegantoshifttoamoreecologicalapproachinthelate1930’s.SusanL.Flader,inabiographyofLeopold,characterizedthisshift:“Originallyimbuedlikeotherearlyconservationistswiththebeliefthatmancouldrationallycontrolhisenvironmenttoproducedesiredcommoditiesforhisownbenefit,Leopoldslowlydevelopedaphilosophyofnaturallyself-regulatingsystemsandanecologicalconcernwiththelandandalandethic.”Itwasanewwayofthinkingandactingtowardtheland.Leopoldwroteaboutnatureandpeopleandthatlivingwiththelandrequiredaneworcompleteunderstandingoftheinterrelationshipamongallcreatures.AuthorAmyMcCoynotedthathe“addedunprecedentedinsightintotheworldofecologyandnaturalism.Hemovedfrombelievinginpartialpar-ticipationinnature,totheviewthattotalintegrationisabsolutelynecessarytothehealthyexistenceofthenaturalworld,andofhumans.”Thiswould


becomethebasis,stillwithustoday,ofaprofoundreverencefornatureandtherolethatpeopleplayintheenvironment–alandethicforpeople.

In1939,theUniversityofWisconsincreatedanewdepartment,theDepart-mentofWildlifeManagement,withLeopoldasitsfirstchair.Heheldthispositionuntilhisdeath.Thenewscienceandprofessionofwildlifemanage-mentwovetogethertherelatedfieldsofforestry,agriculture,ecology,biol-ogy,zoology,andeducation.Hebelievedthatpeople,whooftendestroyedlandscapes,couldusethesametoolstohelprebuildtheland.JustbeforeWorldWarII,Leopoldbeganworkingonamanuscriptofecologicalessays.Ittookseveralattemptstowriteandrewritethevolume,entitledGreat Pos-sessions,whichwasfinallyacceptedforpublicationbytheOxfordUniver-sityPressonApril14,1948.

Whileat“TheShack”vacationhome,smokewasspottedacrosstheswamponaneighbor’sfarm.Leopoldgatheredhisfamily,handedoutbucketsandbrooms,andwentwiththemtoputoutthefire.Whilefightingthefire,AldoLeopolddiedofaheartattackattheageof61onApril21,1948.

HisecologicalessaysbookwasretitledandpublishedasA Sand County Almanacin1949.Overhislifetime,Leopoldwasinvolvedwithmorethan100organizations,manyofwhichheservedasanofficer,president,orchair.AlthoughLeopold,agiftedwriter,wrotemorethan350articles,itwasthebooksthathewrote—twoofwhichwerepublishedposthumously(editedbyLunaB.Leopold)—thathaveinfluencetoday:A Sand County Almanac(1949)and Round River, from the Journal of Aldo Leopold(1953).A Sand County Almanachassoldmillionsofcopiesandisregardedasaclassicwithwell-wornpaperbackcopiesinbackpacksandbookshelvesacrossthecountry.Leopoldhasgainedthestatusasaprophetoftheenvironmen-talmovementandhislegacycontinuestothepresent,withscoresofnewbooksandarticlesappearingeveryyearabouthimandhiswork.

Robert Y. Stuart— Fourth Chief, 1928-1933

RobertYoungStuartwasbornintheSouthernMiddletonTownship,CumberlandCounty,Penn-sylvania,onFebruary13,1883.HewasappointedChiefin1928aftertheresignationofChiefGree-ley.Duringhistenure,theMcSweeney-McNaryActof1928promotedforestresearch,whiletheKnutson-VandenbergActof1930wasdesignedtoexpandtreeplantingonthenationalforests.

StuartwasinstrumentalinpreparingtheForest


Servicetodealwiththecrisescausedbythestockmarketcrashof1929.HeledtheForestServiceincreatingjobopportunitiesfortheunemployedonnationalforests,especiallythoseworkingonForestServiceroadsystems.WhenPresidentFranklinDelanoRooseveltcreatedtheCivilianConser-vationCorpsinthespringof1933torelievethesevereeconomicstressamongyoungunemployedmen,theForestServicewasreadywithalonglistofprojects.

RobertY.Stuartwrote:

Theimportanceofrecreationaluseasasocialforceandinflu-encemustberecognizedanditsrequirementsmustbemet.ItspotentialitiesasaservicetotheAmericanpeople,asthebasisforindustryandcommerce,asthefoundationofthefutureeconom-iclifeofmanycommunities,aredefiniteandbeyondquestion.Itsrankinnationalforestactivitieswill,inlargedegree,beama-joroneand,inalimiteddegree,asuperiorone.Itwillinmanysituationsconstituteauseofnaturalresourcescoordinateandoccasionallybeparamounttotheirindustrialconversiontocom-mercialcommodities,andasarecognizedformofuseofnaturalresources,itdeservesandshouldreceivethesamerelativedegreeoftechnicalattentionandadministrativeplanningthatisnowgiventootherformsofutilization.


The Great Depression Era, �933-�9��

T heGreatDepressionisgenerallythoughttohavestartedinthefall of1929withtheNewYorkstockmarketcrash.Itdidnottakelongfor theentirecountrytobehardhitbythecrash.Becauseoflowwoodpricesandlackofdemand,timbersalesdeclined,hundredsoftimbercompanieswentbankrupt,andtensofthousandsofemployeeslosttheirjobs.FederalGovern-mentworkerstookpaycuts,butremainedworking.

Civilian Conservation Corps

TheCivilianConservationCorps(CCC),brainchildofPresidentFranklinD.Roosevelt’s“NewDeal,”beganinApril1933torevivethelaggingeconomyandmarkedarenewedinterestintheconservationofnaturalresources.TheCCC,foundedtoprovideoutdoorworkformillionsofyoungunemployedmen,laterwasexpandedtoincludeWorldWarIveteransandAmericanIndiantribalmem-bers.ThefirstCCCcamp,appropriatelynamedCampRoosevelt,beganopera-tioninthelatespringof1933onVirginia’sGeorgeWashingtonNationalForest.ThousandsofothercampswereestablishedinnationalandStateparksandrefuges,nationalmonuments,soilconservationdistricts,andotherareas.

USDAForestService

CCC Camp Roosevelt, George Washington National For-est (Virginia), 1933

Fortunately,theForestServicewaspreparedfortheseconservationworkers.Themassive1,677-page,A National Plan for American Forestry(alsocalledtheCopelandReport),publishedafewmonthspreviously,hadsuggestedacompre-hensiveplanformoreintensivemanagementofalltheNationalForestSystemlands.Includedinthereportwerehundredsofprojectsthatneededmoneyor


USDAForestService

peopletocompletethem.TheCCCprogramwastheidealopportunityforyoungmen(therewerenowomen’scamps)tobeengagedinoutdoorprojectsthatwouldhelpimprovetherecreationpotentialandmanagementofthenationalforests.Throughtheentire9-yearprogram,morethan3millionmenenrolledfor6monthsorlongerintheover2,600camps(200menpercamp).EachnationalforesthadatleastoneCCCcamp.Thatenabledhundredsofworkprojectstobegin,manyofwhichwererecreationalfacilities,especiallytrails,trailshelters,campgrounds,andscenicvistas.TheCCC’salsoworkedontrucktrails(roads),guardandrangerstations,lookouts,andtelephonelines,andtheyfoughtmanyforestfires(nearly6.5millionpersondays).

CCC Tlingit Alaska Na-tive Enrollee Joe Thomas Working on Baranof Pole at Wrangell, Alaska, Tongass National Forest, 1941

CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS (1933-1942)

Theyearwas1933.TheNationwasflounderinginaneconomicdepres-sion,deeperthananyithadeverknown.Over13millionAmericans,aboutone-thirdoftheavailableworkforce,wereoutofwork.Peoplehadnoth-ingtodo,nowheretogo,andoftenfelthungry,bewildered,apathetic,andangry.Youngmenwereespeciallyvulnerableastheywereoftenuntrained,unskilled,unabletogainexperience,andoftenwithoutanadequateeduca-tion.Theyhadlittlehopeforthefuture.Inthissad,tumultuoustime,Con-gresspassedanactthatwastohavegreatimpactforunemployedyoungmenandnaturalresourcemanagement.


OnMarch4,1933,FranklinD.RooseveltwasinauguratedasPresident.His“NewDeal”programhelpedputpeoplebacktowork.HequicklyplacedlegislationbeforeCongresstoputtenofthousandsofunemployedyoungmentoworkinthepublicforestsandparks.OnMarch31,1933,just10daysafterRooseveltproposedit,CongresspassedtheEmergencyConser-vationWorkProgram(PublicLaw73-5)popularlyknownastheCivilianConservationCorps(CCC).Fouryearslater,onJune28,1937,theCCCnamewasofficiallyattachedtoanactthatcontinuedtheprogram.(SimilarFederalworkprogramswereestablishedduringthe1930’s,includingtheWorksProgressAdministrationwhichfocusedonarts,music,literature,history,andotherrelatedactivities.)

TheactestablishingtheCCChadtwopurposes:Themostimportantwastheneedtofindimmediateandusefulconservationworkformillionsofunemployedyoungmen;thesecondwastoprovidefortherestorationofthecountry’sdepletednaturalresourcesandtheadvancementofanorderlyprogramofusefulpublicworksprojects.TheCCCalsoprovidededuca-tionaltraining,andbeginningin1940,vocationaltraining,toitsenrollees.TheprogramwasdirectedbyRobertFechner,untilhisdeathonJanuary1,1940,thereafterbyJamesMcEntee.

EligibilityrequirementstojointheCCCwerehandledbytheU.S.De-partmentofLaborandStateselectionorganizations.CCCenrolleeswererequiredtobe—

• MalecitizensoftheUnitedStatesoritsTerritories• Between18and25yearsofage• Unemployedandnotinregularattendanceatschool• Unmarried• Ofgoodcharacterandphysicalcondition

Theseyoungmenwereofficiallyreferredtoasjuniors.TherewerethreeothercategoriesofCCCenrollees:

• VeteransofWorldWarI,whocouldbeolderthan25• AmericanIndians,whoworkedmostlyontheirIndian Reservations• Locallyemployedmen(LEM),whowereusuallyexperienced oldermenwhoservedastrainerstotheyoungmen

Therewerenocampsforwomen,althoughEleanorRooseveltsuggestedthatthereshouldbe.BlackenrolleesweregenerallyseparatedfromwhiteenrolleeswithsegregatedCCCcompaniesandcamps.Inanycase,theenrolleeswererequiredtosetaside$25oftheirmonthly$30paychecktoassisttheirdependents(usuallytheirparents).

TheCCCenrollmentperiodwasfor6months,withoptionsforrenewal.TheCCC“boys”wereoftenassigned,initially,totheForestServiceor


NationalParkServicetoworkonconservationprojects.Later,anumberofCCCcampswereestablishedfortheBureauofIndianAffairs,Stateforestsandparks,SoilConservationService(nowNaturalResourcesConservationService),BiologicalSurvey(laterFish&WildlifeService),BureauofRecla-mation,GeneralLandOffice(nowBureauofLandManagement),U.S.ArmyandNavy,andevensomeprivatedemonstrationforests.TheU.S.Depart-mentofLaborandtheU.S.ArmyhandledCCCmonthlypay,aswellastraveltoandfromtheoftenremoteCCCcamps.

ACCCcompanyusuallyconsistedof200enrollees,withmostofthemcomingfromonecityorcountywithinaState.WhentheCCCmenar-rived,usuallybytrainthentruck,attheirassignedCCCcamp,theylivedincomfortableWorldWarIsurpluspyramidtentframesorwoodenbarracks.Thecampcommanderwasusuallyacareermilitaryofficer,or,laterintheprogram,areserveofficer.Onvariousprojects,smallerworkcamps(calledsideorspikecamps)wereestablishedsothatthemendidnotspendalloftheirprojecttimegettingtoorfromtheworksite.

TheCCCmenateplainbutwholesomefood,whichwaspurchasedlocally.Theyworked40hoursperweekandwererequiredtokeeptheircampsneatandorderly.Beyondthat,theywerefreetostudyorenjoyanyoutdoorrecreationopportunitiessuchasswimmingorfishing.Duringthesummermonths,theCCCboyswereoftentreatedtoweekendtripstobeautifulmountainlakes,nationalparks,orthecoast.Atothertimes,thelocalcom-munitiestookpleasureinprovidingfacilitiesformeetingthelocalcitizens,dancing,andhavinggoodtimes.Someoftheyoungmen,productsoftheGreatDepressionandcomingfromallpartsofthecountryandallwalksoflife,laterstayedinorreturnedtothecommunitythathadservedastheirtemporaryhomeawayfromhome.ManyoftheCCCmenwhostayedwentontobecomeprominentforesters,businessmen,andevenStatelegislators.

ThroughoutCCC’shistory(1933-1942),thenumberofconservationproj-ectscompletedacrosstheNationwasstaggering:48,060bridges;13,513cabinsanddwellings;10,231firelookouthousesandtowers;360,449milesoftelephonelines;707,226milesoftrucktrails(forestroads);142,102milesoffootandhorsetrails;101,777acresofcampgroundde-velopment;35.8millionrodsoffences;168emergencylandingfields;13.3millionacresofinsectcontrolwork;6.4millionman-daysoffightingforestfires;over2.6millionacresofplantingandseeding;andalmost1billionfishstocked.

Asnationaleconomicconditionsimprovedinthelate1930’s,enrollmentquotasbecamemoreandmoredifficulttofill.ThenonDecember7,1941,AmericabecamedirectlyinvolvedinthewarthathadbeenraginginEuropeformorethan2years.Within6months,theCCCeracametoacloseasenrolleesflockedtojointhemilitaryandtheremainingcampswereshutdown.Theprogram’sfundingwasterminatedonJune30,1942.


Soendedoneofthemostsuccessfulworkrecoveryprogramsinthehis-toryoftheUnitedStates.TheCCCwasthemostpopularandsuccessfulofRoosevelt’sNewDealprograms.PerhapsthemostsignificantproductoftheCCCprogramwastheprofoundandlastingeffectithadonthe3millionenrollees.CCCworkprovidedaturningpointinthelivesofmanyoftheNation’syouthanditbroughtmuch-neededfinancialaidtotheirfamilies.Inaddition,itcreatedanewself-confidence,adesireandcapacitytoreturntoactivework,anewunderstandingofagreatcountry,andafaithinitsfu-ture.Thenationalforests,nationalparks,andStateparksdecadeslaterstillenjoysbenefitsfrommanyoftheCCCprojects.

Ferdinand A. Silcox— Fifth Chief, 1933-1939

FerdinandAugustusSilcoxwasbornonChrist-masDayin1882,inColumbus,Georgia.TheGreatDepressionwasinfull-swingwhenSilcoxtookoverasChiefin1933;heledtheForestServiceduringsomeofitsmostdifficulttimes.Hewasabletoeffectivelyhelpmillionsofun-employedworkersthriveduringtheDepressionthroughtheCivilianConservationCorps(CCC)andWorksProgressAdministrationprojectsonthenationalforests.TheForestServiceprovid-edspaceto200-manCCCcamps(therewere

nowomenintheprogram),thousandsofworkprojects,andexperiencedprojectleaders.Morethan2.5millionunemployedyoungmenenrolledintheCCCduringits9-yearexistence.

Silcox’scontributionstotheforestconservationmovementweremany,butespeciallysignificantwashissuccessinfocusingpublicattentionontheconservationproblemsofprivateforestlandownership.Duringhistenure,theForestServicestudiedwesternrangeuseandsurveyedforestwatershedsforfloodcontrol.

FerdinandA.Silcoxwrote:

Civilizationshavewaxedandwanedwiththeirmaterialresourc-es;dwindlingmeansoflivelihoodhavesetrollinggreattidalwavesofmigrationandhavebeenaprolificcauseofdomesticdisorder,classuprising,andinternationalwar;butneverbeforehavethepeopleofagreatcountrystillrichinthefoundationsofprosperitysoughttoforestallfuturedisasterbyapplyinganationalpolicyofconservation—ofwhichplannedlanduseisthecentralcore.


Shelterbelt Project

Inresponsetothe“DustBowl”conditionsintheGreatPlainsbetweenTexasandNorthDakotaduringtheearly1930’s,thecooperativePrairieStatesForestry(Shelterbelt)Projectwasbegun.Thisuniquewindbreakproject,anideaofPresi-dentFranklinRoosevelt,beganin1934.InMarch1935,thefirsttreewasplantedonafarminMangum,Oklahoma.TheprojectinvolvedextensivecooperationbetweentheUSDASoilConservationService(nowNaturalResourcesConserva-tionService);variousState,county,andlocalagencies;andhundredsoffarmers.LegionsofWorksProgressAdministration(WPA)reliefworkers,manyofwhomwereunemployedfarmers,accomplishedthework.Inthespringof1938,theyplantedapproximately52,000cottonwoodtreesinoneseverelysand-blownareasouthofNeligh,Nebraska.

Major Plant-ing Areas of the Prairie States For-estry (Shelterbelt) Project, 1935-1942

USDAForestService


TheTaylorGrazingActof1934endedunregulatedgrazingonthenationalforestsandremainingGLO-administeredland.Theactauthorizedthecreationof80millionacresofgrazingdistrictsandtheestablishmentofaU.S.GrazingService—combinedwiththeGLOin1946toformtheBLMintheDepartmentoftheInterior.In1935,thetitle“Chief”oftheForestServicecamebackintouse.

USDAForestService

Ranger and Permittee on an Inspection at the Tatoosh Mountain Range, Gifford Pinchot Na-tional Forest (Washington), 1949

SHELTERBELT PROGRAM ON THE GREAT PLAINS

Duringthegreat“DustBowl”ofthe1930’sontheGreatPlains,millionsofacresoffarmlandwereliterallybeingblownaway.Inthedry,rainlesscondition,soilwaslostatahorrendousrateandmanyfarmersandranch-erswereforcedfromtheirland.Dustanddirtfilledtheairandsandsweredriftingacrossfields,coveringfencesandhouses,andkillinganimals.Bytheearly1930’s,oneofmanypracticestheGreatPlainsAgriculturalCoun-cilproposedtosloworhaltthedamagewastheplantingoftreestoreducewindanddrought-causedsoilerosion.


Inthesummerof1932,thenPresidentialcandidateFranklinD.RooseveltproposedthattheFederalGovernmentbeginaprogramofplantingtreesinbeltsacrossthehardesthitfarmlandsontheGreatPlains.Toreducewinderosionandprotectcropsfromwinddamage,millionsoftreeswereplantedonprivatepropertyor“shelterbelts,”astheybecameknown.UnderRoosevelt’sAdministrationfrom1934to1942,theprogrambothsavedthesoilandrelievedchronicemploymentintheregion.

TheForestServicewasresponsiblefororganizingthe“ShelterbeltProject,”laterknownasthe“PrairieStatesForestryProject.”Thisproject,head-quarteredinLincoln,Nebraska,wasdirectedbyPaulH.RobertsfromtheResearchBranch.TheShelterbeltProgramincludedtheStatesofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,Nebraska,Kansas,Oklahoma,andthenorthernpartofTexas.

Treeswereusuallyplantedinlongstripsat1-mileintervalswithinabelt100milesthick.Itwasfeltthatshelterbeltsatthisspacingcouldintercepttheprevailingwindsandreducesoilandcropdamage.Theprojectusedmanydifferenttreespeciesofvaryingheights,includingoaksandevenblackwalnut.Shelterbelts,withtreesandshrubsofvaryingheights,couldreducewindvelocitiesontheirleewardsidesfordistancesof15timestheheightofthetallesttrees.Reducedwindstendedtocreatemorefavorableconditionsforcropgrowth,reduceevaporationofwaterinthesoil(andthusreducetheneedforirrigation),reducesoiltemperatures,stabilizesoils,protectlivestock,increasewildlifepopulations,andprovideamorelivableenvironmentforfarmfamilies.

Oneoftheproject’sfirsttaskswastoobtaintreeandshrubseedsandthentoestablishnurseriestogrowthestockforreplanting.Fundingfortheprojectalmostendedin1936,butAgricultureSecretaryWallacepushedCongressforacontinuation.OnMay18,1937,theNorris-DoxyCoopera-tiveFarmForestryActexpandedtheshelterbeltprojectbyrequiringgreaterFederal-Statecooperation.

AlthoughWorksProgressAdministrationandCivilianConservationCorpsworkersplantedthetreesandshrubs,landownerswereresponsiblefortheirlong-termcareandmaintenance.During1939,thepeakyearoftheproject,13nurseriesproducedmorethan60millionseedlings.Overtheproject’sduration,over200milliontreesandshrubswereplantedon30,000farms–atotallengthof18,600milesinall!Theshelterbeltsworkedamazinglywellandtheresultscanbeseeneventoday,althoughmanyoftheshelterbelttreeshavebeencutfortheirhighlyvaluedwood.

Since1942,treeplantingtoreducesoillossesandcropdamagehasbeencarriedoutbylocalsoilconservationdistrictsincooperationwiththeSoilConservationService(nowNaturalResourcesConservationService).


GRAZING ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS


FromthebeginningofEuropeansettlementalongtheeasternandsoutherncoastsofwhatwastobecometheUnitedStates,domesticlivestockhasbeenaprominentpartoffarmingandgrazingactivitiesofNewWorldsettlers.Formanydecades,stockanimalswerefreetoroamovertheunsettledareasalongtheedgeoffarmlandsnewlyclearedfromtheforests.Asthesettlersmovedwestward,thesizeoftheunsettledforestareawasmuchreducedandpublicdomainland“takenup”byhomesteaders.

Controversysooneruptedwhencattleinterestssoughttohavesheepandhomesteadsprohibitedfrom“openranges”(publicdomain).Conversely,sheepownersandfarmerswantedcattlerestrictedfromgrazingandtram-plingtheircropsanddestroyingtheirwatersources.Thesituationwassimi-laronthepublicdomaintimberland,butthatchangedafterforestreserveswerecreatedin1891.

Westernranchersweresomeofthestrongestopponentsofthecreationoftheforestreservesbecausetheyfearedthatgrazingwouldbeprohibitedonthem,perhapsrightlyso.Concernedwitherosionandotherproblemscausedbyovergrazing,theSecretaryoftheInteriorbannedgrazingonFed-eralforestreservesin1894.

Afterarapidgrowthincattleranchesinthe1870’sand1880’s,theindus-tryhaddeclinedsomuchbytheyear1900thatsheepoutnumberedcattleinmostWesternStates.ThewoolgrowersweretheWest’sbestorganizedinterestgroup.Thebattleofgrazingpittedsheepraisersandtheirsupport-ersinCongressagainsttheDepartmentoftheInteriorandthecattleranch-ers—dependentonuplandforestwatersheds.

AlthoughJohnMuir(founderoftheSierraClub)referredtosheepas“hoofedlocusts,”heacknowledgedthatregulatedgrazingwasbetterthanunregulatedgrazing.Asearlyas1896,GiffordPinchotfavoredregulatedsheepgrazingontheforestreserves.FrederickV.Coville’sindependentstudyofsheepgrazingintheOregonCascadesduringthesummerof1897leftnodoubtthatregulatedgrazingwaslessdestructivetotheforeststhanunregulatedgrazing—especiallytoyoungtrees.Pinchothadsimilarinves-tigationsmadeintheSouthwest.TheofficialFederalpolicy,developedin1898,allowedrestrictedsheepgrazingintheOregonCascadesandextend-edeventuallytoalltheotherforestreserves.Cattleandhorseswereallowedtorangefreely.In1900,theDepartmentoftheInteriorestablishedafreepermitsystemtocontrolthenumberofanimalsontheforestreservesandremainingpublicdomainland.


GrazingcontinuedthesameafterthetransferoftheforestreservestotheDepartmentofAgricultureandthenewForestServicein1905.In1906,theForestServiceannouncedthatfeeswouldbeimposed:25to35centsperheadofcattleandhorses,withalowerrateforsheepandgoats.Althoughfree-ranginghogswereaprobleminsomeareas,therewerenofeesan-nouncedforhoggrazing.Forestrangerssetupnewgrazingallotmentswithsetdatesforenteringandleavingtheforestreserves.Thegrazingrevenuesexceededthosefromtimbereveryyearbetween1906and1910,andpe-riodicallyuntil1920.In1910,theForestServiceestablishedanOfficeofGrazingStudies,whichbeganstudyingtheeffectsofgrazingonthenationalforests.

In1917,withtheUnitedStates’entryintoWorldWarI,thenumberofanimalsthatgrazedonthenationalforestsincreaseddramatically.GrazingwasevenallowedinGlacierandYosemiteNationalParks.Studiesoftheincreasingnumbersofsheepandcattlebeinggrazedonnationalforestsduringthe1917-1919periodshowedsevereovergrazing.Rangeconditionsweresopoorthatsheeppermitteeswereunabletoproducetheamountoflambmeatthattheyexpected.TheissueofcarryingcapacityoftherangewascontroversialbecauseitdeterminedhowmanyanimalsaranchercouldplaceonGovernmentland.

ThebulkoftheresearchonrangemanagementtookplaceattheGreatBasinExperimentalStation(IntermountainResearchStation)ontheMantiNationalForestoutsideofEphraim,Utah.HistorianThomasAlexanderclaimedthatprofessionalrangemanagementemergedintheForestServicelargelyastheresultoftheIntermountainStation’sgrazingresearchstaff.Thetypicaldistrictrangerwasoftenconcernedaboutthesocialandeconomiccoststolocalranchersiftheywereforcedtoreducestocknumbers;whilerangeresearchersfocusedontheconditionoftheland.Overtimeitwastheconditionofthelandthatdeterminedthepolicy,basedontheirresearchfindingsoncarryingcapacity.Intheend,thenumbersofanimalsonthenationalforestswerereduced,exceptduringWorldWarII.

Controversyovergrazingfees(whichcontinuestothisday)resultedina1924ForestServicereportonpublicandprivatefees.Stockownersimme-diatelyexpressedobjectionstothestudy,leadingtocongressionalhear-ingsandpassageoftheMcSweeney-McNaryActof1928,whichenhancedresearchactivitiesonpublicandprivateforestandrangeland.DuringtheGreatDepressiongrazingfeeswereloweredby50percent.Thewesterndroughtintheearly1930’sandthepassageoftheTaylorGrazingActof1934tightenedpubliclandgrazingregulations.AninteragencyrivalryoverwhichagencycouldbestadministerandregulategrazingledtothecreationoftheU.S.GrazingServiceintheDepartmentoftheInteriorto“counter”ForestServiceattemptstotakeovergrazingmanagementonallpubliclands.


WorldWarIIsawanotherattempttoexpandthenumberofanimalsgrazingonthenationalforests.TheForestServiceresistedthiseffort.TheForestServicereducedthenumberofanimalsallowedonthenationalforestsinordertoincreasethequalityofthegrazinglands.Thisplanmetstrongop-positionandthecontroversyresultedintheGranger-ThyeActof1950.Inessence,Granger-ThyerecognizedtheForestService’sauthoritytocollectfeesforgrazingprivilegesandendorsedgrazingadvisoryboards,aslongasrepresentativesfromtheStategamecommissionsweremembers,allowedcooperativerangeimprovements,andallowed10-yeargrazingpermitstobeissued.

Inthe1960’s,controversywasagainstirringovergrazingfees.Bythelate1970’s,thisresultedinthe“SagebrushRebellion”intheWesternStates.SupportersoftheSagebrushRebellionwantedallForestServiceandBureauofLandManagementgrazinglandstransferredtotheStates.TheyassumedthatifsuchlandswereunderStatecontrol,therancherswouldhavemoreinfluenceandthusgettheirownwayoverfees,allotments,andnumberofanimalsgrazed.Becauseoflocalandnationalopposition,theSagebrushRebellionlostmomentum,thenstalled,andfinallydiedbythemid-1980’sonlytoberevivedinthe1990’s.Thismovementtodayiscalledthe“wiseuse,”“countysupremacy,”or“propertyrightsmovement.”

Wilderness

RobertMarshall,founderoftheWildernessSocietyandauthoroftherecreationportionofthe National Plan for American Forestry(theCopelandReport),workedfortheForestServiceinthemid-1930’s.HeproposedthattheForestServicein-ventorylargeunroadedareasthatmightbesuitableforwildernessesorprimitiveareadesignation.Shortlybeforehisuntimelydeathin1939,Marshallandseveralothersmadeatourofthewesternnationalforests,performingthisinventoryandmakingrecommendationstoregionalforesterstogreatlyincreasethenumberofwildernessandprimitiveareas.

WildernessSociety

Bob Marshall Examining Pine and Larch Seedlings, Priest River Experimental Station, Kaniksu National Forest (Idaho)


ROBERT MARSHALL


RobertMarshall(1901-1939)wasthesonofLouisMarshall,oneoftheNation’smostprominentconstitutionallawyers,socialreformers,andde-fendersoftheAdirondackStateParkinNewYork.Asayoungman,RobertMarshallspenthissummersatLowerSaranacLakeathisfamily’sestate.Hisfirstbook,High Peaks of the Adirondacks,waspublishedin1922.Hisloveofnatureandexplorationinfluencedhiscollegestudiesinforestry.MarshallreceivedhisB.S.degreefromtheNewYorkStateCollegeofForestryatSyracuseUniversity(nowcalledtheStateUniversityofNewYork,CollegeofEnvironmentalScienceandForestry)in1924,thenaMastersofForestryfromHarvardForest(partofHarvardUniversity)in1925,andaPh.D.inplantphysiologyfromJohnsHopkinsUniversityin1930.

BobMarshallworkedfortheForestServiceattheWindRiverForestEx-perimentStationnearCarson,Washington,duringthesummerof1924asa“fieldassistant.”Afterearninghismastersinforestrydegree,heworkedfortheForestService,again,from1925to1928attheNorthernRockyMountainForestExperimentStationatMissoula,Montana.AfterleavingtheForestServicetoearnhisdoctorate,heagainjoinedtheForestServicein1932to1933,workingontherecreationportionoftheNational Plan for American Forestry(theCopelandReport)(1933).Inthatreport,Marshallforesawtheneedtoplace10percentofallU.S.forestlandsintorecreationalareas—rangingfromlargeparkstowildernessareastoroadsidecampsites.Inthesameyear,hebecametheDirectorofForestryfortheOfficeofIndianAffairs,wherehesupportedroadlessareasonreservations.

In1937,BobMarshallreturnedtotheForestServiceasChiefofanewDivi-sionofRecreationandLandsintheWashingtonOffice.InhisshorttenureattheWashingtonOffice,hedraftedthe“URegulations”thatreplacedthe“L-20Regulations”forprimitiveareasandwildernesses.Theseregulationsgavegreaterprotectiontowildernessareasbybanningtimbering,roadconstruction,summerhomes,andevenmotorboatsandaircraft.Marshallcheckedrecreationaldevelopmentplansforthenationalforeststoseeiftheyincludedaccessforlowerincomegroups—averyrealconcernduringtheDepressionyearsofthe1930’s.Healsothoughtthatprotectionshouldbegrantedtolargeareasover200,000acres–thattheyshouldbereclassifiedasprimitiveareas.In1938,heandothersmadeatripthroughthewesternnationalforeststomapandproposemillionsofacresofnationalforestlandsforprimitiveorwildernessstatus.

Marshallwasaneccentricandmaverickwhowasfamedatthetimeforbothhisvigorous40-milehikesandradicalpoliticalopinions.Marshallwasfamousforhishikingspeed—oncewalking70milesina24-hourperiodtomakeconnectionsforatrip—whileatothertimeseasilyoutdistancinghis


companionsontripsintothemountains.BobMarshallwasaleadingwriteronthesocialmanagementofAmericanforests,bothpublicandprivate,combiningconservationwithsocialtheory.He,alongwithGiffordPinchot,GeorgeP.Ahern,andthreeothers,signedaletterin1930thatrecommend-edincreasedFederalandStateregulationoverprivateforestsandtransferofprivatelandstopublicownershipandcontrol.Forthenext15years,thisissuewouldberaisedbyvariousForestServiceChiefs,butCongresswouldnotapprove.Unabletoendurethediplomacyofworkingwithinthebu-reaucracy,hehadplannedtoresign.WhileonatrainfromWashington,DC,toNewYorkCity,hehadaheartattackanddiedonNovember10,1939.Thefollowingyear,theForestServicereclassifiedandrenameda950,000-acrearea(comprisedofthreeprimitiveareas)ontheFlatheadandLewisandClarkNationalForestsinMontanaastheBobMarshallWilderness.

Aprolificwriter,Marshallpublishedanumberofarticlesandpamphlets,aswellasseveralbooks,including:The People’s Forests(1933),Arctic Village(1933),andArctic Wilderness(1956).MarshallwastheprincipalfounderandfinancialsupporteroftheWildernessSocietyin1935.

Timber Salvage of �938

Timbersales,whichpracticallydisappearedduringtheGreatDepression,startedagainjustbeforeWorldWarII.MillionsoftreeswereblowndownbytheGreatNewEnglandHurricaneofSeptember1938.TheForestServicedirectedmassivesalvageoperationsonnationalforest,State,andprivatelands.Morethan50CCCcampsand15,000WPAenrolleesworkedfeverishlytosalvagethedownedtreestopreventinsectanddiseaseinfestationsandpreventfiresfromstartinginthedriedtrees.Duringthe3yearsthatfollowed,theNortheasternTimberSalvageAdministrationwasabletosalvage700millionboardfeetoftimber.

New England Hurricane Results, New Hampshire, 1938

USDAForestService


Smokejumping and National Defense

BecausemanyoftheforestfiresintheWestwerestartedbylightningininacces-siblelocations,theForestServiceexperimentedwithfirefightersparachutingtofiresbeforetheybecamelargeandoutofcontrol.Thefirstexperimental“jumps”beganin1939atWinthrop,Washington,ontheOkanoganNationalForest.Bythesummerof1940,thesmokejumpers,astheybecameknown,wereoperatingoutofWinthropandtheMooseCreekRangerStationonMontana’sBitterrootNa-tionalForestandmadetheirfirstjumponafireontheNezperceNationalForestinIdaho.Thesuccessfuloperationprovedthatsmokejumpingintoremote,rug-gedareaswasfeasible.Thelessonslearnedfromsmokejumpertrainingmethodsandactuallyjumpingintoheavilyforestedareaswouldproveusefultothenewmilitaryparatrooperunitslikethe101stAirborneduringWorldWarII.

Smokejumpers Ready for Ex-perimental Jumps, Chelan National Forest (Washington),1939

USDAForestService

Nationaldefensebecameimportantinthelate1930’sandearly1940’s.Thefirstconscientiousobjectorcampswereestab-lishedatabandonedCCCcampsin1941.WorldWarIIstartedfortheUnitedStatesonDecember7,1941.Inearly1942,theCCC’sweredisbandedbecausefewermenweresigningupandnationalattention(andmoney)wasbeingdivertedtothewareffort.

Earle H. Clapp— Sixth Chief, 1939-1943

EarleHartClapp,borninNorthRush,NewYork,onOctober15,1877,wasappointedAssociateChiefin1935,thenActingChiefin1939afterChiefSilcoxdied.ClappwasneverofficiallyChief,apparentlybecausePresidentRooseveltdidnotwanttoapprovehisappoint-ment.Clappservedinthisactingcapacityuntil1943whenLyleWattswasappointedtheForestService’sseventhChief.


DuringClapp’stimeasActingChief,hefacedthecontinuationoftheCivil-ianConservationCorpsprojectsonthenationalforests,meetingtheneedforforestexpertstohelpintheaftermathofthedisastrousNewEnglandHurricane,opposingtransferoftheForestServicefromtheDepartmentofAgriculturetotheDepartmentoftheInterior,andmobilizingtheNation’sforestresourcesbehindtheWorldWarIIeffort.Thecuttingofnationalforesttimberwassteppedup,specialstudiesandtestsweremadeforthearmedforces,andforestlookoutstationswerestaffedalongboththeeastandwestcoastsin1942-1943todetectenemyaircraft.

Tryashedid,ClappwasnotsuccessfulinsupportingFederalregulationoftimbercuttingonprivateforestland,adding150millionacresofmostlycutoverlandtothenationalforests,orinalleviatingpovertyindepressedcommunitiesbymeansofreforestationprojects.Duringhislast2years,hewasresponsibleforpreparinganewappraisaloftheNation’sforestsitua-tion.

EarleH.Clappwrote:

[The]scarcityofnaturalresourcesandtheircontrolbytheveryfewmaypavethewaythroughwidespreadhumanmiserytodespotismanddictatorship;whileanabundanceofnaturalre-sources,accessibletopeoplegenerally,makesfordemocracyandfreedom.

ThestruggletocreateandadministerthenationalforestsgavebirthtotheentireconservationmovementintheUnitedStates.AttheendofthevoluminousPublicLandActof1891,alittlesectionof68wordsgavethePresidentauthoritytocreatefromthepublicdomainwhatwenowcallthenationalforests.Aparagraphof133wordsasaridertotheSundryCivilAppro-priationsActof1897providedfortheadministrationoftheseforests.Iknowofnootherlegislationinourhistorywhichmorebroadlyandasbrieflyauthorizedanundertakingsofar-reachinginitsconsequences.TheActofMarch3,1891,wasacleanbreakwiththelongestablishedpublicpolicyofindiscriminatedisposalofallpubliclandsregardlessofwhatmightbedonewiththeresourcesonthem.Thatwasaboldanddaringthingtodointhefaceofpublicopinionofyearsago.IttookcourageonthepartofitsadvocatesinCongressandout.


The War Years, �9��-�9�5

T hewaryearsintensifiedtheneedtoestablishnationalforest priorities–oneofwhichwasincreasingnationalforestwoodoutputs throughtheTimberProductionWarProject.Thebiggestsinglewoodusewaspackingcratestoshipmilitarysupplies;butotherimportantuseswereforbridges,railroadties,gunstocks,ships,docks,barracks,otherbuildings,andaircraft.TheForestProductsLaboratoryinMadison,Wisconsin,greatlyexpand-editsresearchtofulfillmilitaryneeds.TheForestServicealsowascalledupontoleadahigh-priorityproject—producingarubbersubstitutefromtheguayuleplant—ashrubnativetotheSouthwest.ApilotprojectwasbeguninSalinas,California,andby1944,morethan200,000acresofguayulewereunderculti-vation—producing3millionpoundsofrubbersubstituteforuseonairplanes,ships,andvehicles,especiallyfortires.TheprojectwasabandonedafterthewarwhenrubberfromSoutheastAsiaagainbecameavailable.

Aeneas Aircraft Warning Service Lookout, Okano-gan National For-est (Washington), 1943

USDAForestService

Recreationwasde-em-phasizednationwideduringthewar;forestfireprotectionbecamequiteimportant,espe-ciallyalongthewestcoast.AircraftWarn-ingStations(AWS),usuallyatselectedforestlookouts,wereestablishedin1942towarnofimpendingairattacksonthewestandeastcoasts.Almost2,000ForestServiceemployeesjoinedtheArmedForces.In1943,manyconscien-tiousobjectorsathomevolunteeredforsmoke-jumperduty.Sixtywerechosenforthisverydangerouswork.AsduringWorldWarI,womenwereagainemployedasfireandaircraftlookouts,whilecivilianvolunteersandoutdoorgroupswereencouragedtoform“ForestServiceReserves”tohelpwithlookoutandfirefightingworkonthenationalforests.TheCooperativeForestFirePreventionCampaign—ajointventurebetweentheForestServiceandStateforestryofficials—wasorganizedduringthewar,whenitbecamevitallyimportanttoprotecttheNation’stimbersupply.In1944,thisprogrambecametheSmokeyBearcampaign.


Lyle F. Watts— Seventh Chief, 1943-1952

LyleFordWattswasborninCerroGor-doCounty,Iowa,in1890.WattsservedasChiefduringtheturbulentyearsofWorldWarII.Withtheobviousprogressbeingmadeinthewareffort,hisatten-tionturnedtoplanningwhatthenation-alforestsandtheForestServicewouldbelikeafterthewar.Heandhisstaffrealizedthatthenationalforestsneededtobeopeneduptodevelopmentinthemostscientificandorderlymanner.

WattsencouragedtheForestServicetohireuniversityforestrygraduatestohelpdevelopforestroadsystemsandinten-sivelymanaged,sustained-yieldforests.

HeoversawtheexpansionoftheFederalroleofcooperatorwiththevariousStatesandprivateindustryinthefieldsofforestfireprotection,pestcon-trol,treeplanting,woodlandmanagementandharvesting,wood-productmarketingandprocessing,grazing,andsoon.

LyleF.Wattswrote:

ForestServiceconservationinvolvesmuchmorethanthegrow-ingofcropsonforestlandstosupplyrawmaterialinoneformoranotherforanever-growinglistofuses.Forestrymustbecoupledwiththesocialandeconomicwelfareofruralcommuni-ties,especiallyinregionsprimarilydependentuponforestindus-tries.ImprovingforestproductivityshouldmeanagreatdealtoruralAmericainaugmentingtheincomeoffarmfolk,maintain-ingpayrollsinsmallcommunities,andsustainingthetaxbasetosupportlocalgovernmentfunctions.

The Sustained-Yield Forest Management Act of �9�� and Sustained-Yield Units

TheSustained-YieldForestManagementActof1944authorizedtheestablish-mentofsustained-yieldtimberunits.Tostabilizecommunities,cooperativeunitsweretocombinethemanagementofFederaltimberlandwithprivateland.Federalunits,theothercategory,reservednationalforesttimberforonlyonegeographicarea—usuallyonecommunityandonemill.Theactwasfirsther-aldedasprotectingmillsandjobsinthecommunities,butsooncompaniesandcommunitiesthatwerenotincludedintheagreementsthoughtittobemonopo-


listic,noncompetitive,andexclusionary.TheShelton(Washington)CooperativeSustained-YieldUnitagreementwassignedin1946—theonlycooperativeuniteverestablished–andstillinoperationtoday.FiveFederalsustained-yieldunitswereestablished:Vallecitos,NewMexico(CarsonNationalForest);GraysHarbor,Washington(OlympicNationalForest);Flagstaff,Arizona(CoconinoNationalForest);Lakeview,Oregon(FremontNationalForest);andBigValley,California(ModocNationalForest).OnlytheLakeviewunitisactivelyoperatingtoday.

Shelton, Washing-ton—Location of the Shelton Cooperative Sustained-Yield Unit

USDAForestService

Smokey Bear Artist Rudolph Wendelin

USDAForestService

Smokey Bear

In1944,SmokeyBearbecametheofficialfirepre-ventionsymboloftheNation.ThefirstSmokeyposterwasdistrib-utedthefollowingyear.OnJune27,1950,ayoungbearcub–theonlysurvivorfromamassivefireontheLincolnNa-tionalForest—wasmovedtotheNationalZooinWashington,DC,wherehebecamethesymbolofSmokeyBearInMay1975,theoriginalSmokeyBearwasretiredfrompublicduties.Hediedquietlythefollow-ingJanuary,withSmokeyIItakinghisplace.Inthesummerof1990,SmokeyIIdied.TherearenomorelivingSmokeyBearsattheNationalZoo.


THE STORY OF SMOKEY BEAR

AdaptedfromGladysD.DainesandElsieCunningham“PreventionPrograms:1944to1994andBeyond”Fire Management Notes,Volumes53-54,SpecialIssue1992-93

In1942,aJapanesesubmarineshellingofanoilfieldnearSantaBarbara,California,veryclosetotheLosPadresNationalForest,reinforcedforestmanagers’concernsaboutforestfires.OngoingwareffortshaddrainedtheUnitedStatesofforestfirefightersandheavyequipmentusedtofightfires.Thus,theForestServicewantedtoencouragethegeneralpublictopartici-pateinforestfireprevention.

ThefirststepwastakenwhentheCooperativeForestFirePreventionCam-paignwasbegun.TheforestsupervisorofCalifornia’sAngelesNationalFor-estcontactedthenewlyformedWartimeAdvertisingCouncilforhelp.Thecouncilwasmadeupofbusinessandadvertisingpeoplewhowerewillingtodonatetheirtimeandtalentforthewareffort.WithanadditionalpledgeofsupportfromtheNationalAssociationofStateForesters,anationwideforestfirepreventioncampaignwaslaunched.Foote,ConeandBeldingCommunications,Inc.,ofLosAngeles,becamethevolunteeragencyforthecampaign.Between1942and1944,firepreventionpostersusedwartimeslogans,thenBambi.Theydecidedtheywantedabearillustrationonthepostersfor1945.

OnAugust9,1944,SmokeyBearwasdescribedbyRichardHammett,directoroftheWartimeForestFirePreventionProgram,ashavinga“noseshort(Pandatype),colorblackorbrown;expressionappealing,knowledge-able,quizzical;perhapswearingacampaign(orBoyScout)hatthattypifiestheoutdoorsandthewoods.”Bluejeanswereaddedlater.Thebearwasnamed“Smokey”after“Smokey”JoeMartin,whowastheAssistantChiefoftheNewYorkCityFireDepartmentfrom1919to1930.

AlbertStaehle,anationallyknownartist,wasaskedtopaintthefirstbear,whichwascompletedin1944anddistributedthefollowingyear.ThisfirstSmokeypostershowedhimpouringwateronacampfire.In1945,Smokeymadehisdebutinmanymagazineandnewspaperadsandhundredsofradiostationsdonatedvaluablebroadcastingtimeforhismessage.

Whenthewarwasover,theWartimeAdvertisingCouncil,renamedtheAd-vertisingCouncil,continuedtosponsorpublicservicecampaigns,includingSmokeyBear’smessage(anddoestothisday).In1946,Rudolph“Rudy”WendelinreturnedtotheForestServiceafterservingintheNavy—heworkedcloselywiththeAdvertisingCouncilonSmokeyBearposters.RudywasoneofthebestknownSmokeyBearartistsandsoonbecameknownasthe“caretakeroftheSmokeyBearimage.”Afterhisretirementin1973,


RudycontinuedtopaintSmokeyandactasaSmokeyBearprogramcon-sultant.HarryRossoll,anotherfamousForestServiceartist,createdfourSmokeycartoonsamonthintheUnitedStatesandCanada.

In1950,somecarelesspersonstartedtheterribleCapitanGapforestfireontheLincolnNationalForestinNewMexico.Whenastrongwindsuddenlysweptthefiretowardagroupofthecourageousfirefighters,25ofthemhadtoruntoarockslide,layfacedown,andcovertheirfaceswithwethand-kerchiefstoescapethedeadlyflames.Theyemptiedtheircanteensovertheirclothesandswattedburningembersfromeachother’sbacks.Finally,thefirepassedandthesmokecleared.Theonlylivingthingthosefire-fight-erssawwasabadlyburnedbearcubclingingtoablackenedtree.Theytookthelittlebeartoarangerstationtotendtoitsburns.Hewasnamed“Smokey”aftertheoriginalfamousposterofSmokeyBear.

Aftertheburnshealed,thelittlebearwassenttoliveattheNationalZoologicalParkinWashington,DC,wherehebecamethelivingsymbolofforestfireprevention,aswellasthemostvisitedattractionatthezoo.Anotherorphanedbearwasfoundin1961intheMagdelenaMountainsofNewMexico.“Goldie,”asshewasnamed,wassenttothezootobecomeSmokey’scompanion.

TheoriginalSmokeyBearwasretiredfrompublicdutiesinMay1975anddiedquietlyonNovember5ofthatsameyear.HewasburiedattheSmokeyBearStateHistoricalParkinCapitan,NewMexico(theideafortheparkoriginatedfromtheCapitanWomen’sClubandopenedonMay15,1976).Smokeywasburiedunderahugerocknearwherehewasfound26yearsbefore.Abronzeplaquewiththefollowinginscriptionhasbeenplacedontherock:

SMOKEYBEAR.ThisisthefinalrestingplaceforthefirstlivingSmokeyBear.In1950whenSmokeywasatinycub,wildfireburnedhisforesthomeinthenearbyCapitanMountainsoftheLincolnNationalForest.Firefightersfoundthebadlyburnedcubclingingtoablackenedtreeandsavedhislife.InJune1950,thecubwasflowntoourNation’sCapitaltobecomethelivingsymbolofwildfirepreventionandwildlifeconservation.After25yearshewasreplacedbyanotherorphanedblackbearfromtheLincolnNationalForest.

AftertheoriginalSmokeyretired,SmokeyIItookhisplace.SmokeyIIdiedinthesummerof1990.TheForestServicehassincedecidednottoreplacethelivingsymbolofSmokeyattheNationalZoo.

BecauseoftheSmokeyBearProgram’sgrowingpopularity,CongresspassedtheSmokeyBearActin1952toprotecttheSmokey’simageandtheworkoftheCooperativeForestFirePrevention(CFFP)Council.Theact


prohibitsSmokeyBear’suseandwearingtheSmokeyBearcostumewithoutpermission,permitslicensingtheuseofSmokeyBear,andallowstheForestServicetokeepanySmokeyBearroyaltiesandputthemintoafundtobeusedonlyforforestfireprevention.

In1952,IdealToysmanufacturedthefirstSmokeyBearstuffedtoy.Itcamewithacardthatchildrencouldfilloutandmailtobecome“JuniorForestRangers.”Childrenreadilyrespondedandby1955therewere500,000Ju-niorForestRangers.ChildrenwereencouragedtowritetoSmokeyandby1965SmokeyBearwasgivenhisownzipcode—20252!

Thefamousmessage“OnlyYOUCanPreventForestFires”wascreatedin1947bytheAdCouncil’svolunteeragencyandisstillusedtoday.Inarecentstudy,95percentofthepeoplesurveyedcouldfinishthesentencewhengiventhefirstwords,“Remember,OnlyYOU....”Thesamesurveyfound98percentofthosepolledcouldidentifySmokeyBearwhenshownhispicture.OnAugust13,1984,theU.S.PostalServicehonoredSmokeyBear’s40thbirthdaywithacommemorativestamp,drawnbyRudyWendelin.

TheSmokeymessagehasbeenorientedtowardschildrenages4to12intheformofposters,films,videos,comicbooks,pins,handouts,wallandpock-etcalenders,bumperstickers,exhibits,balloons,andevenaSmokeyhotairballoon.Asearlyas1950,anumberofStateorganizationsbegandesigningSmokeycostumesthatwere(andstillare)usedinschools,inparades,andotherplaceswherechildrenandadultscanseeandhearthefirepreventionmessage.TheSmokeycostumehasvariedovertheyears,eventuallyevolv-ingintothefamiliarcostumethatresemblestheWendelincharacter.ForashorttimetherewasaSmokeyJr.,costumeandthen—inthelateryears—agrayingfurcostumeasSmokeywasshowinghisage.

The50thanniversaryofthefirstSmokeyposterhasbeencharacterizedasacelebrationofoneofthemostsuccessfuladvertisingcampaignsinthehistoryoftheUnitedStates.Anewseriesof50thanniversaryposters,pins,andothermemorabiliaweredistributed,aswellasaspecial25-minutehis-toricalvideoproduction.Thevideowasentitled“FiftyYearswithSmokeyBear”andfocusedonthevisualcharacterandreallifeofSmokey.AspecialgoldenanniversaryslogancompetitionwassponsoredbytheNationalAssociationofStateForesters.ThewinningsloganwassubmittedbytheOhioDivisionofForestry:“REMEMBER...SMOKEYHASFORFIFTYYEARS.”


USDAForestService

Smokey Bear as a Cub with Judy Bell


The Postwar Development Era, �9��-�959

D ueinparttothevastlyincreaseddemandforwoodproductsandthe constructionofnewhomes,thepostwarnationalforestmanagerswere activeinopeningvastforestareastotimbermanagement.Untilthen,thetimberindustryviewedthenationalforestsashugetimbersourcesthatneededtobekeptoffthemarketsothatthetimberindustrycouldkeepprivatetimberpriceshigh.Thetimberindustrynowsoughtcheapnationalforesttimbertosupplementorreplaceheavilycutoverprivateforestlands.TheopeningofthenationalforeststotimberharvestingandroaddevelopmentafterWorldWarIIwouldhaveconsequencesthatwearestillfeelingtoday.

Timber Management

Thetechnologyofextractingtimberfromthewoodschangeddramatically.BeforetheDepressionandwar,muchlumberingwasdonewithaxesandcrosscutsaws,butafterthewar,everyonewasusingthenew,highlyefficientchainsaws.Logtransportationevolvedfromhorses,oxen,floatinglogsdownrivers,andrailroadstothenewsystemsofroadsandtrucks,andevenballoonsandhelicoptersbythe1970’s.Withtheincreasedemphasisontimberproduction,thenumberoftimbersalesjumped.ForestryschoolsaroundtheNationweretrainingthousandsofnewforesterswhowerededicatedtofindingmoreefficientandintensivemethodsofmanagingthenationalforests.TheForestServicewasenteringwhathasbeencalledthe“hardhatera.”Intensiveforestmanagementwasbeginninginearnest.CongresspassedtheTongassTimberActonJuly27,1947,whichauthorizedfour50-yeartimbersalesonAlaska’sTongassNationalForest.

USDAForestService

Logging truck on Pole Road, Clearwater National Forest (Idaho), 1935


A Large Douglas-Fir Tree Being Felled by Ax and Crosscut Saw in Western Washington, circa 1899

USDAForestService

Early Chainsaw (Gas) Felling Sugar Pine, Stanislaus Na-tional Forest (California), 1948

USDAForestService


TREE CUTTING TECHNOLOGY

AdaptedfromEncyclopedia of American Forest and Conservation History(1983)andothersources.

Treecutting(logging)technologyhasundergoneextensivechangesinthelast200years.Whencolonistsarrivedontheeasternseaboard,theaxwastheonlymethodtofelltreestoclearfarmland,buildhouses,andprovidefirewoodforthehearth.YetearlysettlerswerefacedwithmanyproblemsintheNewWorld,includingthefactthatthetreeswereverylargeandverytall,unlikethetreesthesettlershadleftinEurope.

By1789,theAmericanfellingaxevolvedtomeetthesettlers’needs.Thisuniqueaxwasstraighthandledandsinglebitted(oneblade),whichgavegreatbalanceandmorepowertothestroke.Itsshort,heavy,wedge-shapedbladewasbothdurableandeasilyextractedfromthewood.Curvedhandlesbecamestandardduringthe19thcentury.Sometimearound1850,loggersbeganusingadouble-bittedax.Thisnewinventionprovedtobeverypopular.Theaxhadtheadvantageofhavingtwocuttingedges,yetstillpossessedthebalanceanddurabilityofthesingle-bittedax.Bythe1880’s,Americansweremakingthesebladesofcaststeel—ratherthanironwithasteelcuttingedgeweldedon.

AmericansettlersalsomodifiedEuropeancuttingorchoppingtechniques.InsteadofmakingV-shapedcutsatalmostthesamelevelonoppositesidesofatreetrunk,Americansmadeonecutlowerthantheother(theunder-cut)andmadebothcutsflatonthebottom.Thismethodgavethefellergreatercontroloverthedirectionthetreewouldfallandreducedthetime-consuminguseofwedgesandlevers.

Beginninginthe1870’s,crosscutsawswereadaptedtofellingtrees—amajorinnovation.Crosscutsawshadlongbeenusedtocutlogsintolengthsoncetheywereontheground,butnowthesawswereusedinthehorizon-talpositiontocutthetreesdown.Twocrosscutsawdevelopmentshelpedthismajoradvance:Theinventionofrakerteeth,whichwhencoupledwithcuttingteethandgulletscarriedawaythesawdustandtreepitchorsapthatwouldoftenclogthesawblade.Theinventionresultedinasawthatcouldcutgreenstandingtreeswithoutbindingtheblade.Theotherinventionwastheadoptionofthetemperedsteelblade,whichwasstrongerthanprevioussawsandwouldremainsharpthroughhoursofuse.Useofcrosscutsaws,especiallythetwo-mansaws,spreadrapidlyandbecametheindustrystan-dardformanyyears.Bytheturnofthe20thcentury,newsawdesignswithdifferentteethhadbeendevelopedforuseondifferenttreespecies.Inthe1920’s,thebucksawreplacedthecrosscutsawintheNortheastandCanada.Thebucksawwaslighter,butnotsuitableforlargetrees.


ThespringboardwasintroducedinthefarWestandincypressloggingintheSouth.Essentially,springboardsweremetal-tippedplanksthatwereinsertedintonotcheschoppedintothetreetrunk.Thesespringboardsservedasplatformsonwhichthefellersstood,allowingthemtobeabovethedenseundergrowthandabovetheswollenbaseoftheold-growthtrees,whichwereoftenpitch-ladenandfullofrottenwood.

Duringthisperiod,loggingoperationswereoftenalongtheedgesofstreamsandrivers,makingthetransportationoflogsdownstreamtothemillarelativelyeasytask—riverlogdrives.Asharvestingproceeded,loggingoperationsmovedfartherandfartherawayfromtheriver’sedge,creatingaproblem—howtomovetheheavylogs.Loggersrespondedbycuttingsmallerlengthlogsor,inthecaseofredwoodsandotherlargetrees,bysplitting(riving)thelogslengthwise.

Yardingorskiddingofthelogsalsochangedoverthedecades.Themostdifficultaspectwasmovingthelogsfromwheretheywerefelledtoaplacewheretheycouldbetransportedtothemill.Logmovingtechnologypro-gressedquicklyintheUnitedStatesfromthehumaneffortappliedthroughbruteforceandprimitivetoolstooxenandhorses.IntheNortheastandLakeStates,logswereveryoftenhauledduringthewintermonthswhenhorsescouldeasilypullheavilyladensledsovertheiceandsnow.

Mechanizationcametothewoodsintheformofhigh-wheelloggingwherelogsweresuspendedunderanarchthatconnectedasetoflargewoodenwheels.Highwheels,astheywerecalled,werepulledbyhorsesoroxen,andlatersteampoweredtractors.Beginninginthe1880’s,railroadswithspecialgearedlocomotiveswereusedtotransportthelogsfromtheforesttothemill.Threewell-knowngeardrivenlocomotivesweremanufacturedbyShay,Climax,andHeisler.ManyofthefirstForestServicetimbersaleswererailroadoperations.Agreatimprovementonhaulinglogstotransportationsiteswastheinventionofthestationarysteam-poweredDolbeerdonkeyenginestoyard(pull)logsfromwheretheyfelltoacentrallocation.Theprocesswasreferredtoasgroundleadlogging.

Thecrawler-typetractor,firstpoweredbygasoline,thendieselengines,wasusedbeginninginthe1920’stopulllogsalongthegroundorusedwithbigwheels,archedsteelaxles,andA-frameloggingarches.Inthe1920’s,withtheinventionofthecable-operatedbladebyForestServiceemployeesinPortland,Oregon,the“cat”wasreadytoreplacethedonkeyenginetohaullogsorbuildroadsinalmostanyterrain.Gasoline-thendiesel-poweredloggingtruckswereusedintheforestsbeginningaroundWorldWarI,buttheirmainimpactcameshortlyaftertheendofWorldWarII.Sincethattimealmostallloggingoperationsonnationalforestshaveusedloggingroadsandtruckstocarrylogsfromtheforesttothemill.


Newertechnologicalinventions,suchashigh-leadloggingwithaspartree,skylinefull-suspensionsystemswithoneormorespartreesortowers,bal-loon,andhelicopteroperations,allowedlogstobecarriedhighovertheforestwithverylittledraggingofthelogsthroughtheoftensteep,rug-gedcountrywithfragilesoils.Manyofthesenewsystemswouldbecomerequiredonthesteepmountainouscountrythatwascharacteristicofmanynationalforests.

Thefirstpowersawwasbuiltinthe1870’swhentheRansomesteamtree-fellerwasdesigned.Whatmayhavebeenthefirstgasoline-poweredchainsawwastestedin1905atEureka,California.Theseearlyexperimentswerefollowedbyair-andelectric-poweredmodels.Moderatelysuccessfuldrag(reciprocating)sawswereusedtocutfallenlogstolengthandtomakeshortboltsforshingles.Alloftheseexperimentalmodelsprovedtobetoocum-bersome,tooheavy,andtooundependable.Thenin1927,AndreasStihlofStuttgart,Germany,builtaportable,gasoline-poweredchainsawthatrevo-lutionizedtheindustry.ButbecauseoftheGreatDepression,powersawsremainedrelativelyrareuntilafterWorldWarII.

Thechainsawsoonreplacedthecrosscutandbucksawsforfellingtrees,aswellastheremainingaxwork.Thechainsawalsomadenewfellingtech-niquespossible.Inthebigtimbercountry,theHumboldtundercutwasused.Afteraninitialhorizontalcutonthetreetrunk,asecondanglewassaweduptothehorizontalcut;thenthe“wedge”ofwoodbetweenthetwocutswasremovedfromthestump.Thetreetrunkwasthencutfromthebacksidealongthehorizontalcutonthefrontsideuntilitwouldfalldown.Thiswouldleavethebuttendofthelogwithasquareend.

Bythe1940’s,hydraulicshearsappearedthatcouldcutthroughstandingtreeswhenpressurewasappliedtoheavy-dutyblades.Bythe1960’s,ava-rietyoftractor-mountedshearswereinuse,withmanymachinesdesignednotonlytocutthetrees,butalsotoremovethebarkandlimbs,cutthetreetodesiredlengths,andstackthelogs.Thesenewsystemsworkedverywellonrelativelyflatterrainandwithsmall-diametertrees.Anotheradvantagewasthattheycouldoperateduringeitherthedayornight.

Otherinventionshaveplayedrolesintheevolutionofloggingtechnology,someofwhichhavecomeintowidespreaduse—otherslimiteduse.WithincreasingpressurefromtheFederalagenciestoreducegrounderosiondur-ingandafterloggingoperations,restrictingtheuseofheavyequipmenthasbecomethenorm.Full-suspensionoflogs,useoflow-pressuretire-tractors,selectivecutting,directionalfelling,andaerialremovaloflogsareallmea-suresthatmayberequiredofloggingcompaniesinordertologonnationalforestsorBureauofLandManagementlandstoday.Inanycase,thenewtechniquesandequipmentareeasierontheland,usuallymoreefficient,butalsomorecostly.


H.J. Andrews

USDAForestService

Research Builds

Duringthesameperiod,nationalforestresearchcameofage.Researchsta-tionsandnewexperimentalforestsconductedstudiestofindbetterwaystoharvesttrees,constructnewroads,andmeasuretheeffectsofloggingandroadsonstreamsandwatersheds.Asystemofmultifunctionalresearchcenterswasestablishedin1946,witheachcenterconcernedaboutitsownassignedresearchterritory,andanewprogramwasdesignedtoaddresslocalforestandrangeprob-lems,withapplicationstoregionalandnationalissues.

Experimen-tal Forest Willamette National For-est (Oregon), 1953

TheBLMintheDepartmentoftheInteriorwasformedin1946fromtheGraz-ingServiceandtheGLO.TheBLMcurrentlymanagessome264millionacresofFederalland—mostlygrazinglandwiththeexceptionoftheoldO&CRailroadGrantlandinwesternOregon,whichisheavilytimbered.

Forest Protection

TheForestPestControlActof1947pavedthewayforincreasedprotectionfrompestoutbreaks.TheactencouragedFederal,State,andprivatecooperationintheprevention,control,andeveneradicationofforestinsectsanddiseasesthatreducedtreegrowthorkilledtrees.In1948,theForestServicebecameinvolvedintheYazoo-LittleTallahatchieFloodPreventionProject—thelargesttreeplant-ingprogramthecountryhaseverknown–withsome621,000acresplanted.Theprojectwasdesignedtorehabilitateseverelyerodinglands–withsomegulliesasmuchas50feetdeep—inMississippi.TheUSDASoilConservationService(nowcalledtheNaturalResourcesConservationService),aswellasotherFederal,State,19counties,andmanylocalagencies,cooperatedinthisextensiveprojectuntilitendedin1985.Newtechnologyineveryfieldbecameveryimportantinmanagingtheforests.


Richard E. McArdle— Eighth Chief, 1952-1962

RichardEdwinMcArdlewasbornonFebru-ary25,1899,inLexington,Kentucky.In1952,McArdlebecameChiefoftheForestService.AsthefirstChieftoholdaPh.D.andtohavebeenaresearcher,hefelttheneedforbalancedmanagementofthenationalforests.DuringhistenureasChief,The Timber Resource Reviewwaspublished;itevaluatedthetotaltimberresourcesintheUnitedStates.ThelandmarkMultiple-UseSustained-YieldActof1960establishedpolicyforthebroaddevelopmentandadministrationofthenationalforestsinthepublicinterest.

McArdlewassuccessfulinincreasingintensivemanagementofthenationalforests,aswellasprovidingforreforestationofloggedandotherlands,curbingminingandgrazingabuses,andacceleratingvariousrecreationprojects.Duringhistenure,theForestServicewasassignedthemanage-mentof4millionacresofwesternplainslandsdesignatedasnationalgrasslands.McArdlealsowasinstrumentalinupgradingForestServicepersonnel,hiringnewspecialiststobringaboutintensivemanagement,andincreasingtheprofessionalismofemployees.Heimprovedrelationswiththetimberindustrybybackingawayfromearlierproposalstoregulatetimberharvestingpracticesonprivatelands.

RichardE.McArdlewrote:

FarmwoodlandandothersmallprivateforestsholdthekeytothisNation’sfuturetimbersupply.Theselands,generallyinpoorcondition,arethegreatestpotentialsourceofwoodfiber.Pro-ducingmorewoodontheselandsrequiresconcertedeffortbyStateandFederalforests,forestindustries,andthelandowners.

New Specialists and Land

Duringthe1950’s,forestengineers,landscapearchitects,andsilviculturistsbecamecommonintheForestService.In1954,theagencybecameresponsibleformanagingapproximately4millionacresof“landutilizationprojects”(referredtoasL-Ulands),whichwerebasicallygrazinglandsontheGreatPlains.Theselands,acquiredbytheFederalGovernmentduringtheDepressionyearsofthe1930’s,wereinmanycasesrelinquishedorabandonedfarms.In1960,theearlierlandutilizationprojectsbecamethefirstnationalgrasslands.

In1953,theDepartmentofAgriculturetransferredforestinsectanddiseasere-searchandcontrolworkfromotherDepartmentagenciestotheForestService.


NATIONAL GRASSLANDS

AdaptedfromTerryWest’sEssayonNationalGrasslands

TheoriginoftheUSDAForestService-administerednationalgrasslandsbeginswiththedisposalofpubliclandsintheearly20thcentury.TheEn-largedHomesteadActof1909,forexample,offeredfreelandtothosewhowouldcultivatetheGreatPlains.MarketdemandforwheatduringandafterWorldWarIfurthermotivated“sodbusters”tosettlepreviouslybypassedgrasslandareasandplowthemforcultivation.

Theremovalofthegrassthathelddownthesoilonthesemarginalfarmlandscontributedtotheerosionofthe“dustbowl”inthedroughtyearsofthe1930’s.Inthatdecade,anestimated21/2millionpeopleabandonedtheirsmallfarms,mainlyontheplains.Manyofthemmigratedtothewestcoasttoworkinthefields.TheyoungauthorJohnSteinbeckwassoaffectedbythesightofthesefamiliespouringintoCaliforniatoworkthefruitharveststhatheimmortalizedtheminthenovelThe Grapes of Wrath.TheeconomicandecologicalplightoftheNationspurredGovernmentactiontoaddresstheeffectsoftheDepression,especiallyinthe“dustbowl”areaoftheGreatPlains.

In1931,anationalconferenceentitled“LandUtilization”calledforasurveyofsubmarginalfarmlands.Oncetheselandswereidentified,theGovern-mentbegantopurchasethemundertheauthorizationoftheNational

Little Missouri National Grassland, Custer Na-tional Forest (North Dakota), 1995

USDAForestService


IndustrialRecoveryActof1933andEmergencyReliefAppropriationsActof1935.Theaimwastocontrolerosion,producemoreforage,andensureeconomicstabilityforruralresidentswhohadremained.Depletedcroplandwasplantedwithgrassandthegrazingofcattleandsheeponthepublicrangelandschangedfromyeararoundgrazingtograzingonarotatingbasis.Variousgovernmentprogramsundertookwaterandsoilconservationproj-ects.

ThepurchasedlandswerecalledLandUtilization(L-U)projectsafterthetitleofthe1931conference.TheGovernmentobtainedtitleto11.3mil-lionacresin45Statesfor$47.5million(about$4.40anacre)byvoluntarysales.AftertheL-Ulandswerepurchased,theywereusedforpracticaldem-onstrationsofthebestsoilconservationtechniquestosetanexampleforadjacentprivatelandholders.Between1933and1946,therewere250L-Uprojectsthatfocusedongrazing,forests,recreation,wildlife,andwatershedprotection.DuringtheDepressionyears,reliefagencieshiredunemployedlocalstoworkonL-Usoilconservationprojects,enablingmanywhostayedonthelandtosurvive.SpecificprojectsoftheSoilConservationService(SCS)(nowNaturalResourcesConservationService)includedbuildingstockwaterpondsandreservoirs,plantingtrees,seedinggrasslands(withcrested-wheatgrass,abunchgrassoriginallyimportedfromSiberia),andcontrollingerosionandfire.

ThelandswerefirstadministeredbytheU.S.ResettlementAdministration,latercalledtheFarmSecurityAdministration.TheBankhead-JonesFarmTenantActof1937gavecustodyoftheL-UlandstotheSecretaryofAg-ricultureandauthorizedmoreextensiveconservationefforts.In1938,theSCSwasgiventhetaskofmanagingtheL-Ulands.TheperiodafterWorldWarIIwasoneofintenserangerehabilitationbytheSCS.

BySecretaryofAgricultureAdministrativeOrderdatedDecember24,1953(effectiveJanuary2,1954),managementoftheremaining5.5millionacresofL-UlandswastransferredfromtheSCStotheForestService.Theorigi-nalintentwasthattheForestServiceactasinterimmanagerpendingfinaldisposaloftheseacquiredlands.By1958,about1.5millionacreshadbeenincorporatedintoadjacentnationalforests.Discussionoverthefutureoftheselandscontinued.

OnJune20,1960,some3,804,000acresweredesignatedasthe19na-tionalgrasslands.TheForestServicewasnowresponsiblefortheperma-nentretentionandmanagementofthegrasslands.The1960orderstatedthatthenationalgrasslandsweretobeadministeredaspartoftheNationalForestSystemundertheBankhead-JonesFarmTenantActandthattheFor-estServicewastomanagetheselandsforoutdoorrecreation,range,tim-ber,watershed,andwildlifeandfish.Thisnewtaskcreatedsomeinternalconfusionabouttheplaceofthenationalgrasslandsintheagencyandtheirnationalfunction.


WhentheForestServicetookovermanagementofthegrasslands,existingSCSpolicieswerenotreadilyacceptedbytheForestService.TheForestServicehadmanagedrangelandfor50yearsandmanyofitsrangestafffeltthatthenewnationalgrasslandsshouldabidebyestablishedagencypractic-es.Oneareaofdifferencewasworkingwithgrazingassociations.In1939,theSCShadenteredintocooperativeagreementswithGreatPlainsStates’grazingassociationsanddistricts.TheseassociationsoriginatedontheGreatPlainsasearlyas1931whenstockmenorganizedtorequestthatCongresswithdrawpublicdomainlandfromhomesteadingandpermitittobeleasedonalong-termbasis.

ForestServiceofficialswerereluctanttosurrendertograzingassociationscontrolofactivitiessuchasissuingpermits,collectingfees,andcontrollingtrespassandfires.However,themasstransferofSCSemployeesinMon-tanaandtheDakotastotheForestServiceinthistransitionperiodledtotheeventualacceptanceofmanyoftheSCSpractices.Thecurrentpolicyistorelyongrazingassociationswherepractical.ThisarrangementismostcommoninthelargerL-UrangelandsinthenorthernGreatPlains.Bythe1970’s,nationalgrasslandsinnorthernNewMexico,Oklahoma,andTexasceasedtohavegrazingassociations.Instead,theForestServiceissuedindi-vidualgrazingpermitsandfencedoffgrasslandunitstomakeseparatepas-tures.Thechangewasalogicaladaptationtotheregion’secologyandlandusepatterns.(TheL-UlandspurchasedinNewMexico-Oklahoma-TexasareaweresmallerthanthoseonthenorthernGreatPlains.Forexample,theBlackKettle[Texas]allotmentsrangedfrom30to1,500acres.)

Thenationalenvironmentalfocusofthe1970’sand1980’sonthenationalforestsspilledovertothenationalgrasslands.Districtrangersonbothnationalgrasslandsandnationalforestdistrictsfoundthatlocalconcernsoverspecificprojectimpactsweretransformedintonationalissues.Onthegrasslandsthishasmeanttheemploymentofmorewildlifebiologistsandanincreasedstressonnoncommodityresources.

Inthelate-1990’s,managementofthenationalgrasslandsintheDakotaswasgivengreateremphasiswhentheyweregiventhesamemanagementtreatmentasthenationalforests–onesupervisor’sofficetomanageseveralgrasslands.Futuremanagementofthenationalgrasslandswillinvolvemanymorespecialists,ecosystemmanagement,collaborativestewardship,andcooperativeeffortsbetweenallthespecialinterestgroups.Itwillnotbeaneasytask.

Mining

In1955,theMultiple-UseMiningActhelpedpreventabusesofmininglawsandcurtailminingabusesthatinterferedwithmanagingnationalforestlands.Anim-portantfeatureofthislawwasthat,afterpropernotice,miningclaimantscould


berequestedtoprovethevalidityoftheirminingclaims.Thisprocedurequicklyeliminatedthousandsofabandonedminingclaimsonthenationalforests.

Theyear1956sawthefirstpracticalairplanetankerairdropofwaterandchemi-calsonaforestfire.ManyoftheairplaneswereconvertedWorldWarIIbomb-ers,nowwiththeirbombbayswerefullofBorateandothermixturesratherthanbombs.

Air Tanker Dropping Chemical on a Fire

USDAForestService

MINING ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS


“Prosperousminingisimpossiblewithoutprosperousforests,”ForestSer-viceChiefGiffordPinchottoldtheminingindustryin1901inhisquestforsupportforforestconservationandFederalforestreserves.Thelinkagebe-tweenthefortunesofminingandforestsintheUnitedStatesgrewfollowingdiscoveryoftherichComstocksilverlodeatVirginiaCity,Nevada–largeundergroundminesneededminetimberstosupportthetunnels.Between1860and1880,anestimated600millionboardfeetoftimberfromSierraNevadaforestswereusedintheComstock.Manynewsawmillswerebuiltaroundthecountrytosupplyminetimbersfromlocalforests.

Pinchotwasaftermorethanjustaskingminerstoconservelumberwhenhetoldthemabouttherelationshipbetweenforestryandmining.MinersandprospectorshadbeenearlyopponentsoftheproposedFederalforestreserves.TheyworriedthatminingwouldberestrictedonsuchreservesandvoicedtheirconcernsinthecongressionaldebateovertheOrganicActof1897.


TheGeneralLandOffice’s(GLO)firsttimbersale(CaseNo.1)wasmadein1898totheHomestakeMiningCompanyfortimberfromtheBlackHillsForestReserve.Homestakepurchased15millionboardfeetatadollarperthousand.Thecontractrequiredthatnotreessmallerthan8inchesindiameterberemoved,andthatthebrushresultingfromtheharvestbe“piled.”

TheFederalGovernment’sregulationofminingwasnotacriticalissueinCongressuntiltheCaliforniaGoldRushof1849andlaterrushesinColo-rado,Nevada,Idaho,andMontana.These“finds”resultedinclaimsbeingworkedonpublicdomainlands.AftertheCivilWar,Congresspassedanumberoflawsintendingtoestablishsomesemblanceofordertothemin-ingindustry.Twooftheselaws—theLodeLawof1866andthePlacerActof1870—merelylegalizedwhathadbeentheunofficial“lawoftheland.”

TheGeneralMiningLawof1872consolidatedtheearlierlawsandcon-firmedtheprinciplethatmineralsfoundonpublicdomainlandbelongedtothepersonwhofound(located)them.The1872lawalso:

• Setstandardsformakingmineralclaimsonpublicland• Setnoroyaltyfeesforproduction• Setfeesfortransferofthelandfrompublictoprivateownership($2.50

peracre)• Setthesizeoftheclaims• Allowedaclaimanttoholdthelandindefinitelyaslongasminimalwork

wascompleted($100valueperyear)ontheclaim

Aclaimwassetat20acres,withnolimitonthenumberofclaimsthatcouldbefiled.Apersoncouldholdhisclaimbyperforming$100worthofworkeachyearorbyobtainingpermanentlegalownershipofthemineralsandlandsurfacebypayingafeeto“patent”theclaim.Mostimportantly,theclaimantwasgrantedlegalclaimtothediscoveryofavaluablemineraldeposit.

ThetransferoftheforestreservesfromtheDepartmentoftheInteriortotheDepartmentofAgriculturein1905removedmuchoftheUSDAforesters’impedimentinregulatingtheforestreserves;however,miningremainedundercontroloftheDepartmentoftheInterior.RichardBallinger,ap-pointedin1907toheadGLOandelevatedtoSecretaryoftheInteriorin1909,differedwithChiefGiffordPinchotovercoalclaimsinAlaska.Ballingerwantedthempatented,whilePinchotarguedforFederalleasing.Pinchotfearedanationalcoalfaminewouldresultiftheprivatesectorwasallowedcompletefreedomtoexploitcoalfieldswithoutconcernforfutureneeds.TheminingindustrydepictedPinchotasouttocurtailthecitizen’srighttoengageinfreeenterprise—the“littleguy”wasbeingcrushedbyGovernment.By1910,thedisputebetweenPinchotandBallingerreachedthepointthatPresidentTaftfiredPinchot.Historiansnownotethatthecoal


debatewasonlyasmallpartoftheconflictbetweenPinchot,PresidentTaft,andhiscabinetovernaturalresourcemanagementpolicies.

In1920,CongresspassedtheMineralLeasingAct,whichincorporatedoilandnaturalgas,oilshale,phosphates,sulfates,carbonites,andothersurfaceandsubsurfaceresourcesunderasystemofrentalandroyaltyfees.TheGovernmentstillretainedownershipoftheland.The1947MaterialsDis-posalActsetstandardsfortheFederalGovernmenttosellmaterialssuchassand,gravel,buildingstone,clay,pumice,andcindersfromFederallands.Competitivebiddingwasanintegralpartoftheact.

Intheearly1950’s,theForestServiceandseveralconservationgroupslaunchedacampaigntoexposeabusesfoundunderthevariousmininglaws.Theresultinginvestigationsfoundwidespreadproblems—miningclaimswerebeingusedashomeandrecreationcabinsites,excusestocutthetimber,fishingandhuntingcampsinremoteareas,commercialbusi-nesses,andeventrashdumps.CongressrespondedbypassingtheMultiple-UseMiningActof1955.Asaresult,theForestServicewasabletoreclaimthousandsof“mineral”claimsthatwereneverusedfortheirauthorizedandintendedpurpose,othersthathadnominerals,andevenmorethathadnotliveduptoannualworkrequirementsontheclaim.

TheFederalLandPolicyandManagementAct(FLPMA)of1976changedtheproceduresforfilingmineralclaims—thepaperworkhadtobefiledwiththeBureauofLandManagement(ratherthanthelocalcountycourt-house)andallclaimsneededtoberefiledby1979.AsaresultofFLPMA,theFederalGovernmentfoundthatsome1.1millionminingclaimswerelocatedonFederallandsandalsoeliminatedmanyfraudulentclaims.

Legislationto“fix”theGeneralMiningLawof1872hasbeenproposedmanytimesovertheyears,buteveryefforthasbeensuccessfullyblockedbytheminingindustryandwesterncongressionaldelegations.

Recreation and Timber Demands

Recreationaldemandsonthenationalforestswereincreasing;millionsofnewvisitorsusedthenationalforestsandparks.“OperationOutdoors,”a5-yearpro-gramdesignedtoimproveandreplacemanyoftheolderCCC-builtstructures,waslaunchedin1957toexpandtherecreationfacilitiesandopportunitiesonthenationalforeststomeetdemand.

In1958,theForestServiceissuedtheresultsofthenationwideTimberResourceReview,“TimberResourcesforAmerica’sFuture.”Thisextensivenationalstudy,begun6yearsearlierandpreparedwiththeassistanceofotherFederal,State,andprivateorganizations,foundthattheNationneededtogrowmoretimbertomeetexpecteddemands.Thestudywasapreviewofmoreextensivetimberresourceassessmentsthatwouldbemadeinthefuture.

The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �0�

Atthesametime,therewasagrowingconcernthattheForestServicewasclearcuttingtoomanyareasthatwerealsousedforrecreation.Thisissueandothersaboutresourceprioritieswouldinvolvemanyoutdoorgroups,timberindustryorganizations,theForestService,andCongress,andwouldresultintheMultiple-UseSustained-YieldActof1960.

Mostofthenationalforestswere“openedup”throughanextensivenetworkofroadsfortimber,recreation,andprotectionactivities.Manyoftheoldertrailswerereplacedbythegrowingroadsystemusedtoaccessremoteforestareas.

Winter Olym-pics at Squaw Valley, Tahoe National For-est (Califor-nia), 1960

USDAForestService

�0� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century

The Fully Managed, Multiple-Use Forest Era, �9�0-�970

I ntheearly1960’s,anewwaveofnationalconcernabouttheconserva- tionofnaturalresourcesbegan.Itresultedinseveralcontroversiesover themanagementofthenationalforestsandinthepassageofmanyenvi-ronmentalprotectionlaws.

Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of �9�0

ThefirstoftheenvironmentalprotectionlawswastheMultiple-UseSustained-YieldActof1960.Itspurposewastoensurethatallpossibleusesandbenefitsofthenationalforestsandgrasslandswouldbetreatedequally.The“multipleuses”includedoutdoorrecreation,range,timber,watershed,andwildlifeandfishinsuchcombinationsthattheywouldbestmeetandservehumanneeds.

Wildlife Biologist Bernie Carter Measuring Seed Production,Umatilla National Forest (Oregon), 1964

USDAForestService

ThisactwasnecessarybecausemanymembersofCongressandinterestgroupsfeltthattheForestServicewasgivingtoomuchattentiontotimberharvestingonthenationalforests—just15yearsafterthehugepost-wardevelopmentpushtoopenthenationalforestsforneededtimbertobeusedinthenationalhous-ingboom.Multiple-useforestrywasin“full-swing,”withanincreasingemphasisbeingplacedonnontimberresources,whiletimberproductionincreasedtothemaximumintheprivatesectorandapproachedthatforthenationalforests.


Hiker at In-dian Peaks Wilderness on the Roosevelt National Forest (Colorado)

Intheearly1960’s,thefamilyofGiffordPinchotdonatedGreyTowers,thefamilyhomeandsurroundinglandinMilford,Pennsylvania,totheForestService.Extensivestabilizationandrepairworkwasneededonthemagnificentbuilding.GreyTowersisoneoftwoForestServicebuildingslistedasaNationalHistoricLandmark.TheotheristheTimberlineLodgeonthesouthfaceofOregon’sMt.HoodontheMt.HoodNationalForest.ThenewlyformedPinchotInstituteforConservationStudieswasdedicatedatGreyTowersbyPresidentJohnF.KennedyonSeptember24,1963.ThePinchotInstitutecurrentlyresidesinWashington,DC.

USDAForestService


Oregon Governor Mark Hatfield and Astronaut Walter Cunningham Talk-ing During Moon Walks Preparation on Lava Beds, Oregon, Willamette and Deschutes National Forests

PhotoCredit:USDAForestService

President Kennedy and Chief Cliff at Pinchot Institute Dedication (Pennsylvania), 1963


Edward P. Cliff— Ninth Chief, 1962-1972

EdwardParleyCliffwasborninthetinycom-munityofHeberCity,Utah,onSeptember3,1909.ServingasChieffrom1962to1972,Cliffexperiencedadecadeofrapidchangewithintheagencyandaroundthecountry.Hedevotedmuchtimetopromotingabetterunderstand-ingofpublicforestmanagementproblemswithgrazinginterestsandthetimberindustry—andespeciallywiththegeneralpublic.Publicinter-estinthemanagementofthenationalforests,aswellasdemandsfornumerousforestresources,expandedduringthisera.HehelpedtheForest

Servicedevelopalong-rangeforestresearchprogram.

ImportantforthenationalforestrecreationistswasCliff’svisionofmovingtheForestServiceintomorerecreationalimprovementsandprograms–causedbyan“explosion”inoutdoorrecreation—hiking,camping,wilder-nesstravel,mountainclimbing,andmanyothernationalforestoutdooractivities.TheWildernessActof1964gavecongressionalblessingtoanewNationalWildernessPreservationSystemandestablishedmorethan9mil-lionacresofpreviously“wild”or“wilderness”areasasthecore.TheForestServicehostedthenewJobCorpsprogram,whichoperatedover50campsonnationalforestlands.Theagencyalsobecameinvolvedinthenationwidenaturalbeautycampaign,ruralareadevelopment,andthewaronpoverty.

EdwardP.Cliffwrote:

Asthepopulationofthecountryrisesanddemandsonthetim-ber,forage,water,wildlife,andrecreationresourcesincrease,thenationalforestsmoreandmoreprovideforthematerialneedsoftheindividual,theeconomiesofthetownsandStatesandcon-tributetotheNation’sstrengthandwell-being.Thusthenationalforestsservethepeople.

MULTIPLE-USE SUSTAINED-YIELD ACT OF 1960

TheMultiple-UseSustained-YieldActofJune12,1960(MUSY),wasthecongressionalembodimentof55yearsofForestServicemanagementandpolicy.TheOrganicActof1897guidedtheagencyfordecadeswiththemanagementideasofprotectionoftheforestsandwaterandtheproductionoftimber.Forthemostpart,Federalforestmanagementwasnotcontrover-


sialduringthisperiod,butmajorchangeswereonthehorizon.Partofthereasonfortheactwasarealizationthateveryonecouldnotgeteverythingtheywantedorneededfromthenationalforests’finiteresources.Evenanequalbalancingactbetweentheavailablenaturalresourceswasnotpos-sible.

Bythemid-1950’s,thefirstinklingofashiftinmanagementphilosophycamewiththecongressionaldebatesaboutmultiple-usebills.ThefirstwasintroducedbySenatorHubertH.HumphreyofMinnesota.Basically,therewasagrowingconcernthatinthedecadeofrapiddevelopmentofthena-tionalforestssincetheendofWorldWarII,theForestServicewasleaningsomuchtowardmanagingoftimberthatotherresources,especiallyrecre-ation,weregettingshortshrift.

Initially,theForestServicewasopposedorneutraltoamultiple-usebill.However,theForestServicewasbeginningtofeeltheheatfromgrowingoppositiontoitspoliciesaboutlogginginornearrecreationsites.OnefocusofthiscontentionwasinCalifornia’sDeadmanCreekarea.The3,000-acresitecontainedastandofold-growthJeffreypine.WhentheForestServiceannouncedplanstodo“sanitationsalvage”inthearea,reactionwasswiftandallegationsweremadethattherecreationandscientificvalueswerebe-ingignoredforthetimbervalue.SimilarconflictsaroseinmanypartsoftheWest.

Bythelate1950’s,theconservationgroupsgenerallysupportedtheHum-phreybill,withtheexceptionoftheSierraClub,whichfeltthatsupportofthemultiple-usebillwouldjeopardizeitseffortstopassawildernessbill.Duringthespringof1960,agreementsweremadewithvariousgroupstoclarifywordingintheactsothattimberwouldnotdominate,thatrecre-ationwouldbeequaltootherresourceusesonthenationalforests,andthattheOrganicActof1897wouldonlybesupplemented,notreplaced.

Aftertheactwassignedin1960,theForestServicewasactiveinmanagingthenationalforestswhereallresources(timber,wildlife,range,water,andoutdoorrecreation)weretreatedequally.Manyrangersdidtheirutmosttoembodytheprinciplesofmultipleuseintotheirmanagement.Forsome,however,theactsimplyredefinedwhattheForestServicehadbeendoingfordecades:Timberharvestingandroadconstruction.Manypeopleout-sidetheagencysawthatforestswerenotmanagedanydifferentlyunderMUSY—itwasstilljustaroadleadingtoanuglyclearcut.This example of redefinition of the old ways rather than managing differently on the ground had implications for the forest management controversies of the 1970’s, 1980’s, and 1990’s.


ThepassageoftheWildernessActof1964,opposedbytheForestSer-viceasbeingauthorizedbyMUSY,setthestageforstridentantagonismexpressedbytheoldconservationorganizationsandnewenvironmentalgroupsthatwouldbefeltbytheForestServicetothisday.Oneimpor-tantaspectoftheMUSYwasthecreationofmultiple-useplanning,whichbroughtanumberofnewspecialistssuchassoilscientistsandwildlifebiologistsintodailylandmanagementdecisions.

Work Programs

In1963,theForestServicebecameinvolvedwiththeAcceleratedPublicWorks(APW)programthatwasdesignedtoputunemployedmen(therewerestillnowomenontheseprojects)toworkonprojectstodeveloporimprovenationalforestresources.The1963-64programprovidedimmediateworkforover9,000menonmorethan100nationalforestsin35States.Italsobroughtincreasedbusinesstomanycommunitiesadjacenttonationalforests—providingmuch-neededbooststotheireconomies.APWprojectsincludedworkingoncampandpicnicareas;plantingtrees;thinningtimberstands;improvingfishandwildlifehabitat;andconstructingorimprovingroads,trails,firelookouts,andotherfacilities.

USDAForestService

Ojibway Job Corps Enrollee and Ottawa Na-tional Forest Fish Biologist Taking Water Samples, Ottawa National Forest (Michi-gan),1967

Anewworkprogramforyoung,unemployedyouthbeganin1964andwascalledtheJobCorps.TheJobCorpswasdesignedtogiveyoungmen(youngwomenwereadmittedlater)fromdeprivedbackgroundsbasicschooling,traininginskills,andvalu-ablejobexperiencebeforetheyreturnedtotheirhomecommunities.ItresembledtheolderCCCprogramoftheGreatDepression—par-ticipantswereinvolvedinfirefighting,communitywork,buildingconstruction,andforestryactivitiesonthenationalforests.In1989,theJobCorpsprogramcel-ebratedits25thanniversary,havingservedmorethan1.4millionyouths.


Wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers Acts

Afteryearsofstruggle,theWildernessActof1964wassignedintolaw.ThisuniquelawestablishedaNationalWildernessPreservationSystemofmorethan9millionacres—incorporatingtheexistingForestServicewildernessareasandcreatingseveralnewones.OneprovisionintheWildernessActcalledforevalua-tionofanynationalforestareasthatwerewithoutroads(hencethename“roadlessareas”)thatmightbeconsideredforfuturewildernessstatus.In1967,theForestServiceundertookaRoadlessAreaReviewandEvaluation(RARE)toidentifyandstudythese“de factowildernesses.”

TheWildandScenicRiversActof1968authorizedanumberofimportant,dis-tinctiveriverstobeclassifiedaswild,scenic,andrecreational.Today,theForestServicemanagesmorethan4,000milesofsuchriversonnearly100riversorriversegments.

USDAForestService

John Muir Wilderness, Sierra Na-tional Forest (California), 1963


WILDERNESS ACT AND HOWARD ZAHNISER

PassageoftheWildernessActof1964involveddecadesofworkonthepartofmanypeoplebothinsidetheForestServiceandfromavarietyofinter-estgroups.Asearlyasthe1910’sand1920’stherewereseveralimportantproponentsofwildernessdesignationinthenationalforests.ThreemenareconsideredpivotalintheseearlyyearsandallwereForestServiceemploy-ees:AldoLeopold,ArthurH.Carhart,andRobertMarshall.Theireffortsweresuccessfulatthelocallevelincreatingadministrativelydesignatedwildernessprotectionforseveralareasacrossthecountry.Atthenationalpolicylevel,therewasaseriesofpolicydecisions(L-20andURegulations)inthe1920’sand1930’sthatmadewildernessandprimitiveareadesigna-tionrelativelyeasy,butwhatwaslackingwasacommonstandardofman-agementacrossthecountryfortheseareas.Also,sincethesewildernessandprimitiveareaswereadministrativelydesignated,thenextChieforRegionalForestercould“undesignate”anyoftheareaswiththestrokeofapen.

HowardC.Zahniser,executivesecretaryoftheWildernessSociety(foundedbyBobMarshall),becametheleaderinamovementforcongressionallydes-ignatedwildernessareas.Asearlyas1949,ZahniserdetailedhisproposalforFederalwildernesslegislationinwhichCongresswouldestablishana-tionalwildernesssystem,identifyappropriateareas,prohibitincompatibleuses,listpotentialnewareas,andauthorizeacommissiontorecommendchangestotheprogram.Nothingmuchhappenedtotheproposal,butit

Canoeing on the Wild and Scenic Chattooga River, Sum-ter National Forest (South Carolina), 1986

USDAForestService

��0 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century

didraisetheawarenessfortheneedtoprotectwildernessesandprimitiveareasfromallformsofdevelopment.

In1955,ZahniserbegananefforttoconvinceskepticsandCongresstosupportabilltoestablishaNationalWildernessPreservationSystem.HesoughttorallypublicopinionthroughwritinginThe Living Wildernessandotherpublications,aswellasorganizingmanytalkstocitizensgroupsacrossthecountry.Draftsofabillwerecirculatedthenextyear.Bythelate1950’s,itseemedthatthewildernessbillwouldeventuallybecomelaw,buttherewerestillmanylegislativebattlestobefought.Atthesametime,theMultiple-UseSustained-YieldAct(MUSY)wasalsobeingpushedthroughCongress.SomehavesuggestedthattheForestServicestronglysupportedMUSYtocounteractthewildernesslegislation.AfterthepassageofMUSYin1960,therewerealsomanywhofeltthattherewasnoneedforasepa-ratewildernessbillbecausewildernesswasoneofthemanymultipleusesallowedintheact.SenatorHubertH.Humphrey(D-MN)becameamajorsupporterofthewildernessbill,butStatewateragencies,andmining,tim-ber,andagriculturalinterestswereverymuchopposed.TheForestServiceand,ironically,theNationalParkServicewerealsobothinitiallyopposedtothebill.Thewildernessbill,whichwasstalledforseveralyearsinCongress,finallycameoutofcommitteewithacompromisethatallowedmininginnationalforestwildernessesuntil1984.

Ironically,HowardZahniser,whopushedsohardfortheact,diedonMay5,justafewmonthsbeforethebillbecamelaw.DougScott,policydirectorofthePewWildernessCenterrecalledHoward’slastdays.“Zahnie[ashewasaffectionatelyknown]wasn’ttheretoseeit[thewildernessbill]...Just2daysaftertestifyingat[thefinalcongressionalhearing],Zahniediedattheageof58...But,hiswidow,Alice,andOlausandtheincomparableMardyMuriestoodatLyndonJohnson’ssidewhenthewildernesslawwaspassed.”PresidentLyndonJohnsonsignedthebillintolawonSeptember3,1964.BecauseofZahniser’srelentlessefforts,hehasoftenbeencalledthe“FatheroftheWildernessAct.”

Theactdesigned9.1millionacresofwilderness,mostlyfromnationalfor-estlands.Overnight,alloftheexistingForestServicewildernessesbecamepartoftheNationalWildernessPreservationSystem.AteamofForestSer-vicewildernessmanagersmetsoonafterwardinWashington,DC,tocomeupwithimplementingregulationsforthesenewcongressionallyestablishedwildernesses.Whattheythoughtwouldbeaneasytasktookmanymonthsastheyfoundthattherewerenoconsistentoragreed-uponwaystoman-agetheexistingwildernesses.PartoftheWildernessActof1964alsosetupprocedurestoevaluateexistingprimitiveandroadlessareasforpossibleinclusionintothewildernesssystem.Forthenext20years,theroadlessar-easreviews(RAREandRAREII)wouldplayanimportantandcontroversialroleinForestServicemanagementofthenationalforests.


Using Litigation To Settle Disputes With the Forest Service

Acontroversyeruptedinthemid-1960’sintheSierraNevadamountainrangeofCalifornia.WaltDisneyEnterprisesproposedaskidevelopmentontheSequoiaNationalForestthatwasdesignedtomaketheMineralKingareaadestinationresort.Severalorganizationsfoughtthedevelopment,whichwouldalsohaveaffectedthenearbySequoiaNationalPark.AlawsuitwasfiledbytheSierraClub(SierraClubv.Morton),buttheorganizationeventuallylostthecase,yetitsetprecedentthatorganizationscoulduselitigationinsettlingdisputeswiththeFor-estService.Theskiareawasneverdeveloped.


The Environmentalism and Public Participation Era, �970-�993

T herewasgrowing,widespreadpublicconcernthatnewlawsand regulationswereneededtopreserveandprotecttheenvironment. SeveraloftheselawsderivedfromanewenvironmentalawarenessbroughtaboutbyRachelCarson’sbookSilent Springin1962,whichdocumentedtheoveruseofpesticides,especiallyDDT.Theuseofchemicals,suchasherbi-cidesandpesticides,cameintocontentiononthenationalforests,leadingtonumerousdemonstrations,lawsuits,andoccasionalviolencebythoseinfavorandthoseopposed.ThesecontroversiesledtheForestServicetoreconsidermanyoftheagency’slandmanagementpractices.

National Environmental Policy Act of �9�9

TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyActof1969(NEPA),signedintolawJanu-ary1,1970,mandatedthatenvironmentalimpactsofproposedFederalprojectsbecomprehensivelyanalyzed.Animportantpartoftheactmadeitmandatorythatagenciesseekpublicparticipationonprojects,fromtheplanningstagetothereview-of-documentsstage.Theserequirementswerequicklyincorporatedintothemanyprojectsthatwereunderwayonthenationalforests.EarthDay,onApril22,1970,foreshadowedthebeginningsofanewandfundamentallydifferentconservation-environmentalmovement.

Public Partici-pating in For-est Planning, 1989

USDAForestService

The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ ��3

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT OF 1969

OnJanuary1,1970,PresidentRichardM.NixonsignedtheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyActof1969(NEPA)—theculminationofyearsofstrugglebyspecialinterestgroupsandtheauthorsoftheact—SenatorHenryM.JacksonandCongressmanJohnD.Dingle.Theactrequiredthatanenvironmentalimpactstatement(EIS)bepreparedwhenanyFederalagencyproposeda“majorFederalactionsignificantlyaffectingthequalityofhumanenvironment.”ThebillhadnotprovokedanymajorcontroversyinCongress,anditonlyreceivedcursorycommentfromlegaljournalsandthepublic.ButitwastohaveprofoundimplicationsforeveryFederallandmanagementagency.

NEPAestablishedathree-memberCouncilonEnvironmentalQuality(CEQ)asapartoftheExecutiveOfficeofthePresident.TheCEQisre-quiredtoassesstheNation’senvironmentalqualityannuallyandreviewallFederalprogramsforcompliancewithNEPA.SectiononeofNEPAstatesthattheFederalGovernment’spolicywillbe“touseallpracticalmeans—tocreateandmaintainconditionsunderwhichmanandnaturecanexistinproductiveharmonyandfulfillthesocial,economicandotherrequirementsofpresentandfuturegenerationsofAmericans.”

TheNEPArequirementforproducingEIS’sonmajorFederalprojectswasfelttobetheminimumnecessarytodescribealltheplannedactivities,al-ternativestoeachproposedaction,andconsequencesofimplementingeachalternativetotheaffectedFederalagenciesandthepublic.Provisionsoftheact,aswellasitsimplementingregulations,requirepublicinvolvement,op-portunitiesforthepublictocomment,andtheagency’sresponsestothesecommentsintheEIS.Aftermorethan25yearsofNEPA,FederalagencieshavepublishedthousandsofEIS’srunningfromafewpagestomanyvol-umesonenvironmentalprojects.

NEPA’sdrivingforcetodayisthroughtheEISprocess.WhilesomehavecriticizedtheNEPAprocessaslongandcostly,itspublicinvolvementandparticipationhaveresultedinmoreinformeddecisionsandagenciesnowemploynewnaturalresourcespecialiststohelptheagencyandthepublicunderstandtheimplicationsofitsdecisionsonthenaturalandhumanen-vironments.CourtchallengestoFederaldecisionshavecausedanincreaseinlitigation.Fromthestandpointofspecialinterestgroups,NEPAhasbeenbothaburdenandagodsend:Aburdenintermsofcostandtimeforproj-ectstartupandagodsendintermsofbetterdecisionsbasedonexpectedconsequencesandimpacts.

NEPAhasopenedawholenewavenueforcitizeninvolvementinFederallandmanagementplanninganddecisionmaking.TheNEPAprocesshasbeensosuccessfulthatprocessespatternedafteritarebeingusedinothercountriessuchasAustraliaandthePhilippines.


Controversies Over Clearcutting

Althoughintensiveforestryandprotectionofthelandhadtakenonevenmoreimportancewiththeadoptionofmanynewforestpracticesandprocedures,cer-tainintensiveforestrypracticesbecameaproblem.Inthelate1960’s,acontrover-sydevelopedoverthemanagementofMontana’sBitterrootNationalForest,whenresidentsbecameconcernedaboutthescenicandreforestationproblemsbeingcausedbyclearcuttingandterracingonsteepslopes.In1970,Montana’sSena-torMetcalfcalledonArnoldBolle,DeanoftheForestrySchoolattheUniversityofMontana,toinvestigatetheallegationsandprepareareport.Bolle’scommitteereportwascriticalofForestServiceoperations,whichwasconsistentwithseveralinternalreportsbytheregionalofficeinMissoula.

USDAForestService

Aerial Spraying

Ontheothersideofthecountry,alegaldecisionagainsttheForestServiceforclearcutloggingontheMonongahelaNationalForest(IzaakWaltonv.Butz)calledtheinterpreta-tionoftheOrganicActof1897intoquestion.Theresultsofthislegalde-cisioncausedanextensivereviewofforestmanagementbytheForestSer-viceandlaterbyCongressin1972.CongressionalhearingswouldlatersetthestagefortheNationalForestManagementActof1976(NFMA).

Skycrane with Logs, Willamette National Forest (Oregon)

USDAForestService


CLEARCUTTING ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS

Clearcutting(fellingandremovingallthetreesfromaspecificarea)hasbeenalong-standingtechniqueusedextensivelyintheUnitedStatesandmostothercountries.Duringthelate1800’sandcontinuingthroughtoday,manypeopleopposedtologging,ingeneral,havefocusedonclearcutting.Ithasalsobeenthefocusofintensivediscussionaboutthepropermethodtoharvestingtreesfortheirwood.

ItwasatGeorgeVanderbilt’sBiltmoreForestEstate(nowpartofthePis-gahNationalForest)inthe1890’sthatGiffordPinchotfirstharboredideasabout“newforestry”—clearcuttingvs.selectiveloggingandleavingyoungtreesstandingduringharvesting,asrecountedinPinchot’s1947autobiog-raphyBreaking New Ground:“TheoldwayoflumberingatBiltmore,andeverywhereelse,wastocutoutalltheyounggrowththatwouldinterferewithcheapandeasylogging,andleavedesolationandafiretrapbehind....Wefoundthatlargetreessurroundedbyadensegrowthofsmallertreescouldbeloggedwithsurprisinglylittleinjurytotheyounggrowth,andthattheaddedcostoftakingcarewassmall,outofproportion,totheresult.Toestablishthisfact...wasofimmenseimportancetothesuccessofForestryinAmerica.”ThusfromthebeginningofprofessionalforestryinAmerica,therewasconcernaboutloggingmethodsthatinvolvedbothecol-ogyandeconomics.

ThefirstmajorcontroversyinvolvingclearcuttingeruptedintheAdirondacksofNewYorkStatein1900-03.AttheCornellDemonstrationForest,BernhardFernow,chairoftheCornellSchoolofForestry,intendedtoconvertthebroadleafforestintoaconiferforest.TheAdirondackscasecameunderpublicscrutiny,withFernoweventuallylosinghispositionatCornellasaresultofthecontroversy,andtheschoolofforestryclosing.

Duringthe1910’sand1920’s,clearcuttingwasemphasizedasthemostdesirablemethodofloggingonnationalforests.Asmostloggingoperationsweretheneitherrailroadorriverlogdrives,theclearcuttingdecisionwaspracticalforthetimberpurchaser.Atthetime,hugeblocksofnationalfor-estweresoldtotimbercompanieswiththeideathatextractingthestandingtimberfromawatershedwouldtakedecades.Buttherewereresearchers,especiallyinthedrypineforestsandelsewhere,whowereadvocatingselec-tivelogging.

InOctober1934,afterreviewingseveralresearchstudies,RegionalFor-esterC.J.BuckdirectedthenationalforestsinwesternOregonandwesternWashingtontobegintimberharvestingbyselectivelogging,ratherthanbyclearcuttinginDouglas-firareas.Basically,therewasafundamentaldis-agreementamongForestServiceandacademicresearchersovertheclearcuttingissue.TwoUniversityofWashingtonforestryprofessors,BurtP.KirklandandAxelJ.F.Brandstorm,arguedthat“selectivetimbermanage-ment”waseconomicallyadvantageousasloggersdidnothavetotakeevery


treeandthatselectiveloggingdidnotlaythelandscapebare.ForestServiceresearchersLeoIsaacandThorntonT.Munger,however,arguedthatselec-tiveloggingwasashort-termeconomicgimmickusedduringtheDepres-sionthatwould,inthelongrun,depletetheforestsasonlytheprimetreeswouldbetakenfromastand,leavingthelessdesirablespeciesonsite.Theyalsoarguedthatselectiveloggingpracticesdamagedthetreesthatremainedonthesiteandthatclearcuttingwasmuchbetter.TheselectiveloggingmethodwasusedinthePacificNorthwestRegionDouglas-firareauntiltheearly1940’s,whenC.J.BuckwasforciblytransferredtotheWashingtonOf-ficeandthepolicychangedtoclearcutting.

ResearchworkcontinuedinthePacificNorthwestandbytheearly1950’stherewasenoughevidencetoconvincemostprofessionalforestersthatclearcuttingwasthemostdesirablemethodtoharvesttreesintheDouglas-firregion.Thesedatawerecompellingfromboththeeconomicsstandpointandtheecologicalstandpointthattheseedlingsrequireddirectsunlighttogrow.However,theresearchworkoverlookedseveralimportantaspectsorconsequencesofclearcutting:Thevisualdisruptionoftheforestforatleastadecadeuntiltheyoungtreesgrewtallandtheaspectofhavingamono-cultureofgeneticallysimilartrees.Even“hiding”clearcutsbehindarowofstandingtalltreesandaneffortto“educate”thepublictotheadvantageofclearcuttingdidnotovercometheillfeelingstowardthismethodoftreeharvesting.Manypeople,thenandnow,believethatclearcuttingisofeco-nomicadvantage,ratherthananecologicalortreeregrowthnecessity.

Inthelate1960’s,Montana’sBitterrootNationalForest,inaburstoftimberharvestinginresponsetothenationalneedsforwood,beganclearcuttingthenterracingthecutoversteepslopesforbetterseedlingregeneration.Thiscausedacontroversy.TheBitterroot’sretiredForestSupervisorledprotests,theMissouliancarriedaseriesofnewsarticles,andSenatorMetcalfcommis-sionedaUniversityofMontanaStudyteamtostudytheallegedmisman-agement.Theuniversityteam—ledbyArnoldBolle,deanoftheschoolofforestry—wasinstrumentalinbringingtheBitterroot’sclearcuttingissuetonationalattention.

AnotherclearcuttingcontroversyonWestVirginia’sMonongahelaNationalForestcontributedsignificantlytothemanagementdebate.TheIzaakWal-tonLeague,anoutdoorandfishingorganization,filedalawsuitonbehalfofseveralturkeyhunters,onthepremisethatthe1897OrganicActdidnotallowclearcutting.In1973,theFederalDistrictCourtruledagainsttheForestService.AftertheFourthCircuitCourtofAppealsalsoruledagainsttheagencyinAugust1975,theForestServiceandCongressdecidedthatsomethinghadtobedonetochangetheoldlawtoallowtimberharvesting.

Thesetwobattlesresultedinaseriesofcongressionalhearingsoverclearcuttingandforestmanagementingeneral.SenatorFrankChurchofIdahoofferedananalysisreportonclearcuttingthatresultedinthe“ChurchGuidelines”forlimitingthesizeofclearcuts.TheForestServicevoluntarily


agreedtostaywithintheguidelines.Clearcutswouldnotexceed40acres.ThefinalresultofthecontroversywaspassageoftheNationalForestMan-agementActof1976(NFMA).

Theproblemswithclearcuttinghavepersisted.TheForestServiceisstilltryingtobackawayfromthiscontroversialmethod.In1992,theChiefoftheForestServiceproposedapolicy,withsevencriteria,thatwouldelimi-nateclearcuttingasastandardpracticeandreduceclearcuttingbyasmuchas70percentfromthe1988level.However,backlashfromenvironmentalgroupsandthetimberindustrycontinuetomakeheadlinesoverclearcuttingandthispolicy.IvanDoiginhisclassic1975article“TheMurkyAnnalsofClearcutting”wrote:“Professionalforesterswerehonestlydis-agreeingaboutsilviculturalalternatives,butmostlyoneconomicgrounds...Allinall,[itshould]...serveasaclassiclessonthatdisputesovertheuseofourforestsarenotgoingtobedecidedonecologicalmeritalone.Nowherenearit.”

Youth Conservation Corps, Young Adult Conservation Corps, and Related Programs

In1970,a3-yearpilotYouthConservationCorps(YCC)programbegan—itbecamefullyestablishedin1974.ItwasdesignedtofurtherthedevelopmentandmaintenanceofnaturalresourcesbyAmerica’syouthbetweentheagesof15and19.Theyoungmaleand femaleYCCmembers,fromallpartsofthecountryandallwalksoflife,spentthesummermonthsworkingonconservationprojectsonthenationalforests.

YCC Members Prepare a Lake Area for Public Use

USDAForestService


During1977,anothernewyouthemploymentprogramarrived—theYoungAdultConservationCorps(YACC).Thisprogramwasintendedtofurtherthede-velopmentandmaintenanceofnaturalresourcesbyAmerica’syoungadults(bothmaleandfemale)betweenages16and23.TheForestServiceprovidedmanyopportunitiesforenrolleestoworkonimportantprojectsonthenationalforests.Thisprogramwasshort-livedbecauseitsfundingwaseliminatedin1981.

WoodsyOwl,thesymbolofantipollutionandwiseuseoftheenvironment,wasintroducedin1971withtheslogan“GiveaHoot,Don’tPollute.”JustaswithSmokeyBear,theWoodsysymbolandsloganareprotectedbylawexceptasau-thorizedforantipollutionprograms.In1997,Woodsy’simagewasupdatedandhismessagebecame“Giveahand,CarefortheLand.”

USDAForestService

Woodsy with Children


In1971,thePresidentsignedtheAlaskaNativeClaimsSettlementActthatauthorizedthetransferof44millionacresoflandinAlaskafromtheFederalGovernmenttovariousAlaskaNativecorporationsinexchangefortheNativesextinguishingaboriginaltitletotheremaininglandsAlaskaNativestraditionallyusedandoccupied.

John R. McGuire— Tenth Chief, 1972-1979

JohnRichardMcGuirewasbornonApril20,1916,inMilwaukee,Wisconsin.WhileservingasChieffrom1972to1979,McGuiremadechangestostrengthenStateandPrivateForestry’sandResearch’sroleinimplementingtheForestandRangelandRenewableResourcesPlanningAct(RPA)of1974andtheNation-alForestManagementAct(NFMA)of1976.McGuirefacedincreasingoppositionforforestrypracticesbeing

carriedoutonthenationalforests.Mostnotablewerethecongressionalhearingsoverclearcuttingonthenationalforests–aresultofcontroversiesonMontana’sBitterrootNationalForestandonWestVirginia’sMonongahelaNationalForest.

McGuirewasinstrumentalinrequiringtheForestServicetoreview,andthenchange,forestmanagementpracticesandmodifyandintegrateitsmethodsoflandmanagement.MajorissuesfacingChiefMcGuireweretheRoadlessAreaReviewandEvaluation(RARE)andRAREIIdecisions;mountingcontroversyoverthemanagementofthenationalforests;newcongressionaldirectionthatmandatedplanningattheforest,region,andnationallevelsthroughRPAandNFMA;andspecialinterestgroups’in-creasedrelianceonlitigationtoinfluencethemanagementofthenationalforests.

JohnR.McGuirewrote:

Perhapsthegreatestchallengefacingforestrytodayisthecalen-dar—namelythearrivalofthe21stcentury.Myquestionis,willAmericanforestrybereadytomeetthe21stcentury?

AmajordeterminantofhowwellAmericanforestrypreparesforthe21stcenturywillbecooperationinresourcesmanagement.ThismeanscooperationamongFederal,State,andprivateown-erships;cooperationacrosslong-standingprofessionalbarriers;andcooperationwithnewanddifferentarrangementsofpeopleandorganizations,atrendwhichisbecomingmoreevidentwitheachpassingyear.Theinterestedgeneralpublicissurprisinglyknowledgeableaboutnaturalresources.Yetpeoplestillneedtohearforestry’smessage—thatsoundforestrypracticescanpro-videbothprotectionanduse.


National Forest Volunteers

TheVolunteersintheNationalForestsActof1972authorizedtheForestServicetorecruitandtrainvolunteerstohelpmanagethenationalforests.Ahighlysuc-cessfulandvisibleprogram,manyofthevolunteersareretiredpeoplewhoenjoyworkingoutdoorsandwiththepublicinawidevarietyofcapacitiesrangingfrombeingcampgroundhoststoassistingwitharchaeologicaldigs.

Volunteer Helping Hikers, Sumter National Forest (South Carolina),1986

USDAForestService

Senior Community Service Employment Program Enrollee Uses a Dado for a Sign on the Colville National Forest (Washing-ton)

USDAForestService


RARE and RARE II

AstheWildernessActof1964provided,thedraftRoadlessAreaReviewandEvaluation(RARE)reportwascompletedin1972.Thiscontroversialwildernessreviewprocessevaluatedsome55.9millionacresoflandand1,449roadlessareasforpossibleinclusionintotheNationalWildernessPreservationSystem.Thefinalreportwaspublishedin1973,with274oftheroadlessareas(12.3mil-lionacres)selectedforpossiblewildernessdesignationbyCongress.Thedeci-sionbecameimmediatelyembroiledincontroversy.AlawsuitinCaliforniaoveraroadlessareathathadnotbeenselectedresultedintheAssistantSecretaryofAgricultureandtheChiefoftheForestServiceorderinganewstudyofallroad-lessareas,calledRAREII,in1977.

French Pete Drainage Wilderness Controversy, Willamette National For-est (Oregon)

Endangered Species Act of �973

TheEndangeredSpeciesActof1973providedforprotectionofrare,threatened,andendangeredanimalandplantspecies.ItestablishedFederalproceduresforidentifyingandprotectingendangeredplantsandanimalsintheirnative,criti-calhabitats.Itdeclaredbroadprohibitionsagainsttaking,hunting,harming,orharassingthelistedspecies.Theintentoftheactwastorestoreendangeredspe-ciestolevelswhereprotectionwouldnolongerbeneeded.Implementingthisactwouldhavedrasticconsequencesonthemanagementofnationalforesttimberandroadconstructionprogramsduringthe1980’sand1990’s.

USDAForestService


National Forest Planning

Theearlytomid-1970’ssawacontinuedmajornationalforestplanningeffortundertheMultiple-UseSustained-YieldActof1960.Bythemid-1970’s,unitplans(rangerdistrictlevel)andseveralforestplanswerebeingdeveloped.Manynationalforestscreatedplanningteamstoassistinthemultiple-useplanningoftheirmanyresources.NewForestServicespecialistswerehiredbecauseoftheplanningneeds—wildlifebiologists,soilscientists,landscapearchitects,andhydrologists.

Northern Spotted Owl

USDAForestService


In1974,theForestandRangelandRenewableResourcesPlanningAct(RPA)becamelaw.Theactprovidedthatbeginningin1976,theForestServicewoulddevelopaprogramorassessmentevery5yearsthatoutlinedtheproposedex-pectednationalforestproductionofvariousresources.WiththeRPAprograminhand,theForestServicewouldgotoCongresstoobtainthenecessaryfundingtoimplementitsprogram.ThisactrepresentedCongress’sfirstlegislativerecogni-tionthatmanagementofournaturalresourcescouldonlyoccurwithlong-rangeplanningandfunding—notplanningandfundingonayear-to-yearbasis.

Monitoring Fish Popula-tions, Ouachita National Forest (Arkansas)

Hydraulic Monitor Mining Nozzle

USDAForestService

USDAForestService


TheBolleReport(aboutMontana’sBitterrootNationalForest)andacourtdeci-sionagainsttheForestServiceintheMonongahelaNationalForestclearcuttingcasespawnedtheNFMA.TheNFMAamendedRPAandalsorepealedmajorpor-tionsoftheOrganicActof1897.NFMAmandatedintensivelong-rangeplanningforthenationalforests—themostcomprehensiveplanningeffortinthewesternworld.NFMAspecificallyincorporatedpublicparticipationandadvisoryboards,variousnaturalresources,transportationsystems,timbersales,reforestation,pay-mentstoStatesforschoolsandroads,andreportingontheincidenceofDutchelmdisease.

AcommitteeofscientistscreatedNFMA’simplementationregulations,whichbe-camefinalin1979,andanintensivenewforestplanningeffortbegan.TheForestServicehiredmanynewspecialists,manyofthemwomen,toaddressthevariousprovisionsofNFMA—includingpublicaffairsspecialists,economists,archeolo-gists,sociologists,geologists,ecologists,andoperationsresearchanalysts.TheForestServicealsobegananextensivepublicinvolvementefforttopreparethenewplans.In1997and1998,anewcommitteeofscientistsmettoevaluateandrecommendchangestoNFMAandtherevisedforestplanningregulations.

Clearcutting Patterns on the Shelton Ranger District, Olympic National Forest (Washington), 1957

USDAForestService


Regional Forester Dick Worthington at RARE II Press Confer-ence, Pacific Northwest Region (Portland, Oregon), 1979

Experimental Helistat Bal-loon with Four Helicopters, Oregon

Inthelate1970’s,RAREIIonceagainlaunchedtheForestServiceintothepublicarena.ThedraftRAREIIreport,publishedin1978,ledtomanypublicdemon-strationsandletter-writingcampaigns.ThefinalRAREIIreport,publishedinJanuary1979,recommendedthatCongressadd15millionacres(only12.3mil-lionacreswererecommendedinRARE)totheNationalWildernessPreservationSystem.However,roadlessdecisionsandwildernesslegislationwouldhavetowaituntilCongressacted.Today,afteraseriesofcongressionalactsthatestab-lishednewwildernesses,theForestServicemanagesover35millionacresofwil-derness.Thisisapproximately18.4percentoftheentireNationalForestSystem.

Biddingfornationalforesttimberreachedanall-timehighin1979and1980,justbeforeawood-prod-ucts“depression”hitthetimberindustry.Becauseofveryhighinterestrates,thenew-homemarketbecameverydepressed,withthedemandandpriceforlumberproductsfallingtoalmostrecordlows.Timbercom-paniescouldnoteconomicallyharvestthetimbertheyhadpurchasedathighprices.Nationally,anumberoftimbercompaniesstruggled,somegoingbank-rupt,untiltheeconomypickedupinthemid-tolate1980’s.TheForestServiceexperimentedwithalighter-than-airballoonandtetheredhelicoptermix,whichwasreferredtoasa“helistat,”totransportlogsfromremoteareas.Aftermanyat-tempts,theeffortfailed.

USDAForestService

USDAForestService

USDAForestService


Inthelate1970’sandearly1980’s,theillegalgrowingofmarijuanaonthena-tionalforestlandscausednumerousmanagementproblems.Manyofthenationalforestsrespondedtothisproblemandotherlawlessnessbyhiringlawenforce-mentspecialists,whohaveworkedcloselywithotherFederal,State,andlocalauthorities.

InthePacificNorthwest,MountSt.HelensonWash-ingtonState’sGiffordPinchotNationalForestrumbledtolifewithahugevolcanicex-plosiononMay18,1980,thatsentasharoundtheworld.PresidentJimmyCartervisitedtheForestandwasinstrumentalinestablishingtheMountSt.HelensNationalVolcanicMonumentin1982.

Mount St. Helens Before and During the May 18th Eruption, Gifford Pinchot National For-est (Washing-ton), 1980

USDAForestService


Forest Products Laboratory’s Timber Truss-Framed Con-struction

TheForestProductsLaboratorydesignedanewstrong,lightweightsystemforwoodconstruction.Calledthetimbertruss-frame,thesystemhasbeenwidelyusedbythehomeconstructionindustrysincethe1980’s.

NATIONAL FOREST MANAGEMENT ACT OF 1976

Congressionalhearingsbeganintheearly1970’sontheclearcuttingcon-troversiesontheBitterrootandMonongahelaNationalForests,aswellasaFederalcourtdecisionovertheOrganicActof1897.Bythemid-1970’s,argumentsinCongressrevolvedaroundhowspecificanynewlawshouldbetodirecttheForestServiceinthemanagementofthenationalforests.Somememberswantedbroadstatementsthatwouldgivelandmanagersdiscretionaryauthoritythatwouldcoveranypossibility;otherswantedlan-guagetomandatespecificactionsontheground.In1989,formerChiefR.MaxPetersonwouldsay:“ItbecameobvioustomostthatneitherCongressnoranyoneelsecouldpossiblywritemanagementprescriptionsthatwouldfitthemanyphysicalsituationsonnationalforests....Thisledtoarecogni-tionthatthelegislationwouldhavetosetforthaprocessratherthanspecifyanswers.”

NFMAwassignedintolawonOctober22,1976.NFMAamendedRe-sourcesPlanningActof1974(RPA)toprovideacomprehensiveblueprintformanagingthenationalforests.OneoftheNFMA’sprovisionswasthattheSecretaryofAgricultureappointacommitteeofscientists—notofficersoremployeesoftheForestService—toprovidescientificadviceandcounselonhowtoimplementitsintent.Ittookalmost3yearsfortheseimplement-ingregulationstobecomefinal.

USDAForestService


R. Max Peterson— Eleventh Chief, 1979-1987

ThefirstnonforesterChiefsinceGiffordPinchot,RalphMaxPetersonwasbornnearDoniphan,Missouri,onJuly25,1927.Petersonwasthefirstengineertoholdtheposition.HeservedasChieffrom1979to1987,duringatimeofincreasingturmoilandcriticismoftheForestService.

Majoraccomplishmentsduringthiserawereestablishingregulationsforimple-mentingtheNationalForestManagement

Actof1976(NFMA),dealingwiththeaftermathoftheRAREIIdecision,addressingthe“timberdepression”andhousingslumpoftheearly1980’s,respondingtoarapidlyrisingconcernabouttheuseofherbicidesandpesticidesonthenationalforests,supportingvariouswildernessbillsbeforeCongress,addressingagrowingconcernabouttheloggingofoldgrowthandbelow-costtimbersales(especiallyinAlaska),anddevelopingwaystomeettheneedsofthreatenedandendangeredspecies.Agencyfundingwasreduced,whichresultedinasubstantialreductioninthenumberofem-ployees.Althoughthepublic’strustthattheForestServicecouldeffectivelymanagethenationalforestsfellbecauseofthemultipleissues,Petersonwasabletooverseethechangingmanagementofthenationalforestsduringthesetryingtimes.

Theregulationsrequiredthebeginningofalong-rangeplanningprocessforeachnationalforest.OtherNFMArequirementsmandatedpublicin-volvementintheplanningprocess,aredefinitionofsustainedandnonde-cliningyield,andclearcutting,whichtheactdefinedasanacceptableprac-tice.Anotherrequirementwasto“preserveandenhancethediversityofplantandanimalcommunities...sothatitisatleastasgreatasthatwhichwouldbeexpectedinanaturalforest.”NFMAalsogavefullstatutorystatustotheNationalForestSystem—manyofthenationalforestshadbeenes-tablishedinaseriesofPresidentialproclamationsfrom1891to1907.

AnactsimilartoNFMAwaspassedandsignedintolawfortheBureauofLandManagement(BLM).This1976act,theFederalLandPolicyandManagementAct,hassimilarprovisionsrequiringlong-rangeplanningontheBLM-administeredlands.

In1998,asecondcommitteeofscientistswasformedtorewritetheNFMAregulations,whichwerefeltbymanytobeoutdated.Thecommit-teerecommendedmanychangestotheregulations.Draftregulationswereannouncedinthesummerof1999,alongwithapublicreviewperiod.Thefinalregulationswereprintedin2000.


R.MaxPetersonwrote:

Thepublic’ssuddeninterestinenvironmentalandresourceis-suesinthe1960sand1970siswellknowntoallofyou.Thenationalforestswereofparticularinterestandconcernforsev-eralreasons.Nationalforestsarelocatedin44statesandwithinaone-daydriveof90percentoftheU.S.population.Theyprovidemoreoutdoorrecreation,morehuntingandfishing,moretimberharvest,morehydroelectricpower,andmorewildernessthananyotherpublicorprivatelandsystem.Inaddition,theyareasourceofhigh-qualitywaterandanumberofimportantstrategicminerals,andprovidesignificantdomesticlivestockgrazing.Inshort,theresourcesoftheselandsarewantedbyalargenumberofdiverseuserswhoseethemascriticaltomeetingtheirfutureneeds.Manyalsoseetheirowndesireduseaseitherexclusiveofotherpotentialusersoratleastincompatiblewiththem.Inanylanguage,thatspellscontroversy.

Internal Struggles

AsexdiscriminationlawsuitagainsttheForestService’sPacificSouthwestRegion(California)resultedina1980“consentdecree.”Thedecreeacceleratedadvancementofwomenandminorityemployeestomanagementandlineofficerpositions.In1985,GeriB.LarsonwasnamedtheForestSupervisoroftheTahoeNationalForestinCalifornia—thefirstfemaleforestsupervisorinForestServicehistory.

Geri B. Larson, First Woman Forest Supervisor

USDAForestService


Charles “Chip” Cartwright, First Black District Ranger on the Gifford Pinchot National Forest (Washing-ton),1983

Forester Lea Dotson Examines New Growth on Loblolly Pine, Sumter National Forest (South Carolina), 1986

USDAForestService

Budgetcutsinthemid-1980’sreducedthenumberofForestServiceemployeesandeliminatedanumberofpositionsthatwerecreatedinthelate1970’s.Inthe1990’s,reducingthenationaldeficitbecameapriorityoftheClin-tonadministration.Therehavebeenseveralattemptsovertheyearstoreorganizetheagency,butlittlecameofthem.Themostrecentattemptwastorevampmostoftheregions,aswellastoreducetheorganizationalcomplexityandnumberofemployees.Thereorganiza-tionoftheregionswasnotaccomplishedbecauseofcongressionalopposition,whileotheraspectswereim-plemented.Today,theForestServicehasaround28,100permanentemployees,downfrom35,400in1992.

USDAForestService


Muchofthelong-rangelandandresourcemanagementplanningwasplacedinthehandsofforestspecialists.Publiccontroversyeruptedoverthemanage-mentrequirementsforwildlife,waterandsoils,old-growthtimber,dispositionofremainingroadlessareas,roadconstructioncosts,andbelow-costtimbersalesintheNFMAplanningprocess.TheForestServicemadeadecisionintheearly1980’stouseaparticularlinearprogrammingmodel,FORPLAN,oneachnationalforestforthenewforestplanningeffort.TheForestServiceadoptedtheDataGeneralcomputersystem,whichelectronicallylinkedallagencyloca-tions—WashingtonOffice,researchstations,regions,nationalforests,andrangerdistricts.IthasrecentlyadoptedanIBM/UNIX-basedsystemtoreplacetheDataGeneral.

Regional For-ester James Torrence Us-ing the Data General Com-puter System, Pacific North-west Region (Oregon)

Beginningin1984withtheOregonandWashingtonWildernessActs,whichcontainedmuch-sought-after“releaselanguage”forremainingroadlessareas,anumberofState-by-StatewildernessbillspassedCongress(16additionalState-widewildernessbillswerepassedin1984).StilllongawaitedarewildernessbillsfortheimportantStatesofIdahoandMontana,whichcontainmillionsofacresofunroadedlands.

In1985,tostalltheso-called“SagebrushRebellion,”theReaganAdministra-tionproposedthattheForestServiceandtheBLMinterchangecertainlandsintheWestforeaseofmanagement.Thisproposalarousedgreatpublicoutcry,evenafteramajorrevision,andwastabledbyCongress.Inthe1990’sthenew“WiseUse”or“PropertyRights”or“CountySupremacy”movementreplacedtheSagebrushRebellion.CountycommissionersinNyeCounty,Nevada,andCatronCounty,NewMexico,haveputnewemphasisonlocalcontroloverFederalland.TherehavealsobeenarashofbombingsandthreatstoForestServicefacilitiesandemployees.However,followingtheOklahomaCitybombing,thisviolentextremehasseeminglycooled.

USDAForestService


F. Dale Robertson— Twelfth Chief, 1987-1993

F.DaleRobertsonwasborninDenmark,Arkan-sas,onJuly17,1940.Soonafterhisappoint-mentasChiefin1987,RobertsonhadtofaceapublicwaryofeverythingtheForestServicehadtosayorproposedtodo.Especiallytrou-blingwasthegrowingcontroversyabouttheharvestofold-growthtimber(ancientforest)treesinthePacificNorthwestandtheprotec-tionofseveralspeciesofanimalsandplantsthatfellundertheEndangeredSpeciesActof1973.

Heappointedseveraltaskforcestoconsideralloptions,butwhenthedeci-sionsweremade,theydidnotsatisfyeveryone.

SeveralnewresourceprogramsweredevelopedunderRobertson’sleader-ship,includingthehighlysuccessful“RisetotheFuture,”aprogramde-signedtoenhancetheproductionoffishonthenationalforests.RobertsonledtheForestService’sefforttofindnewandcreativewaystomanagethenationalforestsespeciallybyemphasizingthenoncommodity(nontimber)resources,newforestry,newperspectives,andtheneweraofecosystemmanagement.Robertson,andhisAssociateChief,GeorgeLeonard,werereassignedfromtheForestServicetotheDepartmentofAgricultureonOctober29,1993,aftertheyfacedincreasingcriticismbytheClintonAdministrationthattheForestServicewasnotchangingfastenough.

F.DaleRobertsonwrote:

HerearewhatIperceiveasourstrengths:First,ourbasicmissionof“caringforthelandandservingpeople”isveryimportant.Ourmissionisawinnerandnaturallyattractsstrongpublicsup-port.Second,Itrulybelievewehavethebestgroupofpeopleeverputtogetherinonelargeorganization.We’rethebestatwhatwedo.Weknowourjobsanddothemwell.Third,wecol-lectivelyhavemoreknowledgeaboutthemanagementofnaturalresourcesthananyotherorganization.Noonecanmatchourcapability,knowledge,andknow-how.Fourth,wehaveastrongorganizationwitharichcultureandgoodcorevalues.Fifth,wearerichinlandandresources.

Eventhoughthenationalforestsandgrasslandsrepresentonlyabout81/2percentoftheUnitedStates,inmanyways,theyarethe50percentlands:


- Wehave50percentoftheNation’sbiggameanimals;- 50percentofthecoldwaterfisheries;- 50percentofanadromousfishspawninggroundsalongthe

Westcoast;- 50percentoftheNation’sstandingsoftwoodsawtimber;- Morethan50percentoftheprecipitationintheWest;- 43percentoftheFederalmarketshareinoutdoorrecreation;- About80percentoftheWilderness;- Morethan50percentoftheWildandScenicRiversinthe

lower48States;- Inthegrazingbusiness,wedon’tcomeanywherecloseto50

percent,butwestillplayanimportantroleinmeetingtheNation’sneeds.

ThenationalforestsandgrasslandsareatremendouseconomicandenvironmentalassettothecountryandastrengthoftheFor-estService.Sowhenyouaddallofthesestrengths—ourmission,thecapabilityoftheForestServicepeople,ourknowledgeandknow-how,ourrichcultureandstrongcorevalues,andbeingrichinlandandresources–it’sprettyimpressive.

Owls and Other Wildlife

Therehasbeengrowingpublicconcernoveruniquewildlife,severalspeciesofwhichwerethreatenedorendangered,thatlivedornestedonnationalforestsaroundthecountry.IntheWest,spottedowls,marbledmurrelets,grizzlybears,caribou,Pacificsalmon,andwolvescausedconcern,whileTexasandtheSouth-eastwereconcernedaboutthered-cockadedwoodpecker.Otherregionshavedifferentspeciesofwildlifeandplantsthatareuniquetocertainareas.In1987and1988,variousenvironmentalgroupssoughttohavethespottedowllistedwiththeDepartmentoftheInterior’sU.S.FishandWildlifeServiceasathreat-enedorendangeredspecies.AjudgelaterdeclaredthattheFishandWildlifeServicehadnotprovidedsufficientinformationaboutitsdecisionnottolistthebird.Subsequently,theU.S.FishandWildlifeServicedeclareditsintenttorestudytheissue,andinJune1990,itdeclaredthespottedowlthreatenedinwesternWashington,westernOregon,andnorthernCalifornia.

Otherplantandanimalspeciesinhabitingthenationalforestshavejoinedthespottedowlasspeciestobeconsideredforthreatenedorendangeredstatus.ConsiderablecontroversyhasarisenoverthereintroductionofthewolfintotheYellowstoneecosystem.Otherconcernshavebeenexpressedovermanyanimalandplantspeciesinvariouspartsofthenationalforests,includingthebaldeagle,peregrinefalcon,easterntimberwolf,PuertoRicanparrot,MountGrahamredsquirrel,steelheadtrout,bulltrout,andotherspecies.


Thelatestroundofforestplanning,inwhicheveryForestServiceregionandnationalforestdevelopedcomprehensive,NFMA-directedforestplans,wasbasicallycompletedbytheendof1990;however,numerousappealsandlaw-suitsbythetimberindustryandenvironmentalandothergroupshavedelayedtheimplementationofmanyoftheseplans.Onsomenationalforests,appealsandlawsuitshavebeensuccess-fullyresolvedthroughane-gotiationprocessinwhichthecontendingpartiessatdownanddiscussedoptionsandeventuallycametoanagreement.

Red-Cockaded Woodpecker

Visitors at Old Growth Exhibit “Play-ing” the For-est Manager Game, 1991

USDAForestService

USDAForestService


WILDLIFE AND THE NATIONAL FORESTS


Interestinwildlifewasanimportantpartoftheconservationmovementofthelate19thcentury.Althoughwildlifedidnothavetheeconomicimpor-tanceofotherresourcessuchastimber,forage,andwater,nordiditcapturethepublic’sattentionasmuchaseffortstopreservescenicwaterfallsorgeysers,biggamespecieswereperhapsthemostendangeredresourceofthatperiod.

ReformerssuchasGeorgeBirdGrinnell,founderofField and Streammaga-zine,andTheodoreRoosevelt,acofounderoftheBooneandCrockettClub,werealarmedbythefateofbiggameintheWesternStates.WhenRooseveltsponsoredGiffordPinchotformembershipintheclub,Pinchotwasabletoexpandthenotionofforestconservationtoembracethecauseofbiggameprotection.Yet,whentheFederalforestreservesweretransferredfromtheDepartmentoftheInteriortotheDepartmentofAgriculturein1905,theForestServiceapparentlydidnotseemuchofarelationshipbetweenna-tionalforestadministrationandwildlife.Anemphasisontimberresourcessetthefuturetoneoftheagency.

Moreover,theagencyhadtobecautiousaboutregulatinggameanimalsandbirdsontheforestreserves(whichwererenamednationalforestsin1907)forfearoftramplingStatesrightsandgivingitswesterncriticsreasontodis-bandthereserves.ThepolicyoftheForestServicewasto“cooperatewiththegamewardensoftheStateorTerritoryinwhichtheyserve...”accordingtothefirstbookofdirectivesissuedbytheagencyin1905(The Use Book).Twoyearslater,aprovisionintheAgriculturalAppropriationsActof1907madeitalawthat“hereafterofficialsoftheForestServiceshall,inallwaysthatarepracticable,aidintheenforcementofthelawsoftheStatesorTer-ritorieswithregardto...theprotectionoffishandgame.”

TheagencyhelpedpioneerthefieldofwildlifemanagementandstimulatedmanyoftheStatestobeginorimprovetheirownprograms.Huntersandanglerswerethelargestgroupofrecreationistsvisitingthenationalforests,soitwasnaturalfortheForestServicetofocusitsattentiononfishandgameanimals.Federalgamerefugescreatedonnationalforeststoconservewildlifewerehelpfulinincreasingpopulationsofgameanimals,andtheseanimalscouldthenbehuntedonadjacentlands.Thegrowthofdeerpopu-lationsledtoconflictsbetweenhuntersandranchers.Recreationalhunterswantedmoregameanimals;ranchers,concernedwithforagedepletion,wantedfewer.Inthe1920’s,theForestServiceefforttoreducetheoverex-tendedmuledeerpopulationsontheGrandCanyonFederalGamePreserve(KaibabNationalForest)wenttotheSupremeCourt.Theagencywonalimitedvictoryin1924whentheCourtfoundthatForestServiceemploy-


eescouldhuntexcessgameto“preventpropertydamage,”thatis,toprotecttheforageresourcefromovergrazingbydeer.

Itwasthere,intheSouthwest,thatAldoLeopold,aForestServiceemployeefrom1909to1928,developedhisconceptofwildlifemanagementthatledtothefirsttextbook,Game Management(1933).Leopoldfavoredtheeradicationofpredatorsasastepinbringingbackbiggamepopulations.However,afterkillingawolfherealizedthatpredatorswereimportanttothenaturalbalanceofdeerpopulations.

In1929,theForestServicehireditsfirstwildlifebiologist,BarryLocke,whowasstationedintheIntermountainRegion.Heleft2yearslatertoserveasDirectoroftheIzaakWaltonLeague.Atfirst,theeconomicdepressionofthe1930’shaltedwildlifeprogramsforlackofbudgets.Thepublicworksprogramslaterdevelopedtoprovideemploymentinareassuchasnaturalresourcesconservation,includingwildlifehabitatimprove-ment.MuchofthisworkwasdonebythemillionswhoservedintheCivil-ianConservationCorps.

By1936,theyearDr.HomerShantzbecamefirstdirectorofwildlifeman-agement,61peoplewereassignedtowildlifeworkintheForestService.ThenationalforestsintheSoutheastgrewrapidlyinnumberduringtheDepressionthroughFederalpurchaseofseverelycutoveranderodedprivatelands.Themanagementchallengefortheselandswastomaketherecov-eringforestssuitableplacesforwildlife.Fromthisgoalcametheslogan:“Goodtimbermanagementisgoodwildlifemanagement.”

InthePacificNorthwest,theForestServicefoundthatpublicconcernoverelkprotectionsupersededdemandfortimberproduction.ItinvolvedalengthybattlewiththeParkServiceoverthemanagementofMt.OlympusNationalMonument,whichwasestablishedin1909toprotecttheRooseveltelk(namedafterTeddyRoosevelt).ForestServiceofficialsarguedthatthebestuseofthemonument,thenmanagedbytheForestService,andsurroundingnationalforestlandwastoopentheareatoforest(timber)management,whichwouldprovideemploymentandrecreationforthelocalpopulation.Thecontroversycametoaboilduringthemid-1930’swhentheForestServiceandtheBureauofBiologicalSurveyrecommendedthattheelkpopulationinthemonumentbereducedbyshootingtopreventover-grazing,disease,andstarvation.Citizenswereoutraged,especiallytheedi-toroftheSeattle Post-Intelligencer,whosewifewasthedaughterofPresidentFranklinRoosevelt.WhenRooseveltvisitedtheareain1937,hehadalreadydecidedtoincludethemonumentandadjacentnationalfor-estsystemlandsinanewOlympicNationalPark(establishedbyCongressin1939).


Inthelate1940’s,agencyinvolvementinwildlifewasreducedfollowingtheimprovementofStatefishandgameprogramsandtheriseoftimberharvestingonnationalforests.ProblemareassurfacedassquirrelhuntersintheSouthernRegion,upsetoverlossofoaktreesexclaimedin1956:“Youkillthehardwoods,we’llkillthepine.”Inthe1960’s,turkeyhuntersontheMonongahelaNationalForestcomplainedofclearcutsintheirfavoritehunt-ingareas.Theresultwasalawsuit,congressionalhearings,andpassageoftheNationalForestManagementActof1976.ThislawrequiredtheForestServicetoconductitsplanningtoensureadiversityofplantandanimalspeciesand,therefore,isresponsiblefortherapidincreaseinwildlifeper-sonnelinthelate1970’s.

TheForestServicewasnotcreatedtoprotectwildlife,butitsrangersreal-izedthatiftheydidnotmanagetheseanimals’habitats,nobodyelsewould.Thus,theagencybecameanearlyleaderinthefieldofgamemanagement.PassageoftheEndangeredSpeciesActof1973gaveadditionalauthoritytolandmanagerstoprotectindividualspeciesandhabitatsforthreatenedandendangeredwildlife,fish,andplantspecies.TheForestServicecaughtupwiththisnewrealitywithpublicationofWildlife Habitats in Managed For-ests—The Blue Mountains of Oregon and Washington(1979),editedbyfutureChiefJackWardThomas.Itwasthefirstagencybooktoprovide“concretedirectionforthemanagementofgameandnongamespeciesalike.”

Hell Roar-ing Fire in Yellowstone National Park, 1988

Yellowstone Fire in �988

Asaresultoftheter-riblefiresthatspreadthroughYellowstoneNationalParkandadjacentnationalforestlandsinthesummerof1988,theForestServiceandtheNationalParkServicereceivedconsiderablepublicpressuretochangetheirpolicyoflet-tingsomefiresburnnaturally(theso-called“let-burn”policy).Aftermuchpublicandscientificdebateaboutfire’sproperroleintheenvironment,andafterviewingthesubsequent“re-birth”oftheparkandadjacentnationalforests,theagencieshavemodifiedtheirpoliciestoputoutfiresmorequickly,butstilltoallowsomenaturalfirestoburnunderstrictlycontrolledconditions.

USDAForestService


Development of Partnerships

AseriesofnewprogramsweredevelopedattheForestService’snationallevelinthelate1980’sandearly1990’s.TheChallengeCost-ShareProgram,establishedbyCongressin1986,hasprovidedthemeansfortheForestServiceandthepri-vatesectortosharemanagementandfinancialcostsforprojectsonthenationalforests.

Currently,severalthousandcooperativewildlifehabitatenhancementprojectsonthenationalforestsarecarriedoutbytheForestService,otherFederalandStateagencies,andnonprofitorganizations–likeDucksUnlimited,RockyMountainElkFoundation,andmanyothers.Thehabitatenhancementprogramgrewfrom$2.5millioninfishandwildlifehabitatimprovementsin1986tomorethan$17millioninFederalfundsthatwerematchedby$23millionfrompartnersin1996toaccomplish2,135projects.

ThePresidentialinitiative“America’sGreatOutdoors”wasdesignedtoencouragecooperationbetweentheForestServiceandtheprivatesectorindevelopingandimprovingrecreationalfacilitiesandopportunitiesforthepublic.Anotherpopu-larprogram,inconjunctionwithotherFederalagencies,isthe“ScenicByways”program,whichhasdesignatedabout7,700milesofnationalforestroadsandhighwaysforrecreationalpleasure—oftenscenicroadsthathaveampleoppor-tunitiesforscenicvistas,unusualgeologicandforestfeatures,bicycleandhikingtrails,reststops,picnicareas,campgrounds,boating,fishing,andwildlifeview-ing.InAlaska,theAlaskaMarineHighway(theAlaskaFerrySystem)hasalsobeendesignatedaScenicByway.

Pisgah National Forest Scenic Byway (North Carolina)

USDAForestService

USDAForestService


Severalotherinitiativeshavebeendevelopedtoencouragerecreationalpursuitsonthenationalforests,aswellastoimprovethenaturalresources.Oneofthesehasbeenthesuccessful“RisetotheFuture”program,whichwasdesignedtoenhancefishproductionandencouragefishingontheforestlakesandrivers.Othersinclude“TakingWing,”awaterfowlandwetlandprogramtoenhancehabitatonnationalforestsandsupporttheNorthAmericanwaterfowlplan;“Ani-malInn,”aprogramtocommunicatetheimportanceofmanagingdeadstandingtimberandfallentreesforwildlifehabitat;and“JoinUs,”aprogramtostrengthenpublic-privatepartnershipinfisheriesandwildlifemanagement.

International Forestry

In1990,CongressdirectedtheForestServicetoassumeagreaterroleininter-nationalenvironmentalaffairs.InternationalForestry,anew“leg”oftheForestService(alongwiththeNationalForestSystem,Research,andS&PF),wasestab-lishedin1991tocoordinateandcooperatewithothercountriesonmattersdeal-ingwithforestryandtheenvironment.Althoughpreviousprogramshadworkedcloselywithothercountriestoprovideexpertiseandexperienceinthesematters,theInternationalForestryprogramareahasgivenhigherprioritytoengagingindialogueandcooperationwithothercountriestosolveglobalresourceproblems.The1992signingoftheForestPrinciplesandAgenda21attheUnitedNationsConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopment(UNCED)—the“EarthSum-mit”—wascoordinatedbythisnewbranchoftheagency.DuetoreorganizationoftheForestServiceandfundingcuts,theInternationalForestryprogramwasre-ducedfromaDeputyAreatoaStaffthatreportsdirectlytotheChiefin1997andrenamedtheOfficeofInternationalPrograms.Theprogramcontinuestoworkwithcountriesonnaturalresourcemanagementinternationally.ItfocusescurrentprogramsonIndonesia,Brazil,Canada,Mexico,thenewlyindependentstatessincethebreakupoftheformerSovietUnion,andRussia.

Joe Meade and Guide Dog “Missy,” Deschutes National Forest (Oregon), 1977

USDAForestService


InternationalProgramsisalsothehomeoftheDisasterAssistanceSupportPro-gram(DASP),whichassistswithsupportpersonnelandhumanitarianreliefoninternationaldisasters,bothnaturalandhuman-caused.

INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY

AdaptedfromTerryWest’s1991Paper:“USDAForestServiceInvolvementinPost-WorldWarIIInternationalFor-estry”

ItmaybesaidthatForestService’sinvolvementwithforeignforestrybeganaftertheSpanish-AmericanWarof1898.U.S.ArmyCaptainGeorgeP.AhernorganizedthePhilippineBureauofForestryin1900andinvitedUSDABureauofForestrydirectorGiffordPinchottovisitandofferadvicein1902.CreationoftheLuquillo(nowCaribbeanNationalForest)forestre-serveinPuertoRicoin1903furtherinvolvedtheForestServiceintropicalforestry.TheForestProductsLaboratory(Madison,WI)beganaprogramoftropicalwoodresearchshortlyafterbeingfoundedin1910,withemployeeEloiseGerrywritingthefirstofaseriesofresearchreportsonSouthAmeri-canforestsandwoodsofcommercein1918.

In1928,theMcSweeney-McNaryForestResearchActauthorizedtheestab-lishmentofaforestexperimentstationinthe“tropicalpossessionsoftheUnitedStatesintheWestIndies.”Thatactandwordingledtotheestablish-mentoftheTropicalForestExperimentStationinRioPiedras,PuertoRico,in1939.Today,theexpandedInternationalInstituteofTropicalForestry(IITF)hasresponsibilityforprogramsininternationalforestry,Stateandprivateforestry,andresearchanddevelopment.

Institute of Tropical Forestry, Puerto Rico

USDAForestService


ItwastheonsetofWorldWarIIthatsetthebasisforincreasedU.S.in-volvementininternationalforestry.Duringthewar,U.S.GovernmentdefenseneedsledtheUnitedStatestofosterstudiesofforestconditionsinselectedLatinAmericacountries.TeamsofforestersweredispatchedtoSouthAmericainsearchofsourcesofcinchonabarktomeetwartimequi-nineneedstotreatmalaria.

AfterWorldWarII,foreignaidprojectsbecametheconcernofinterna-tionalforestryintheForestService.Duringthatperiod,twoorganizationsinvolvedU.S.forestersinforestryprojects:TheUnitedNationsFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO)andtheU.S.AgencyforInternationalDe-velopment(USAID).

FAOwasbornin1943whenPresidentFranklinD.Rooseveltconvenedaconferencetoconsiderwaystoorganizeinternationalcooperationonagriculture.FAO’sagendaexcludedforestryuntilagroupledbytheForestServicemanagedtogetitaddedduringFAO’sfirstconferencein1945.

Foryears,forestersstruggledtopersuadedevelopmentalagenciesthatforestrywasacriticalelementinlanduseplanning.Thebasicproblemwasthatmostoftheseagencieswereconcernedprimarilywithagriculturalproductiontofeedtheworld’sgrowingpopulation.ItwaslefttotheForestServicetopromoteforestrywhereveritsstaffcouldfindaforum.

TherewereotherforestryopportunitieswiththeInternationalCooperationAdministration(ICA),asemi-autonomousagencywiththeU.S.DepartmentofState.EarlyICAforestryworkwassmall-scale—onepersonassignedtoacountry.Forexample,intheearly1950’sForestServiceemployeeEugeneReichardservedasforesterforColombiaandBolivia.Nonetheless,thisagencywasaprimaryconduitforForestServiceparticipationininterna-tionalforestry.

In1950,PresidentTrumanannouncedbilateraltechnicalassistancetonewlyindependentcountriesandtootherdevelopingnations.TheForestServicewascalledupontoprovidetwokindsofhelp:1)Recruitingforest-ersandtechnicalleadersforassignmentoverseas,and2)receivingforeignnationalsforacademicstudiesoron-the-jobtraininginforestryandrelatedareas.Overthenexttwodecades(1950to1970)theForestServicefur-nishedover150professionalsforlong-termassignmentsorshort-termde-tailstotechnicalassistantprogramsoverseas;inthesameperiodover2,500foreignnationalswentthroughForestServicetrainingprograms.

In1958,theunitbecameknownastheForeignForestryServiceintheOfficeoftheDeputyChiefforResearch,withA.C.Clinedesignatedasitsdirectorin1959.Twonewsectionswereaddedin1961:1)Technicalsup-portofforeignprograms,and2)trainingofforeignnationals.In1987,theprogramfilledover800requestsfortechnicalconsultationfrom


50countries.Thesameyear,35ForestServiceemployeesservedon1-yearassignmentsin20foreignnations,with8othersonshort-termprojectsrenderingtechnicalassistanceinsuchareasasrecreationalplanning,rangemanagement,landuseplanning,forestindustries,andnurserydevelop-ment.

Followingpublicityovertheenvironmentalimpactoftropicaldeforestation,the1980’ssawanincreasedpublicinterestininternationalforestry.ChiefR.MaxPetersonin1980wroteof“ourincreasingneedforinvolvementinforestryproblemsbeyondourowndomesticprograms.”Themovementacceleratedwithaflurryofpublications.USAIDactedearlywithitsFor-estResourcesManagementProjectin1980thatledtotheForestrySupportProgram(FSP)intheForestServiceandajointUSAID/PeaceCorpsInitia-tive.

Adecadelater,the101stCongresspassedlegislation—theGlobalCli-mateChangePreventionActandtheInternationalForestryCooperationAct—thatgreatlyexpandedtheroleoftheForestServiceininternationalresourcemanagement.TheGlobalClimateChangePreventionActdirectedtheSecretaryofAgriculturetoestablishanOfficeofInternationalForestryunderanewandseparateDeputyChiefintheForestService.JeffSirmonwasselectedasthefirstDeputyChief.

Since1985,InternationalProgramshaveincludedtheDisasterAssistanceSupportProgram(DASP)andDisasterAssistanceResponseTeams(DART).DASPassistswithsupportpersonnelandhumanitarianreliefoninterna-tionaldisasters—bothnaturalandhuman-caused—includingfires,floods,famine,earthquakes,andcivilstrife.DARTaredeployedbytheU.S.AgencyforInternationalDevelopment’sOfficeofForeignDisasterAssistance(USAID/OFDA)toassistOFDAinprovidingdisasterprevention,prepared-ness,andemergencyresponsetodevelopingnationsinAfrica,Asia,LatinAmerica,theCaribbean,andthePacificregions.TheobjectivesoftheDARTresponseteams,whicharecomprisedofvolunteers,areconsistentwiththeStrategicPlanforInternationalCooperationsignedbytheForestServicein1995,theInternationalForestryCooperationActof1990,andtheGlobalClimateChangeActof1990.Overthelast15years,manyreliefteamshavebeensenttoAfricancountries,includingAngola,Namibia,Somalia,Rwanda,Sudan,andSouthAfrica,aswellastoassistwithdisastersoccur-ringinPeru,Yugoslavia,andmanyothernationsthroughouttheworld.

In1997,thepositionofDeputyChiefforInternationalForestrywaselimi-natedandInternationalForestrybecametheOfficeofInternationalPro-grams,reportingdirectlytotheChief.TheprogramcontinuestoworkwithcountriesonnaturalresourcemanagementissuesinternationallyandtosupportDASPandDART.ItfocusescurrentprogramsonIndonesia,Brazil,Canada,Mexico,thenewlyindependentstatesintheformerSovietUnion,andRussia.


Ecosystem Management and the Future Era,�993-Present

T hefoundationforecosystemmanagement,basedontheecologyof theland,air,water,plants,animals,andpeople,wasintroducedby ChiefDaleRobertsonin1992.Itwasalogicalconclusiontotheearliermanagementideascalled“newforestry”and“newperspectives.”Althoughtheideashadbeentalkedaboutfordecades,thiswasthefirstefforttoapplytheprinciplestothe191millionacresoftheNationalForestSystem.

InearlyApril1993,PresidentClintonandVicePresidentGore,alongwithfivecabinetmembers,metrepresentativesofthepublicinPortland,Oregon,todiscussthespottedowlandtimberharvestsituationinthePacificNorthwestandnorthernCalifornia.NeverinthehistoryoftheagencyhadtheadministrationputsuchemphasisonresolvingproblemsinthenationalforestsandadjacentBLMdistricts.TheresultoftheForestConferencewasthecallingofthetopfor-estresearcherstodevelopin60daysacrediblescientificsolutiontomanagingtheFederalforestsunderacomprehensiveecosystemmanagementplanforthePacificNorthwest.

TheFederalscientistsandmanagers,alsoknownastheForestEcosystemMan-agementAssessmentTeam(FEMAT),producedacomprehensiveecosystemmanagementassessment(FEMATreport)andmanagementplan(SupplementalEnvironmentalImpactStatement)forthePacificNorthwest.SimilaranalysesarebeingworkedonforforestareasinotherForestServiceregions.TheInteragencyColumbiaBasinEcosystemManagementProject(ICBEMP)in1997includedanassessmentandplanformanagingtheFederalforestandgrazinglandsofahugeareacoveringmuchofcentralandeasternWashingtonandOregon,northernIdaho,andwesternMontana.Otherlarge-scaleassessmentshavebeenproduced,includingtheSierraNevadaEcosystemProject(SNEP)inthePacificSouthwestRegion(1996)andtheSouthernAppalachianAssessment(1996).Otherlong-termassessments,liketheGreaterYellowstone,areintheprocessofstudy.

TheForestService,undertheleadershipofwildliferesearcherChiefJackWardThomas,quicklyadoptedecosystemmanagement—wherethelong-termsustainabilityofecosystemswasthemanagementgoalfortheNationalForestSystemratherthanboardfeetoftimber,dollarsintheTreasuryorcounties,andjobsinthecommunities.

ChiefMikeDombeck,afterhisappointmentasChiefin1997,changedtheemphasisofecosystemmanagementthroughthe“NaturalResourceAgenda.”Basically,theagendaemphasizedfourareasofmanagement:1)watershedhealthandrestoration,2)sustainableforestmanagement,3)nationalforestroads,and4)recreation.InkeepingwiththeintentoftheOrganicActof1897,thisnewagendaputprotectingthenationalforestsastheprimarygoalofmanagement,followedbyprovidingabundant,cleanwater,andfinallyallowingmultiple-re-sourcemanagementontheareasthatcansustainintensiveactivities.OnOctober13,1999,PresidentClintonannouncedthattheForestServicewouldstudytheroad/roadlessareaissueagainandprovideasolutionforpublicreview.


ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT

Ecosystemmanagement,thedrivingforcebehindcurrentpolicyoftheFor-estService,USDIBureauofLandManagement,andotherInterioragencies,combinesphilosophy,conservation,ecology,environmentalism,andpoli-tics.Althoughtheterm“ecology”hasbeenaroundsincethe1800’s,man-agementusinganecologicalframeworkisrelativelyrecent.AldoLeopold’sbook A Sand County Almanac(1949)andRachelCarson’sbookSilent Spring(1962)influencedmanypeopletolookatthebroaderpictureofthein-teractionbetweenpeopleandtheenvironment.In1970,LyntonCaldwellpublishedanarticlethatperhapsforthefirsttimeadvocatedusinganecosystemapproachtopubliclandmanagementandpolicy.Theninthelate1970’s,FrankandJohnCraigheadpioneeredeffortstousebroadecosystemsinthemanagementofgrizzlybearsintheYellowstoneNationalParkandsurroundingnationalforests.Bythelate1980’s,manyresearchersandpub-liclandmanagerswereconvincedthatanecosystemapproachtomanagepubliclandswastheonlylogicalwaytoproceedinthefuture.Thefollow-ing10elementscontainwhatecosystemmanagementmeansforpublicandprivatelandmanagement(thankstotheworkofEdwardGrumbine):

1. Multiple AnalysisLevels—Usedifferentlevelsofanalysis,fromthesite-specificlocationtothebroadwatershedperspectiveorevenlarger.

2. Ecological Boundaries—Defineecosystemsbyanalyzingandmanagingthemacrosspoliticalandadministrativeboundaries.

3. Ecological Integrity—Protectthetotalnaturaldiversity,ecologicalpat-terns,andprocesses.Keepallthepieces.

4. Data Collection and Data Management—Requiremoreresearch,betterdatacollectionmethods,andup-to-dateinformation.

5. Monitoring—Trackresultsofmanagementactions.Learnfrommistakes.Takeprideinsuccesses.

6. Adaptive Management—Useadaptivemanagement,aprocessoftakingrisks,tryingnewmethodsandprocesses,experimentation,andmostofallremainingflexibletochangingconditionsorresults.Encouragebet-terpublicparticipationandinvolvementinplanning,decisionmaking,implementation,andmonitoring.

7. Interagency Cooperation—WorkwithagenciesattheFederal,State,andlocallevels,aswellastheprivatesector,tointegrateandcooperateoverlargelandareastobenefittheecosystems.

8. Organizational Change—Changehowthevariousagenciesworkinter-nallyandwithpartnerstoencouragecooperationandunderstanding,aswellasadvancetrainingforon-the-groundemployees.Expandpartner-shipsandcooperationwithotheragenciesandthepublic.

9. Humans Are Part of Ecosystems—Peopleareafundamentalpartofeco-systems,bothaffectingthemandaffectedbythem.Involvepeopleatallstagesintheanalysisanddecisionmakingphases.


10.Human Values—Thehumanattitudes,beliefs,andvaluesthatpeopleholdaresignificantindeterminingthefutureofecosystemsaswellastheglobalenvironment.Seekbalanceandharmonybetweenpeopleandthelandwithequityacrossregionsandthroughgenerationsbymain-tainingoptionsforthefuture.

Jack Ward Thomas— Thirteenth Chief, 1993-1996

JackWardThomaswasborninFortWorth,Texas,onSeptember7,1934.AmidcontroversyabouthownewChiefsshouldbeappointed,ThomaswasgiventhejobinOctober1993asapoliticalappointeewiththeassurancethathewouldbeconvertedtoacareerappointmentthroughtheSeniorExecutiveService(throughwhichChiefsPetersonandRobertsonwereappointed).SoonafterhisbecomingChief,

Thomashadtoaddressademoralizedagency,withthepublicinoppositiontopracticallyanythingthattheForestServiceproposedtodo.

ThecontroversyabouttheNorthwestForestPlanforthespottedowlregion(westernWashington,westernOregon,andnorthernCalifornia)wasespe-ciallytroubling.YetThomas,aForestServicewildliferesearcherhisentirecareer,ledseveraleffortstoresolveconflictsovermanagementundertheEndangeredSpeciesActof1973,especiallyrelatingtospottedowls.ChiefThomaswasgreetedwithsuspicionbysome,butwashailedbyothers.Dur-inghisrelativelyshorttenureasChief,hemovedquicklyintoimplementa-tionofecosystemmanagementforalltheNationalForestSystemlands.

JackWardThomaswrote:

Wedon’tjustmanageland—we’resupposedtobeleaders.Conservationleaders.Leadersinprotectingandimprovingtheland...withabroadviewofnaturalresourceleadership,andthatincludespeople,becausepeoplearepartofecosystems....TheForestServiceisgoingtobealeaderinecosystemmanagement...rightnowit’smoreaconceptthanapractice....Whatdoesecosystemmanagementmean?Itmeansthinkingonalargerscalethanwe’reusedto.Itmeanssustainingtheforestresourcesoververylongperiodsoftime.Andfromthatwillflowmanygoodsandservices,notjusttimber.Ecosystemmanagementisnotjustatimbersale;it’sputtingthetimbersaleintoabiggerpicture,includingthewatersheds,wildlife,roads,andpeople’sneedsandvalues....Woodproductionwillcontinuetobeasignificantpartofourprogram,butwewilllookmoreat


Michael P. Dombeck— Fourteenth Chief, 1997-2001

MichaelP.DombeckwasbornonSep-tember21,1948,inStevensPoint,Wis-consin.Hespent12yearswiththeForestServiceprimarilyintheMidwestandWest.InhislastForestServicepostbe-forehebecameChief—NationalFisher-iesProgramManagerintheWashingtonOffice—hewasrecognizedforoutstand-ingleadershipindevelopingandimple-mentingthefisheriesprogramsandforg-ingpartnerships.HethenspentayearasaLegislativeFellowworkingintheU.S.Senatewithresponsibilityfornaturalre-

multiplevariables,notjustproduction.Wewillbemoreproac-tiveonwildlifeprograms,fishprograms,andrecreationpro-grams...wehavetoinvolvethecitizensofthiscountry....Wearegoingtohavetoimproveourtechnicalskillsacrosstheboard....Weneedtobepreparedtomoveintothe21stcenturyorwe’llbeleftinthedust.

sourceandInteriorappropriationsissues.Dr.DombeckwasnamedActingDirectoroftheBureauofLandManagement(BLM)inFebruary1994.

Afterlessthan3yearsasActingDirector,hewasselectedasthenewChiefoftheForestServiceinJanuary1997.Duringhistenure,hefocusedontwomajorobjectives:Creatingalong-termvisiontoimprovethehealthofthelandthroughthe“naturalresourceagenda”andimprovingcustomerservicethroughaprogramentitled“collaborativestewardship.”

MikeDombeckwrote:

Weareabetter,stronger,andhealthierNationduetotheworkoftheForestService.Inthepast,becausetherewerefewerpeopleanddemandsontheland,wecouldachievemanyofourgoalswithlessconflict.GettingfrompointAtopointBwasn’tallthatdifficult.Wehelpeddefinethestartingpointanddecidedhowtogettotheendpoint.Thathasgrownmorecomplexassocietyhaschangedandbecomemorecomplex.Today,wearefacedwithcompetingdemands,newpressuresontheland,andgreaterchallengesthaneverbefore.


ThereisanongoingdebateinthisNationoverhownationalfor-estsandrangelandsshouldbemanaged.That’sjustfine.Infact,itishealthy.Debateandinformationaretheessenceofdemoc-racy.Thepeopleweserve,allofthepeople,arenowmorefullyengagedindefininghowtomovefrompointAtopointB.Ourtaskisnottodictatethecourseortheoutcome.Rather,weneedtobethefacilitators,thesuppliersofknowledgeandexpertise,theeducatorsandcommunicatorswhohelppeoplesearchforsolutions.

Butasthedebateswirls,wecannotforgetoursuccessesortheessentialservicesthatweprovidedailytopeopleandcommuni-ties.Animportantpartofourjobistoarticulateoursuccesses.Themostenduringandpowerfulmaximofbusinessisthat“moneyflowstothingspeoplewant.”Peoplewanttheirculturalheritageprotected,cleanairandwater,healthyforestsandrange-lands,goodhuntingandfishing,sustainablesuppliesoftimberandforage,etc.Theonesurewaytoguaranteethatwewillhavecontinueddownsizinganddecliningbudgetsisbynottellingpeopleourstory.Weneedtocommunicateoursuccesses.

Myexpectationisthateverythingwedo—everyenvironmentalimpactstatementwewrite,everytimbersale,recreationplan,miningplan,orallotmentmanagementplanweapprove—willnotcompromisethehealthoftheland.IwanttomakeitveryclearthatnoForestServiceprogramhasdominanceoveranoth-er.Timberisnotmoreimportantthanwildlifeandfisheries.Noriswildlifeandfisheriesmoreimportantthantimberorrecre-ation,orculturalresources,andsoon.

Wewillcareforthelandandservepeoplebylisteningtoallourconstituentsandbylivingwithinthelimitsoftheland.Icallthiscommitmenttohealthyecosystemsandworkingwithpeopleontheland“collaborativestewardship.”Ourtaskistohelpbringpeopletogetherontheland.That’swhatcollaborativestewardshipisallabout.Wearetheprofessionals,scientists,andmanagerswhocanworkhand-in-handwithStateagencies,tribalgovernments,regulatoryandotherFederalagencies,conserva-tionists—allwhouseandcareaboutpubliclandsandnaturalresourcestoassurethemostefficientandeffectiveconservationmanagementpossible.

OurvisioncannotbestatedbetterthaninthededicationofBreaking New GroundbyGiffordPinchot,publishedin1947.“TothemenandwomenoftheForestService,whosecourage,devo-tion,andintelligencehavemadeitandkeptitthebestorganiza-tionintheGovernmentoftheUnitedStates.”


herehavebeenthousandsofchangestothenationalforestsover thelast100-plusyears.Themostsignificantchangehasbeenthe establishmentoftheUSDAForestServicetoadministerournationalforestheritage.ThecreationofthenationalforestsmarkedtheendofthefrontierinAmericanlife.ThepurposeoftheFederalGovernmentchangedfromthatofgivingorsellingthepublicdomaintoreservingandmanagingthepublicforestlandsforthepeopleoftheUnitedStatesandforfuturegenerations.Followingaresomeoftheimportantchangesthathaveoccurredonthe191millionacresofnationalforestsandgrasslands.

National Forests and National GrasslandsPriorto1891,therewerenonationalforests—orforestreservesastheywerefirstcalled—andnonationalgrasslands.Today,thereare187,811,680acresofnationalforests;3,839,174acresofnationalgrasslands;and813,965acresofpurchaseunits,landutilizationprojects,researchandexperimentalareas,andrelatedlands—atotalof192,464,819acresoflandadministeredbytheUSDAForestServiceforthepeopleoftheUnitedStates.

National Forest ReceiptsInthelate1800’s,theforestedpublicdomainland,someofwhichbecamethenationalforests,wasnotontheStateandcountytaxrollsandthuscontributednothingtolocal,State,andFederalfunding.Currently,theForestServicecol-lects$967.8millioninreceipts.Inaddition,thenationalforestscontributetotheStatesandcountiesmorethan$229,035,000aspartofthereceiptscollectedfromtimbersales,grazing,recreation,mineralextraction,andspecialuseautho-rizations(includingfirewood,plants,Christmastrees,cabins,resorts,andoutfit-tersandguides).Thesefunds,usedforschoolsandroads,generallyrepresent25percentofthereceiptscollectedduringtheyear,theother75percentaredepos-itedtotheU.S.Treasury.

FireBefore1905,anestimated30millionacresofforestareawereburnedeachyear.Currently,theamountoffiredamageisapproximately1.9millionacresperyearonallownerships.

GrazingBefore1905,manymillionsofsheepandcattlegrazedthepublicdomainforestlands.Today,theForestServiceadministersapproximately50millionacresofrangelandin33States.Currently,8,783grazingallotments(around9.3millionheadmonths)contribute$7.0milliontotheForestServicereceipts,annually.

Changes in the National Forests— Over �00 Years of Progress

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TimberBefore1905,verylittletimberwasharvestedfromthelandsdestinedtobecomenationalforests.Mostofthetimberthatwasharvestedwasusedbyhomestead-ers,miners,andrailroads.By2002,thenationalforestsproducedabout1.7billionboardfeetoftimbergenerating$164millioningrossrevenues.

ReforestationPriorto1905,therewasnoreforestationoncut-overorburned-overareas.Onehundredyearslater,theForestServiceisplantingtreeson277,900acresannu-ally.Therewillalwaysbeforestsforfuturegenerations.

FishingBefore1905,therewasminimalfishingonwatersinwhatwouldbecomethena-tionalforests.Currently,fishingcontributes18.9millionvisitordaysannuallyon2.3millionacresoflakes,ponds,andreservoirs;128,000milesoffishableriversandstreams;and16,500milesofcoastsandshorelines.TheForestServicealsoadministersmillionsofacresofstreamside(riparian)habitats.In1996,recre-ationalfishinggenerated$8.5billionworthofeconomicvalue.

HuntingPriorto1905,huntingwasminimalonwhatwouldbecomethenationalforests,withmuchcomingfromhardyoutdoorrecreationistsonextendedtripsoronareasnearhomesteadsandcities.Today,huntingonthenationalforestscontrib-utesaround19.4millionvisitordaysannuallyandtheForestServiceadministersmillionsofacresofwildlifehabitatwhiletheStatescontrolthenumbersofhunt-ableanimals.

MineralsPriorto1905,thevalueanddollaramountofmineralsremovedfrompublicdomaintimberlandswasnotknown—butinsomecases,itwassubstantial.Pres-ently,thereareabout7,000activeminingclaimsonapproximately5.9millionacresofNationalForestSystemlandsandanother1,000orsopitsandquarriesthatprovidecommonvarietymineralssuchassand,gravel,stone,andpumice.In1998,about10millionbarrelsofoil,150billioncubicfeetofnaturalgas,and115millionshorttonsofcoalwereproducedonNationalForestSystemlands.

Recreation and TourismBefore1905,recreationwasquitelimitedonwhatwouldbecomethenationalforests,withmuchrecreationusebeingforweeksormonthsatatimeinthemountainpeakcountry,popularhotsprings,andeasilyaccessiblecampingandfishingplaces.Today,recreationuseonthenationalforestsisenormous,withmorethan860millionvisits(orabout341millionrecreationvisitordays)contributingabout$47.6milliontotheTreasuryeachyear.Thereare140skiareas,485resorts,over4,000campgrounds,73majorvisitorcenters,and4,100privatebusinesses,whichprovidemorethan139,000jobsonandadjacenttothenationalforests.


Soil and Water Resource ImprovementsBeforethenationalforestsexisted,destructionormassivechangestowater-wayscausedbyuncontrolleddevelopmentfrommining,grazing,andtimberingdevelopmentswererampantonthepublicdomain.In1998,restorationforfishhabitatwasaccomplishedonabout1,600milesofstreamsand9,500acresoflakes,withanother38,500acresoflandimprovements.

TrailsPriorto1905,therewerefewtrailsinorthroughthemountains,andmostofthosewereolderAmericanIndiantrails,hunterorgametrails,orstockdrive-ways.Currently,therearemorethan133,000milesofnationalforesttrails,fewerthanseveraldecadesbackbutconsiderablymorethan100yearsago.

RoadsBefore1905,therewereonlyafewroads—mostlyprivate,tollwagonroads—onwhatwouldbecomethenationalforests.Alittleover100yearslater,thereare381,000milesofroads,rangingfromdirtroadstointerstatehighwaysand7,700milesofNationalScenicBywaysin30States.In1998,theForestServicedecom-missionedalmost2,100milesofunneededroads.

WildernessPriorto1905,thenationalforestareasintheWestwerepracticallyalluntrackedwildernessareas;intheEast,whatwouldbecomenationalforestsweremostlylandsthathadbeencut,burned,orfarmed.By1996,therewere387congressio-nallydesignatedwildernessunitsintheNationalWildernessPreservationSys-tem.Thisamountsto34.8millionacresofwilderness(about1acrein6oftheNationalForestSystem).TheForestServicemanages75percentofthedesignat-edwildernesswithinthelower48States,orabout63percentofallwildernessesintheNationalWildernessPreservationSystem.

Wild and Scenic RiversIn1905,theriversonwhatwouldbecomenationalforestswerealmostentirelywild,withafewriversorcreeksdivertedforirrigationandminingoperations.Overacenturylater,Congresshasrecognizedmorethan4,348milesor946,118acresonthenationalforestsaspartoftheNationalWildandScenicRiversSys-tem.

National MonumentsPriorto1905,therewerenonationalmonumentsmanagedbytheForestSer-vice.TheAntiquitiesActof1906authorizedthePresidenttoestablishnationalmonuments.Between1906and1933,aboutadozennationalmonumentswereestablishedonthenationalforests.ThosemonumentsweretransferredtotheNationalParkServicein1933.Sincethen,twonationalmonumentshavebeenestablishedinAlaskaandtwoothersinCalifornia.Twonationalvolcanicmonu-mentshavebeenestablishedinWashingtonandOregon.ThenationalacreagefortheForestServiceisnow3.8millionacres.Inaddition,theForestServicemanagesseveralmonumentsfortheNationalParkService.


Wildlife Habitat RestorationBeforetheNationalForestSystemwasestablished,wildlifehabitatwasoftenchangedordestroyedbythemanyactivities–someillegal–onthepublicdomainforestlands.In1998,theForestServicerestoredover167,000acresofterrestrialhabitat,includingnearly42,000acreswithinrangelandecosystems.

Forest ResearchPriorto1905,therewerebasicallynoorganizedresearchstudiesonforests.To-day,theForestServicesupportsapproximately3,005researchstudiesconcernedwiththenationalforestresources.

Forest Service EmployeesBefore1905,ahandfulofGovernmentemployeesintheDepartmentofAgri-culturewerepaidtostudytheforestrysituationinAmerica.In2002,theForestServiceemployedabout30,000permanentfull-timepositions(about38percentwomenand16percentminorities)andanother14,700temporarypositions,whichrangefromarcheologiststowildernessguards.

Special Employment ProgramsPriorto1931,therewerenospecialemploymentprogramsonthenationalforestlands.Today,theForestServicehas18JobCorpscenters,with8,976studentsbetweentheagesof16and22employedonconservationprojectsandeducationprograms.JobCorpsstudentsaccomplishedalmost$18.5millionworthofworkonnationalforestprojects.YCCemployedanother894enrolleesonthenationalforestsduringthesummermonths,returning$1.14inworkforeachdollarap-propriated.TheSeniorCommunityServiceEmploymentProgram(SCSEP)hasabout5,873low-incomepersons,55orolder,participatinginnationalforestandotherForestServiceprojects,returning$1.45inworkvalueforeachappropri-ateddollar.

Volunteers in the National Forests Before1905,(andthenext30years)therewereno“official”volunteersonthelandsthatbecamenationalforests.However,over100yearslater,90,678vol-unteershavecontributedworkvaluedat$38million.VolunteersoftenserveashoststooverseethedailyoperationofthemanyForestServicerecreationalfacili-ties.


Dale N. Bosworth— Fifteenth Chief, 2001–Present

DaleN.Bosworthbecamethe15thChiefoftheFor-estServiceonApril12,2001.Bosworthheldposi-tionsasregionalforesterfortheIntermountainandNorthernRegionsbeforehewaschosentobeChiefoftheForestService.DuringhistimeasChiefoftheForestService,hehasreorganizedtheagencytogivemoreauthorityanddollarstotheregionsandnationalforests,tobetterrespondto“analysisparalysis”(theeffortsbysometoslowForestServiceworkthroughnumerousappealsandlawsuits),andtoimplementtheNationalFirePlan2000.During

Bosworth’stenure,theincreasingdangertocommunitiesfromwildfiresandheavy“fuelloads”inforestsbecamemajorissues.Thefiresof2002wereverydifficultfortheForestService,especiallyintermsofacresburnedandmoneyspentonfirefighting.

DaleBosworthwrote:

On the national forests...long-term ecosystem health drives everything we do. It determines whether or not—and where and how—we decide to cut trees. Our vegetation management projects are guided by the principle that what we leave on the land is more important than what we take away....Some people say we ought to leave the land alone to heal itself. But it is an illusion to think that just leaving nature alone will restore the open old-growth pine forests....Competition for limited resources will keep the dense trees that are there now small forever—or until they are destroyed by insects or fire. In fact, the original open forests were probably never entirely natural; studies suggest that they evolved together with American Indians and their land management practices, particularly burning....Our American Indian heritage teaches the need for active management.

I think we can find common ground for deciding at the local level what our priorities and treatments should be. Today, we have amazing new opportunities for collabora-tion. New technologies such as the Internet allow us to work together with partners all across the landscape....If we work together based on shared goals for the land, everyone benefits. Ecologically, we can benefit the land by restoring ecosystems to something more resembling their condition at the time of European settlement. So-cially, we can benefit our local communities by helping people make themselves safer from wildland fire. Economically, we can benefit our citizens by providing jobs and by helping them take advantage of local business opportunities to utilize excess trees and brush.

When you think about it, the national forests and grasslands are a great unfinished experiment. We as a Nation are testing a hypothesis—the hypothesis that a great system of public lands can provide benefits to many different people, for generation after generation, forever and ever...The jury is still out. People all over the world are watching and waiting to see if what we are doing is the right thing. A lot is at stake. FromanarticleinFire Management Today(basedonhis2002McClureLectureattheUniversityofIdaho.


Summary— �00 Years of Forest Service Management hephilosophicalfoundationsofpreservingandusingthenatural resourcesonFederallandhavemanydeeprootsthatdatetothe19th century.AfterthedecisionsmadebyCongressinthe1890’s,theNationalForestSystemhasgrowntomorethan191millionacres.Thisland,ownedbythepeopleoftheUnitedStates,hasbeenmanagedbytheUSDAForestServicesince1905.Forestry,asworkedoutbyGiffordPinchot,thefirstChiefoftheFor-estService,issynonymouswithconservationofforestsandothernaturalresourc-esoverthelongterm.Itsequivalenttodayisecology-basedmanagement.

Managementofthenationalforestshasundergonesignificantchangeoverthelast100-plusyears.ProtectingforeststhroughPresidentialandcongressionalac-tionswasessentialintheearly1890’s,aswastryingtogetcongressionalapprovalandfundingtomanagetheseentrustedlands.Duringthefirstpartofthe20thcentury,protectionofthenewlycreatednationalforestsfromfireandabusewasofparamountimportance.TheGreatDepressioncreatedopportunitiesforthena-tionalforestsandtheForestServicetoplayamajorroleinhelpingpeoplesurviveeconomicallythroughconservationworkprogramsandprojects.

FollowingWorldWarII,thenationalforestsbeganplayinganincreasingroleintheproductionoftimberproducts,butledtocontroversyaboutthe“weight”oftimberproductioninthemixofusescomingfromthepublicforestlands.TheMultiple-UseSustained-YieldActof1960wasthefirstimportantlawtoredi-recttheagencytoconsideralluses—notjusttimber.QuicklyfollowingwastheWildernessActof1964,whichsetasidevastareasofcongressionallyprotectednationalwildernesses.

Controversywasonlybeginningasbattlesoverclearcuttingandroadlessareasplaguedtheagency—resultinginaseriesofnewlaws,includingRPA,NFMA,andaseriesofenvironmentalprotectionlaws,suchastheCleanWaterandCleanAirActsandtheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyActof1969.TheForestServicehashadtoincorporatenewkindsofmanagementintotheadministrationofthenationalforests—themostrecentchangeshavebeentheembracingofecologicalmanagement,nationalfireplanning,partnerships,andcollaborativestewardship.

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Thefutureismurky.TherearepowerfulinterestgroupsthatwanttheForestServiceandthenationalforeststoreverttoanintensivemanagementeratopro-tectandpreservejobsandusethetreesandothernaturalresourcestothefullestextentpossible.Whileattheotherendtherearethosewhowanttheresourcestotallypreserved,tohavea“zero-cut”ofthetrees,andtokeeppeopleoutofthenationalforests–apolicyevenmorerestrictivethanthatofthenationalparks.Otherspecialinterestgroupswanttoincreasetheir“share”oftheresourceusesavailableonthenationalforests.Allgroupsseemtobelievethatscienceandmoredatawill“provetheircase.”Buttherealityisthatdecisionsaboutthefutureman-agementofthenationalforests,aswellastheuseofthenaturalresources,arees-sentiallypoliticalinnature.Dataandthescientificmethodcanonlygiveanswerstoquestions,notsetpolicyandpractices.

DiscussionsovertheyearsbyvariousAdministrationsandCongresshavecen-teredonmovingtheForestServiceandthenationalforestsfromtheDepartmentofAgriculturebacktotheDepartmentoftheInterior.OtherproposalshaveputforththenotionofhavingoneFederalagency,suchasaDepartmentofNaturalResources,toadministerallthenationalforestsandparks,wildliferefuges,BLMlands,andothers.Theseideas,aswellascompetingideasabouttheproperroleoftheFederalGovernmentinowningandmanaginglands,willbediscussedagain.

Withouttheforesightanddedicationofagreatnumberofpeopleduringthelate19thandearly20thcenturies,therewouldbenothingtodebatetoday.Thenationalforestswouldhavelongagobeencarvedintomillionsofprivateowner-shipplotsandextensivelyloggedandchangedforever.Thenationalforestsareourlegacyforfuturegenerations.For100years,theForestServicehasbeenthemanagerofthenationalforests.Ithasnotalwaysbeeneasyorwithoutcontro-versy.Tosurviveintothenextcentury,theForestServicewillhavetocontinueincorporatingthepublicneedsandnewideasofmanagement,justasithasforthefirst100years.


nynumberofbooksdiscusthebeginningandcurrentoperations oftheUSDAForestService.Ashortlistofreadingsshouldinclude:

Fedkiw,John.1999.Managing Multiple Uses in National Forests, 1905-1995: A 90-Year Learning Experience and It Isn’t Finished Yet.FS-628.Washington,DC:USDAForestService.

Hays,SamuelP.1959.Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement 1890-1920.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.

Pinchot,Gifford.1947.Breaking New Ground.NewYork,NY:Harcourt,Brace,andCompany.

Runte,Alfred.1991.Public Lands, Public Heritage: The National Forest Idea.Niwot,CO:RobertsRinehartPublishers.

Steen,HaroldK.1976.The U.S. Forest Service: A History.Seattle,WA:UniversityofWashingtonPress.

Steen,HaroldK.(ed.)1992.The Origins of the National Forests: A Centennial Sym-posium.Durham,NC:ForestHistorySociety.

USDAForestService.1976.100 Years of Federal Forestry.AgricultureBulletin402.Washington,DC:U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice.

West,TerryL.1992.“CentennialMini-HistoriesoftheForestService.”FS-518.Washington,DC:USDAForestService.

Further Reading

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Slightly revised April 2005FS-650

the usda forest service— the first century

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