the holocenejadran.izor.hr/~vilibic/meteotsunami/lowe_delang... · krakatau. coincided with...

http://hol.sagepub.comThe Holocene

DOI: 10.1191/095968300670392643 2000; 10; 401 The Holocene

David J. Lowe and Willem P. de Lange possibility of a global tsunami

Volcano-meteorological tsunamis, thec. AD 200 Taupo eruption (New Zealand) and the

http://hol.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/10/3/401 The online version of this article can be found at:

Published by:

http://www.sagepublications.com

can be found at:The Holocene Additional services and information for

http://hol.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Email Alerts:

http://hol.sagepub.com/subscriptions Subscriptions:

http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.navReprints:

http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.navPermissions:

http://hol.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/10/3/401#BIBLSAGE Journals Online and HighWire Press platforms):

(this article cites 34 articles hosted on the Citations

© 2000 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. at University of Victoria on April 24, 2007 http://hol.sagepub.comDownloaded from

http://hol.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts

http://hol.sagepub.com/subscriptions

http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav

http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav

http://hol.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/10/3/401#BIBL

http://hol.sagepub.com

The Holocene 10,3 (2000) pp. 401-407

Volcano-meteorological tsunamis, theC.o 200 Taupo eruption (New Zealand)

and the possibility of a global tsunamiDavid J. Lowe and Willem P. de Lange

(Department of Earth Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105,Hamilton, New Zealand 2001)

Received 4 April 1999; revised manuscript accepted 16 August 1999

Abstract: Meteorological tsunamis are long period waves that result from meteorologically driven disturbances.They are also generated by phase coupling with atmospheric gravity waves arising tluough powerful volcaiicactivity. The AD 1883 Krakataut eruption generated volcano-meteoro.ogical tsunamis that were recorded glo-ballv. Because of its extreme violence and energy release (. -15() + 50 megatons explosive yield), and by analogy with the Krakatau event, it is highly possible that the ignimbrite-emplacement phase of the C. AD 200Taupo eruption of North Island, New Zealand, generated a similar volcano-meteorological tsunami that mayhave reached coastal areas worldwide. Tsunami deposits of identical age to the Taupo eruption occur in centralcoastal New Zealand and probably relate to that event; (detinitive evidence elsewhere has not yet been lfound.In theory, volcano-meteorological tsunamis are likely to be produced during comparable eruptive events atother explo.sive volcanoes, and thus represent an additional volcanic hazard at coastal sites far from source.We suggest that evidence for such tstnamis, both for marine and lacustriaie environments, may be preservedin geological records. and that further work searching for this evidence using a facies approach i, timely.

Key words: TsLLunami, meteorological tsunami, volcanio-meteorological tsuiami. palacsotunarmni, autosphericphase coupling,New Zealand.

Introduction

Ts~uiainis are long-period waves generated by seafloor disturb-lrances in the oceats, ('Tsunami', as a collective noun, may besingula-rf or plural (de Lange, 1998), but comnmorAly 's' is appendedto form tce plural to avoid ambiguity.) Most disturbances are ofseismic origin or result from volcanic processes (Table 1). How-ever, a special type of tsunami is the 'meteorological tsunlami'that results from the generation of waves by phase coupling withatmospheric compressional gravity or shock waves (Donn andBalachanrchan, 1969; Rabinovich and Monseratt, 1996). Known

by various local names te.g.. abiki, yota, rissaga. Seebdr), thesewaves are not true tsunanmis sensu .sircto but are identical to 'nor-mnal' tsunamis in laving long-period (c. 6-40 minutes) waves witIspeeds deternmined by water depth. They originate mainly throughdisturbances in the atmosphere, hence water surfaces, via the pass-

age of strong cyclones (typhoons) or frontal squalls, or by atmos-pheric pressure jumps aind trains of atmospheric gravity waves

(Rabinovic'h and Monserrat, 1996). Such large long waves, liketheir scismoogenic or volcanogenic couiterparts, have caused lossof life and catastrophic destruction in coastal areas and thus rep-

re-sexnt a sig.-nificant but previously underestimated natural haz.vard.Meteorological tsunamis may also be generated th-rough another

ti Arnold 2000

volcanic eruptions, seiches, natural hazards, ignimbrite, Taupo eruption,

Table I Mechanisms for the generation of tsumami during volcanic erup-tions (after Latter, .98t) '

Earthquakes accompanying eruptionsSubmarine expiosionsPyroclastic flows entering the seaCaldera collapse or subsidenceLandslides and avalanches of hot or cold rock or lahars entering thesea

Lava entering die seaBase surges and associated shock wavesPhase coupling with atmospheric shock waves (this paper)

*Aimost 25% of the deaths caused by volcanic eruptions have beenattributed to acconspanying volcanogenic tiunasnis (Latter, 198]). andlanguy er at. (1998) reported that 17N, of the fatalities from eruptionssince Al) 1783 were the result of such tsmis.

mechanism, namtely powerful volcanic activity, as shown by ananalysis of the AD 1883 Krakatau eruption (Ewing and Press,1955; Press and Hirkrider, 1966; Simikin ,and Fiske, 1983). Thisernption evidently generated volearnogenic meteorological tsuJn.-amis, hereby termed 'volcano-meteorological tsunamis'. The

0959 -68363'00')-IL40FA

FORUMARTI CLE



402 The Holocene 10 (2000)

Displacement of a- co~ll~apsing columnr. IK-- ermon:ressional (piw.. saves in thle atm

3ir 3y thepruCalessIressurm1iosphere

BLow t.~t

Abrosp~hekcwtavws tr i||v| 11!1at 195-23.) mn 1Rs

This matcnes the phaseveoctryof aunamisaves

water deptha of 4-5 I'm

Figure 1 Model for generation of volcanically induced meteorological tsunamis by atmospheric phase coupling during a powerful volcanic eruption > [00miegaton explosive yield). (A) The eruption. displaces a large voalume of air laterally, generating conmpressional (pressure) gravity wavCes it; the atmosphere.This is most efficiently achieved by columun collapse or a lateral blast. (BI High and los pressures depress and raise the water surface. respectively. If

the pressure disturbarnce travels at the same speed as a tsumnami wave, the water resonates and a volcano-meteorological tsunami is formiled.

strongest gravity waves. on the basis of detailed records of atmos-pheric pressure at the Batavia (now Jakarta) Gas Works near

Krakatau. coincided with emplacement of the major pyroclasticflows during tse eruption (Latter, 1981: Self and Rampino. 1981).The effects were detected worldwide. For example, waves were

observed at major ports itn the North Sea (Ewing and Press, 1955;Press and liarkLrider, 1966; Simkin arid Fiske, 1983) and alongthe New Zealand coast vhere heights varied from 0.3 to 1.8 m.They were also recorded within 600 km2--Lake Taupo in New Zea-land where the maximum wave heights during seiching reached0.5 m (de Lange and Healy, 1986; de Lange. 1998). Theacco-mipanying acoustic waves were sufficiently strong to be heardin central and western Australia, Sri Lanka, and Rodriguez Islandin the Indiani Ocean, the last being c. 4650 km from Krakatau(Latter. 198 1 Sirukin and Fiske, 1983).

Thus a meteorological tSunaImi iay be generated both in mar-

ine and lacustrine environments through the emplacement ofignimbrite through the collapse of an eruption column., or by a

very powerful lateral blast, as modelled in Figure 1. We considerhere the possibility that the c. 200 Taupo eruption-, New Zea-

land, also generated a volcano-meteorological tsunami. It is likelythat this tsunami had miajor impacts locally and may have beenfelt on a global scale.

Comparison of the Taupo and KrakataueruptionsThe Taupo eruption, which occurred x. 1850 4C' BP (Froggatt andLowe, 1990), was the latest and most powerful of the eruptionsfrom the rhyolitic Taupe caldera voleano inr Tatipo Volcanic Zone

(Figure 2) since c. 22 600 '4C BP (Walker, 1980; Wilson and

Walker, 1985; Wilson, 1993). The eruption involved five phasesof plinian (including 'ultxaplinian') and phreatomiagmatic fall

activity, and a climactic sixth phase resulted in the extremely viol-ent emplacement of the Taupo Ig.nimbrite ('Unit YR of Wilson,1993) over an area of c. 20 000 km2. The pyroclastic flow is con-

sidered to have been erupted at velocities exceeding 200-300m -l (Wilson. 1985; 1993; Wilson and Walker, 1985). No tsan-ami would have beer. directly generated by this emplacementbecause nowhere did the flows enter -the sea (Figure 2). HIowever,we propose that the eniption ard emplacement of tne ignimnbritecould have generated a volcano-neteorological tsunami, based oinsimilarities betweenr this event and the AD 1883 Krakatau ignimbr-he-generating eruption.The largest AD 1883 Krakatau pyroclastic flow event produced

about I x 10! m3 of ipimbrite (Self and. Rampino, 1981). Takingthis as the nainimmn tephra volume, the tephra volunme index kv.1

Figure 2 Distributions of Taupo Ignimbrite and 110 cm isopach for tephra-fall deposits (after Wilson and Walker, 1985) of the Taupo erLLptioin from Taupocaldera volcano in the central Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVIZ; Hloughton et aL., 1995; Wilson er at, 1995), New Zealand. Vent positions after Smith and

Houglitorn (1995). B and P mark Benneydale and Ptareora buried forests, respective.y; H = Hukanui cave, Puketitiri. Location map: K - Kapiti lsland; D- DUrvilie Island; ATNP = Abel Tasman National Park.

A



David 1. Lowe and Willem P. de Lange: Volcano-metec.rological tsunamis and the Taupo eruption 403

is 6 and tihe eruption size index M,,, is 6.0 (Pyle, 1995). TheTaupo, Ignimbrite deposit has a volumie of about 3 x 1("'im3(Wilson. 1993) corresponding to kvli, = 6 and MVL; = 6.A. Bothevents are likely to have occurred within 300--400 seconds (Selfanid Rampino. 1981; Wilson. 1993). Thus, these two events maybe considered to have a similar elergy release, equivalent to150 50 nieuatons of TNT, based on Pyle (1995). however,other volcanological indicators for tie emplacement of TaupoIgnimbrite, i-Including die deposit's low-aspect ratio, its wide rangeof facies and lateral variations. the mountainous topography it Sur-mounted, and its 'scalping' and overturning of substrates, all pointto an extremely high eruption rate (c. 3 x 10' m3 s ') and anexceptional rate of telease of kinetic energy (Wilson and Walker.1981: 1985; Walker and Wilson, 1983; Wilson, 1985; 1993: Smithand Houghton, 1995). exceeding the Krakatau event both in mag-nmtude aend emplacement violence. The estinmated energy releasefigure for Taupo must therefore be considered a minimumi.On this basis, it is highly probable that volcarno-meteorological

tsunamis were generated around die globe by the eruption ofTaupo Ignimbrite. hI the case of the Krakatau event dt1e antipo-dean waves were difficult tCo see without the aid of tide gauges.Nonetheless they were observed. Further, the circum-Pacific andIndian Ocean nmeteorological tsutlainis had maximumn heightsexceeding 0.25 m with periodIs of around 20 minutes. These werereported by casual observers (e.g.. Simkin and Fiske, 1983).Therefore it is likely that noticeable disturbances would haveoccurred at locations around -the Pacific and Indian oceans within20 h1ours of the eruption of the Taupo Ignitnbrite.

Age of the Taupo eruption

In Table 2 and Figure 3 we documLent all published dates obtainedfor the Taupo eruption using radiocarbon dating, dendrochronol-ogy, ice-core dating aend interpretations of historical Chinese anduRoman records. New radiocarbon ages obtained oti short-livedseeds and leaves from trees killed by the emplacement of TaupoIgnimbrite are listed in Table 3.

Calibrated dates estimated from the radiocarbon rmeasurements,spanning an interval of nearly 200 cal. years at the 2-sigma level(C. AD 130 O AD-320) (Table 2), are imprecise because the cali-bration curves in this period fluctuate and have relatively largeerrors (Stutiver e at., 1998). The two dendrochronology-based ageestimates are some 50 cal. years apart, tshat most recently obtainedbeing ADo 23 + 15 (Sparks et al., 1995). However, this latter datedoes not atgree with a date of A) 181 ± 2 derived firomn the Green-land GISP2 ice core (Zielinski et alt. 1994). Consequently. theprecise year of the eruption is uncertain, which is why we useC. Al) 200 as an approximate estimate for nowv. Tt is kJnown frombotanical and dendrochronological data that dte eruption tookplace during the austral late summer or early autumin (Table 2).Based on the data in Table 2, we targeted c. AD 130 tO AD 320 asdie time interval for documiented tsunamis in both historical andgeological records thant might relate to the Taupo eruption.

Evidence for tsunami depositsassociated with the Taupo eruption

Finding definitive evidence for prehistoric, and even historic, tsun-amis is difficult (e.g., Dawson et aL, 1991: Chague6-Goff and Goff,1999a; 1999b,; G'off and Chague6-Goff, 1999). Volcano-meteoro-logical tstunamnis will tenld to have small waves (<1 in) exceptclose to source, or where resonance amplifies the waves. TheAD 1 883 Krakatau eruption. produced waves in. the River Thames,England. that were evident to casual observers (Press and IHark-

rider, 1966), even though they were. much less than I m in height.The same elruptiotn Tesulted in waves as high as 1 8 m inAucks lndHarbour (Tamaki Estuary), New Zealand, the considerably largersize here being the result of resonance and amplification. Theseare the largest tsunami-like waves recorded at Au-ckland in thelast 180 years (de Lange and Healy. 1986; de Lange, 1998: deLange amd Fraser, 1999), and they were larger than the Krakatau-generated waves observed on the open coast around New Zealand.Therefore, although we consider ihat tde likely global response issmall, loc-ally there may be a mnuch larger (and potentiallydamaging) response (e.g., Gomis ei al., 1993).

Small waves may go unnoticed by coastal inhabitants or, ifnoticed and recorded, they tnay not be obvious as a tsunami eventto the researcher (Cox, 1979; de Lange. 1998). In the case ofmeteorological tsmamis, waves may also form in lakes, wherethey may be more likely to be reported as unusual. It is possiblethat seiching and 'overspilling' of lakes for unkiown physicalreasons, as reported in soime historical records (e.g.. Baillie,1999), may be volcano-meteorological in origin. and the Taupoeruption clearly is a contender for any such event occurring in thetarget period. However, seiching in a lake is not normally linakedto tsunami activity at the coast. Therefore it is likely that anytsunami associated with the Taupo eruption will -not be recordedas a tsunami event in any accessible data base. This is true of theinternational World-wide Tsunami Database (NGDC, 1997): onlytwo historical tsunami events have been recorded for the Pacificdutiring the target period. The first, reported in China AD 28 June173 ('Po Hai' tsunami), was probably associated with a localearthquake (lida et at., 1967; Soloviev and Go, 1974). The otherevent, documented in. southern Mexico AD 17 March 186, is nowknown to be an erroneous data base entry. In the Mediterraneanregion several possible contenders are recorded, both at Rhodes,in AD 142 and AD 148, and another event is recorded for tie DeadSea inl AD 315 (NGDC. 1997). However, tde origin of these tsun-amis is uncertain and thLey may relate to earthquak-es or othercauses.

Closer to the New Zealand region there are no historical recordsthat extend sufficiently far back to cover the Taupo eruption.Therefore it is necessary to search the geological record. How-ever, it may be possible to identify only large events. Small tsun-amis are difficult, to recognize i-n the geological record, Lainltbecause the features of tsu.nami deposits are similar to depositsproduced by other processes. At present there is no single feltureor 'signature' characteristic of a tsunami deposit and a faciesapproach with multiple diagnostic criteria is required. Tsunamifacies are currently poorly defined but recent studies using variouscriteria have shown some success in identifying prehistoric tsun-amnis (palaeotsunamis) (e.g., Dawson, 1996; Hemphill-Haley,1996; Chagu&-Goff and (ioff, 1999a; 1999b: Clague er at., 1999;Goff and Chagu6-Goff, 1999).Few sites in New Zealand lhave been examined for evidence of

palaeotsunamis. The best-documernted sites are in Abel TasmanNational Paerk, South Island, on the southwesteninmargin of CookStrait (Goff and Chagu6-Goff, 1999; Figure 2). These sites havebeen little affected by historic tsunamis (de Lange and Healy,1986; Fraser, 1998), with the shallow waters of the strait andadjacent bays attenuating tsunami energy. Only two historicevents are known to have produced appreciable tsunramaii waves indie area, bodti caused by local earthquakes inl AD 1855 andAl) 1868. The first event produced waves 5-10 m in height inCook Strait; the second generated waves <'1 nm high. Analysis ofcores taken f.rom wetlands in the park showed evidence for severaltsunami events, including a deposit produced by the AnD 1855event. No trace of the AD 1868 event is evide.t (Gof & Chagu-Goff, 1999). This suggests that tsm.ami wave heights exceedingc. S in in Cook Strait are probably needed to leave a recognizabledeposit. The AD 1855 deposit is also die least substantial (thin-nest)




Table 2 Estimates of the date of the Taupo eruption

Basis of estimate Reference* Radiocarbon age Calibrated or calendar age(BP)§

(A) Radiocarbon datingMultiple ages on charcoal, wood, peat, lake sediment seedts (n -41) 1 1$50 ± 10 la AD 13.5-199 (0Oo71'

AD 209-237 '(0.3)2cr AD 132 --240 (100)

HIigh-precision and AMS ages on leaves and eeds' (n = 7) 2, 3 (Table 3) 1845 ± 19 I.crAD 130-240 (1.00)'2Cr AD 130 -320 (100)

(B) DendrochronologyCross-matching of Phyllo-/ladus ;richomnanoidel (tanekaha) chronology with 4 AD 232 ± 15tree-ring sequence of Prumnooitys taTifolia (matai)Curve-miatching of floating tree-ring sequence of PhyJociladmo' trichotmanoides' 1, 5 c. AD 177 (1660 -19.5f

(C) Greenland ice-core recordLayer of sulphuric acid in GISP2 icte core' 6 AD 18] ± 2(Adjusted by -4iA yr because of postulated lag compared with tree-ring records)' 7 (?t. AD 221 ±2)

(D) Ancient historical recordsAssociation with unusual atmospheric phenomena reported in Chinese and Roman 8 c. AD 186literature5

(E) Time of year oif eruptionBotanical and dendrochronological data from buried forest at Pureora (Figure 2) 5, 9 Austra; late summer or early

autumn (appru)x. March--early April)

*(l) hroggatt and lowe (1990); (2) Lowe (1993); (3) Holdaway and Beavan (1999); (4 Sparks et atl. (1995), (5) Palmer et a. (1988); (6) Zielinski eito). (1994); (7) Bail'ie (19961; (8) Wilson ct al. (1980): (9) Clarkson et ati. (1988).Ctonventional radiocarbon years before present based on the old (Libby) half-life. Reported as error-weighted mean ± I standard deviation.-,ased on INTCAI.98 terrestrial calibration cuerves of Stuiver ctal. (1998) after subtraction. of 27 years for the Sou-thern Hemnisphere offiset (McCornacet al., 1998a; 1Q98b) and using OxCal 3.0 (Bronk Ramsey, 1995). Values in parentheses are probabilities.5-Well-preserved macrofossil samples from trees killed by emplacement of Taupo Ignimbrite at Pureora and Bennydale buried forests, western Taupo (seeClarkson et at., 19x8; 1992; 1995). and carbonized leaves within Taupo Ignimbrite at Hukanui cave. Puketitiri, inland Haawke's Bay (Holdawav andBeavan, 1999).*-From logs killed by emplacement olf Taupo Ilgnimbrite at Pureora."1-sigma range ini parentheses."Assumes that the laver of sulphuric acid at AD 181 I 2 in GISP. core represents deposition of aerosols specifically from the Taupo eruption. This ass-umnedcorrelation with the Taupo events has yet to be validated (e.g., using microanalysis of glass as in Zielinski and Germani, 1998a; 1998b) and it is conceivablethat the laver may represent fallout from an alternative eruption, as yet un dentified --- e.g., the northern lobe of the White River Ash, erupted from MtBona-Churchiil, Alaska, and with a tephra volume of c. 10"m' (Simkin and Siebert, 1994), has an error-weighted mean radiocarbon age (n =I-) ofI ;87 12849i"C HP (Lterbelcmo et al., 1975), corresponding to a 2-sigma calibrated range of AD 63 -222 (P = 1.00) based on IN CAL.9s8 (Stuiver et at.,1998) and using OxCal 3.0 (Bronk Ramnsey, 1995). Similarly, llopango caldera volcano, El Salvador, generated c. 10) nim3 of silicic material in anl eruptionC. AL 260 + 150 iSirakin and Siebert. 1994; Zielinsk: et al.. 1994).'Baillie (1996) suggested th'at part of the GISP2 ice-core record (second millennium BC) is 'too old' by c. 40 yr (c, 2350 Rs; based on tree-ring records).If this lag is confirmed and if it is applicable to the period relevant to the Taupo eruption, then the date of AD 181 ± 2 would shift by +4-0 yr to c. A.D 221 ± 2.Hioweser, the conclusions of Baillie (1996) are disputed by Bucklald at'. (1997) and Zielinski and Get~rnani 1998a), and the prrported lag mnay notnecessarly apply to the later period.-"The postulated link between the atmospheric effects and the T.aupo eruption is controversial (Froggatt, 1981; Wilson e al., 1981; Froggatt and Lowe,1990). Stotiers and Rampino (1983) purported that there were errors in the translation of the Roman text used by Wilson et a)., (1980) and suggestedthat the literarv reference was to a supernova.

iB) Derido.+ +) Ice coe

* D) Histor.

,0130 200 235 305 320

Ca!-)noar -iale

Figure 3 Timeline comparing estimates of the date of Taupeo eruption (from Table 2). (A) 2 u ranges for calibrated radiocarbon ages (interhemisphericoffset-corrected, derived by OxCal): upper line 1823 ± 10 4C BP, lower line 1818. 19 '4C BP; (B) dendrochronological estimates; (C) Greenlatdi GISP2ice-core data (with postulated +40 years-offset ffrom dendrochronological data); (D) Chinese and Roman records off atmospheric effects.



David ,. Lowe and Willem P. de Lange: Volcano-meteorological tsunamis and the Taupo eruption 405

lable 3 Radiocarbo-n ages on leaves and seeds from trees killed by emplacement of Taupo igsinmbrite at Benneydale and Pareora. and at liukanuicave, Puketitiri

Lab. no.* Age (:4C BP) 8 k S(Sty) Sample type§ Locatioin¶

Wk-;270ta 170i)j 4S --28.0 Rimu leaves (Lacr-rdium cupre.svsinum) Ohires Rd, Benneydale S17/161963WI-2707b 1860±I45 -28.0 Ri=nu leaves MD. cupressinorm) Plains Rd. Pureora T11I1347974Wk-270xa 185) ± 45 -23.1 Miro (Prurnno(ipirja jlferrnsgmeo) and matai '(P taxifiolha) seeds Ohirea Rd. Benneydale S 17/161963Wk-2708b I18501 50 --23.1 Miro (P. fcrruginea) and matai (P. maxrfb!io) seeds Ohirea- Rd, Benneydale S17/161963Wk-2709 1840± 50 -27.2 Toro leaves (Mkfjrsine lsalicipa) (from tree crown) Ohirea Rd, Benneydate S17/1619e3NZA-7532 1715 69 -27.9 Carbonized lacebark(?) leaf remains (Ilheriac sexsryisa?) Ilukanui Pool (cave). Pukfetitiri V20/l49115NZA-822'16 187-1 ±67 -28.6 Carbonized Leaf (unidentified') Hukannji Pool (cave), Puketitkri Ve/20/14911I5

*Wk- prefixes refer to U."niversity of Waikato Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory (high-precision liquid scintillation spectromeury); NZA-prefixes refer toRafter (formerty New Zealand) Radiocarbon Laboratory, Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences (accelerator mass spectrometry).§Wk.- samples collected and identified by B.R. Clarkson in December 1984 (Wk-2709) and August 1986 (Wk.-207'. Wk-2708l) (Lowe, 1993; th's study);NZ.A- sarnpit's collected by R.N. Holdaway (Holdaway anvid Beavan. 1999).¶See Figure 2; grid reference applies to the metric 150 011(1 topographical nsap series NZMS 260.

of those identified, suggesting that the other tsumsligenic eventswere possibly larger.

Based on radiocarbon dating, all but one of -he palaeotsunatmideposits in Abel TasnMan National Park; can be correlated withlarge, local earthquakes identified previously fron paLaeoseismicwork. (Goff and Chag&-6Goff, 1.99'). Because the faults involvedin these earthquakes are all closer to th|e park than that whichgenerated the An) 1855 events it seems likely that differences in.deposit thickness are related to proximity to source and thus tsun-anti size.The oldest tsunaami event identified by G'off an-d Chagui-Goff

(1999) occUrs at the base of the cores. rhe deposit, thicker tharthat associated with the A[) 1855 event, has been dated by radi-ocarbon (-n ciarcoal) at l-,74 1 73 4Q BP (INZA-6230). whichcalibrates to a calendrical date range of AD 125-431 (P = 0.99)and Ao87-101 tP-0.OI) based on Stuiver et a. (1998) andBronk Ramsey (1995) after interhemispheric offeit correction(McCornmac ci a., 1998a; 1998b). This age range overlaps thosefor the Taapo eruption (Figure 4). There are no known local earth-quakes of sufficient magnitude to generate a tsunami for this tirmeperiod. Therefore we consider this deposit may represent the localvolcano-neteorological tsunami generated by the Taupo eruption.

Probable tsunami deposits at Kapiti Island. southwestern NorthIsland (Figure 2), of late-Ilolocene age may similarly be relatedto the Taupo eruption (Goff et al.. 2000). Pumice clasts preservedin peat overlying al uplifited shore platformn at a site near. the

, "

W4A.D 25t.tAL)

95.44} ;,iSnf.kncel3YAD 24lAth

A5.rtiwtr)

-E-

1.

(; .s

0,.4I

,

L __ ._.._ L . .

R SAlt I(i.Al.t.) 200A.

casit1 idar

--- -___

ISDOAD) 40At)

Figure 4 Comparison of radiocarbon ages for tie Taupo eruption (.Table2A) with an age of 1774 ± 73 `4C BP on possible coeval tsuniami depositsin Abel asman National Park (Goff and Chaguk-Goff, 1999). T-he OxCal

comblised probability rethod (Bronk Ram.sey, 1995) shows a high. 1evelof agreement between the cal brated ages (93.5%,).

tsutnami deposits on Kapiti are likely to be Taupo-derived. a-ndmay be coeval with the tsunami event (J.R. Goff, personal con-mutication, 1999). We note also that additional pumnice deposits,derived primarily from plinian fallout and possibly also fluviallytransported ejecta from the earlier phases of the Taupo eruption,are widely reported at coastal sites along North Island's east coast,on D'Urville Island near Abel Tasman National Park (Figure 2).and on Chatham Island, wvhich is 900 km east of South Island(Wellman, 1962; Pullar et a.. 1977; McFadgen, 1985; 1989;1994la). Although commonly attributed to sea-rafting processes, itis conceivable that sorme of thesC reworked, stranded punstedeposits. which can occur well inland from the modem shoreline,originated from the postulated Taupo-generated meteorologicaltsunami. One such sti-anded shoreline ridge. 4 in wide and 0.7 mthick. occurs 160 m inland of, and 3.5 in above, hight water miarkat Waitangi West Beach. Chatham Island (McFadgen, 1994b).

Conclusions and implications

(1 Meteorological tsunamis are produced by phase coupling withatmospheric gravity or shock waves, the latter usually being asso-ciated with meteorological forces. Volcanogenic meteorologicaltsunamis may be generated through powerful volcanic activity,including emplacement of ignimbrite or lateral blasts. TheAD 1883 Krakatau eruption genierated volcano-meteorological tsu-namis that were recorded globally both in marine and lacustrineenvironrunents.(2) Because of its extreme violence and high energy release

(equivalent to 2I150 ± 50 megatons of TNT). and by analogy 'withthe Krakatau event. it is highly probable on thleroretical grotudsthat the ignimbrite-emplacement. phase of the Taupo eruptionc. AD 200 generated a similar, possibly larger, volcano-meteoro-logical tsunami with worldwide coastal impacts.

(3) Tsunami deposits of identical age to the Tauipo eruption,and emllplaced by waves 2cS. m in height in Cook Strait, occurin central New Zealand. In the absence of large palaeoseismnicevents at this time, we contend that these deposits represent thelocal volcano-meteorological tsu-namnii generated by the TaJupoeruption. Strandlines of reworked Taupo-clerived pumlice foundalong New Zealand coastlines, usually attributed to sea-raftingpr.ocesses, may have originated in part from the Taupo-gener-ared tsunami.

(4) Tsunamis +tat coincide with the timing of the Taupo erup-tion are not yet known in the historical record. althnough possiblecontenders are described in the Mediterranean area. Findingdefinitive evidence for early historic or prehistoric tsunamis is dif-ficult, however, because historical records are incomplete, tsunansi




1signatures are not well defined, ,and volcano-neteorologicaltsunamis will tend to hve smiall waves (<I m) except close tosource or where resonance amplifies the waves. If a probable linkwith an historic tsunami (marine or lactlstrine) could be estab-lished, it would p-rovide an additional dating method to refine thehistory of the Taupo volcano. In addition,, the widely dispersedproduacts of the Taupo eruption thus dated would provide achronostratigraphic isochronous marker horizon of likely globalextent.

(.5,) We suggest that a global search for geological evidence oftstunami deposits associated with the Taupo eruption, probablyusing a facies approach, would be worthwhile. Volcano-meteoro-logical tsunamis generated from other highly energetic and vol-wuninous eruptions (e.g., Kawakawa eruption c. 22 600 "C' BP,Taupo volcano; Wilson, 1991) may also be preserved in the geo-logical record.

(6) Volcano-meteorological tsuaimis represent a volcanic haz-ird at coastal sites both proximal and far from source volcanoes.The hazards resulting from a powerful eruption at Taupo. theworld's most productive single rrhyolite volcano (Wilson, 1993),or its near neigahbour at Okataina, would not be confined to NewZealand. Comparable eruptive events from ignimbrite-generatingvolcanoes elsewhere would also probably have global coastalimpacts both in marine and lacu-strine environm.ents though theseriousness of such impacts would depend ont local circeumstances.

Acknowledgements

We thankl Bev and Bruce Clarkson for providing and identifyingleaves and seeds frotn Pureora and Beniydale buried forests, TomHigham and Alan Hogg for dating and calibration work., J.atnesGoff. Catherine Chagu6-Goff and Bruce MeFadgen for providing,advice and data on possible Taupo-age tsunami and other coastaldeposits in New Zealand, and Richard Smith for discussions ondie Taupo eruption. We are also appreciative of comments fromEileen Hemphill-Ilaley and another (anonymous) referee, andfrom Mike Baillie and Greg Zielinski. DJL tharks Queen's Uni-versity of Belfast and University of Plymouth (both UK), andLand.1care Research (Hlamilton, New Zealand), for enabling him toLL1ndertake this work during study leave. The paper was presentedat the Inter-INQUA symposium 'Tbphrochronologie et co-exist-ence HTommes-Volcans', Brives-Charensac, France, in August1)99, and DJL is especially grateful to Jean-Paul Raynal and Eti-enne Juvignb for supporting his attendance. Radiocarbon datingwas supported by the New Zealand Lottery Girants Board(Science). The paper is an output from the HITE ('H1azards andImpacts of Tephra Eruptions') Working Group of the INQUIACo1tnmi ssion Onl Tephrochlronology and Volcanology.

References

Baillie.M.G.L. 1996: Extreme environmental evcur.s and the hinking ofthe tree-ring and ice-core records. Radiocarbon 38. 703-11.-- 1999: L.todt tro Arthur: catastrophic encounters with comnet.s,

London' Batsford.Bronk Ramsey. C. 1995: Radiocarbon calibration and analysis of stra-tigraphy: the OxCal program. Radiocarbon 371, 425-30.Buckland, P.C., Dugmore. A.J. and Edwards, KJ. 1997: Bronze Agemnyths'? Volcanic activity amd hiumaan response in the Mediterransean andNorth Atlantic regions. Antiquity 71, 581-93.Chagu&-Goff, C. mid Goff, J.R. 1999a: Palcotsunami: now you see diem,now you don't. Tephra 17. 10-12.

-- 1999b: Geochemical and sedimentological signature of catastrophicsaltwater inunadations (tsunami.), New Zealand. Qoaternar Ao~strcdasia 17,39-48.

Clague, 3.J, Hutchinson, I.. Mathewes, R.W. antd Patterson. R.I. 1999:Esvidence for Late Holocene tsunamis at Catala Lake, British Coltambia.Journal of ('oas~al Research 15, 45 -60.Clarkson, B.R., Clarkson, B.D. mid Patel. RN. 1992.:The pre-Tatupoeruption (c. AD 130) forest of the Bennydale Pureora district, central NorthIsland, New Zealand. .Tcournal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 22,61--76.Clarkson, B.R, McGlone, M.S.. Lowe, D.J. and Clarkson, B.D. 1995Macrofossils and pollen representing forest of the pre-Taupo volcaniceruption (c. 1850 yr BP) era at Pureora and Benneydale. central NorthIsland, New Zealand. Journal of thfe Roral Society of NewU Zealand 25,263-81.Clarkson, B.R., Patel, R.N. and Clarkson. B.D. 1988: Composition andstructure of forest overwhelmed at Pureora. central North Island, NewZealand, duiring the Taupo eruptson (c. AD 130). Journal (o thc Royal!Societe! ofNew Zeaitaid 18. 417-36.Cox. D.C. 1979: Local tsunamnis in Hawaii- implications/.b)r hazard canZl-ing. H1onolulu: Hawaii Institute of Geophysics, 1-46.Dawson, A.G. 1996: The geological significance of tsusiamis. Zcitschr (ftfur Geormorphologie 102, 199-210.Dawson, A.G., Foster, I.D.L., Shi, S.. Smith. D.E. mid Long, D. 1991:The identification of tsunami deposits in coastal sediment sequences..Science 01' tsunami HRazards 9, 73--82.de Lange. W.P. 1998 The last wave - tsunami. In flicks, G. andCampbell, H., editors. Awesomnefirces -- he natural hazards that threatenNwZeakund. Wellington: Ye Papa Press, 98-123.de Lange. W.P. mid Fraser, R. 1999' Overview of tsutiamti lzsard if)New Zealand. Tephra 17. 3-9.de lange, W.P. and Healy, T.R 1986. New Zealand tsiusamis 1840--1982. New Zealand Journal of Geology andi Geophysics 29. 115-34.Donn, W.L. and Balachandran, N.K. 1969. Coupling between a moviugair-pressure disturbance mid the sea surface. Tellus 21, 701 -706.Ewing, M. and Press, F. 1955: Tide-gage disturbances fromri the greateruption of Krakatoa. Transactions of the Americarn Geophysical Uniun36, 53-nO.Fraser, RJ. 1998: Historical tsunami database for New Zealand. Unpub-lished MSc thesis, University of Waikato. Hamilton.Froggatt, P.C. 1981: Did Taupo's eruption enhance European sunsets?Nature 293, 491.Froggatt. P.C. and Lowe, D.J. 1q90: A review of late Quaternary andsome other teplira formations froni New Zealand: their stratigraphy,nomenclature. distribution, volume, and age. New Zealand Journal ofGeoloDg and Geophysics 33. 89-109.Goff, J.R. and Chagu6-Goff, C. 1999: A Late Hlolocene record ofeenvironsmental changes front coastal wetlands: Abel Tasreant NationalPark, New Zealand. Quaternary international 56, 39-51.Goff, J.R., Rouse, H.L., Jones, S., Hayward. B., Cochran, U., MuLea,W., Dickinson, W.W. and Morley, N.S. 2000: Evidence for an earth-quake and tsunami about 3100-3400 years ago, and other catastrophicsaltwater inundations recorded in a coastal lagoon, New Zealand. MarineGeology, itl press.Gomis, 8., Monserrat, S. and Timtor6 . 1993: Pressure forced seichesof large amplitude in inlets of the Balearic Islands. .JornazlI tfGeophysicalResearch 98, 1437-45.Hemphill-Ilatey, E. 1996: Diatoms as an aid in identifying late-Holocenetsunami deposits. The Holocene 6, 439 48.ioldaway, RN. and Beavan, N.R. 1999: Reliable 4C AMS dates onbinr and Pacific rat Ratrus exulans bone gelatin, from a CaCO3-richdeposit. Journal of the Royal Snciel ofrNew Zealand 29, 185 211.Houghton, B.'., Wilson, C.J.N., McWiltiams, M.O., l.anphere, MA.,Weaver, S.D., Briggs. RB. and Pringle, M.S. 1995: Chronology anddynamics of a large silicic niagmatic system. Central Taupo VolcanicZone, New Zealand. Geologs) 23, 13-16.1ida, K., Cox, D.C. and Pararas-Carayannis, G. 1967: Preliminary cat-alog of tJunauiis occurri-tg in the Pacifilc Ocean, 5. Honolulu: HIawatiInstitute of Geophysics.Latter, J.H. 1981: Tstmamis of volcanic origin: sunimary of causes, withparticular reference to Krakatoa, 1SS3. Bulletin Volcanologiquife 44,468-90.Lerbekmaao, J.F., Westgate, J.A., Smith, D.G.W. and Denton, C.H.1915: New data on the character and history of the White River volcaniceruption, Alaska. Royal Society oJ'Newi Zealand Bulletin 13, 203-209.Lowe, DiJ. 1993: Explosive volcanism and climatic change: a New Zea-



David,). Lowe and Willem P. de Lange: Volcano-meteorological tsunamis and the Taupo eruption 407

land perspective. Extended abstractsr 1GBP PAGES INQU1'A COT, Meet-ing, Climatic Impact of Explocsive Volcanism. Tok-yo. 24 25.McCormac. E.G., H~ogg, A.G.. Highanm, TYFC., Baillie, N1.C.L.,Palmer. J.C., Xiozsg, L.. Pitcher, J.R., Brown, D. and Roper, S:L.1998a. Variations of radiocarbon iin tree rings: Southern Hemnisphere offsetpre~liminary results. Radiocarbon 40, 1153 -59.MeCormac, F.C., Hogg. A.G., Higham. T.F.G., Lynch-Stieglitz, J.,Broeker. W.S., Baillie, M.G.L., Palmer, J.G., Xiong. L., Pitcher, J.R..,Brovwn, D). and hloper. 5.1. 1998b: Temporal variation in the interhemi-spheric 'IC osthet. Geophysical Research teoters 25, 1332 1-24.McFadgen, B.C. 1985: Late Holocene stratagraphy of coastal depositsbetween Auckland and Dunedin. New Zealand. Journal of the RoyalSociety ofJNew Zealand 15, 27--aS.-----19,89: Late Rolocene depositional episodes in coastal New Zealand.NeW ZealajndJournal., of Ecolog3' (Supp71lement) 12, 145-49.----1994a: Coastal stratigraphic evidence for human settlement. In Sat-

ton. D.C., editor. Origins ofthe first New Zealanders. Auckland: AucklandU~niversity Press, 19.5 207.McFadgen. B.C. 1994b: Archaeology and Holocene sand dune stratigra-pbty on Chatharn Island, Journaliof the Royal Society of'New Z-ealand 24,1 7 44.NCDC (National Geophysical Data ('enter) 19971: World-asvide tsunamis2000 at -1990. World Data ('enter A for Solid Earth Geophysics. Wash-ington, DC: U.S. Department of Co-mmerce, Nationa? Oceanic and Atmos-pheric Administration.Palmer, J.C.. Ogden, J1. and Patel, R.N. 1988: A 426-year floating tree-ring cbronolngy Ifrom Ph~ilocledus irrichcnzmanaidesv bturied by the Taspo,eruption at Pureora, central North Island, New Zealand. Journal of theRoval Society oa/Newv Zealand 18. 4t)7 15.Press, F. and Harkrider, D). 1966: Air:-sea waves from die explosion ofKrakatoa. Science 154. 1325-27.Psallar, W.A.. Kohn. B.P. and Cox. J.E. 1977: Air-f'all Kaharoa Ash andTaupe Pu~mice, and sea-rafted Loisels Ptumice. Taupo Pumice, and LeighPumice in northern and eastern parst of the North Island, New Zealand.New Zealand Journal of Geology and Gyeoph~ysics 20, 6977717.Pyle, D.M. 1995: Mass and energy budgets of explosive volcanic erup-tions, Geophysvical Research Letters; 22. 563-66.Rabinovich,.A..B. and Mlonserrat, S. 1996. Meteorological tsunamis near

the Blalearic and Kirsi islands: descriptive and statistical anialysis. NaturalIlazards 13, 55 90.Self, S. and Rampino, M.R. 1981: The 18893 eruption of Krakatau.MNature294. 699-4704.Simikiu, T. and Fiske. R.. Iv83): Kralcnrau 1883. The volcanic eruationand iti.s effyects. Washington. DC: Smithsonian Lnstitution Press.Sinakin, T. and Siehert, L. 1994: Volcanoes of the world (.second edlition).Tucson, AZ: Geoscieaice Press.Smith. R.T. and 1loughton. B.F. 1q95: Vent migration and changingeruptive style during the 1800a Taupo eruptionv new evidence from theHatepe and Rotoisgaio phreatopiinian ashes. Bulletin ol Volcanology 571,A532-39.Soloviev, S.L. and Co, C".N. 1974: (Catalogue of tsunamnis on the westaern,shore of the Paoc.i/c Ocean. Moscow: Nauk-a.

Sparks, R.J., Meilhuish, W.tL, McKee, J.W.A., Ogden.. J. andi Palmer,J.G. 1995:, 'C calibration in the Sotuthern Hemisphere and the date of thelast T11aupo eruption: evidence from tree-ring sequences. Radiocarbon 337.,1.55-63.Stothers. R.B. and Rampino. -M.R. 1983: Volcanic eruptions in the Medi-terranean before AD 630 froin written and arclhaeological sources.. Journalqf Geophysical Research 88, 6357-771.Stuiver, M.. Refiner, P.S., Bard. E., Beck, J.W.. Burr, G.S., Hiaghen,K.A.. Kromer, B., McCormrac. C., vast der Plichr, J. and Spurk, M.1998: rNINTCAL98 radiocarbon age calibration. 24,000-0 cal BP. Radiocar-hon 40, 10411 83.Tangay, J.-C., Rihiere, Ch.. Scarth, A. and Tjetjep, W.S. 1998: Victimsfrom volcanic eruptions: a revised database. Bulletin of Voicanology 60,137-44.Walker, G.P.L. 1980: T.-he. Taupo plinian pumice: product of the mostpowerful known. (ultraplinian) eriLption?.Jtaurnal qfVlaooyand Geo-thersnal Research 8, 69--94.Walker, CLP.L. and Wilson, (J'J.N. 1983: Lateral variations.- us thle Taupoignimbrite. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermnal Researh1w 1 3Wellnman, 1T.W. 1962: Holocene of the North Isla-nd of New Zealand: a

coastal reconnaissance. Transacsfions of the Royal Society ofNew Zealand(Geology.) 1. 29-99.Wilson, C.J.N,. 1985: The Taupo eruption, New Zealand 11. Thle Taupoignimbrite. Philosophical Thansactions of the Royal Society, LondtonA314. 229- 310.

1991: Ignimbrite morphology and the effects of erosion: a New Zea-land ease study. Bulletin of Vokcanolog' 53 -3 44.

1993. Stratigraphy, chronology, styles tusd Jynanuics at late Qiaatemna-ary eruptions from Taupo volcano. New Zealand.. Philosophical Jrans-actions of the Royal Sociew London 4343., 205 306.Wil-son, C.J.N. and Walker, G.P.L. 1981: Violence in pyroclastic floweruptioiss. In Self, S. and Sparks, R.S.2., editors, Tephra studies, Dlord-recht: Relidel, 441-489.

-1985: The'Taupo eruption, New Zealand 1. General aspects. Phdlo-sophical Transaction~s oif the Royal Society, London A314, 199-228.Wilson, C.J.N., Ambraseys, NA_, Bradley, J. and Walker, G.P.L. 1980:A new date for die Taupo eruption. Nanore 288, 252-53).

1981: Did Taupo's eruption enhance European sunsets? -Reply.NVature 293. 491 -92.Wilson, C.J.N.. Houghton, B.F., McWilliams, M.O.. Lauphere. M.A.,Weaver, S.D. and Briggs, R.M. 1995: Volcanic and structural evolutionof Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand: a review. Journal of V~olcanologyand Geothermnal Research 68. 1-28.Zieliaski, G.A. andi Cermani, M.S. 1998a: New ice-core evidence chal-lenges. the, 1620s etc age for the Santorini (Minoan) eruption.. Journal o!fA1rchaeological Scieince 25, 2719- 9.

1998b: Reply to: Correction, New GISP2 ice-core evidence supports17th Century date for Santorini (Minoan) eruptiont. ournal ofj'Arcliaeolog-ical Science 254, 1043--45.Zielinski, G.A., Mayewski, PA., Meeker, L.D.. Whitlow, S., Twickler,M.S., Morrison, M., Meese, D.A., Cow, A.4. and Alley, R.B. Il994. Rec-ord oif volcanism. since 7000 amc tram. the GsISP2 Greenland ice core andinmplications for the volcano-climate. system. Science 264. 948--52.



the holocenejadran.izor.hr/~vilibic/meteotsunami/lowe_delang... · krakatau. coincided with...

Documents