THE WARLIKE SPARTANS

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In the southern Peloponnese was a small,

strange and frightening community — Sparta.

Its power was to grow until it dominated most

of Greece. Early in their history the Spartans

had conquered the fertile land of Lakonia.

Later, perhaps in the mid-7th century BC, they

finally conquered the Messenians to the west.

Slaves in Sparta — the helotsThe defeated Greek people of Lakonia and

Messenia became known as “helots”. They

were forced to work for the Spartans, the men

laboring on the land to produce food, the

women making clothes.The helots were treated like slaves. They

hated the Spartans. It was even said that the

helots would gladly eat the Spartans raw. The

Spartans knew this. Also, because there were

far more helots than Spartans, Sparta was

anxious to prevent the helots from rising in

revolt. So the wealthy men of Sparta gave up

1’ This handsome vesselwas made bya Spartancraftsman in the 6thcentury — before Spartaturned its back on art andluxuries. It is huge (66 inhigh), and was probablyused for mixing wine andwater. Around the neck,molded in bronze, is aprocession of war chariotsand hop lites. The vesselwas found in France.

V The Peloponnese, withLakonia, Sparta’s homeland.In the mid-6th century BCSparta dominated most ofthe Peloponnese. By theend of the century theSpartans were ready tostrike out into centralGreece — against Athens.

The Spartan armyBy day the Spartans practiced for war. Their

ranks of hoplites (infantry) learned compli

cated maneuvers, involving set moves like

those in football today. The purpose was to

deceive and surprise enemies on the battle

field, so outsiders were forbidden to watch

these exercises. But they were allowed to see the

harsh exercise that made young Spartans

strong and brave. This was one of the means by

which Sparta cleverly scared its enemies.

Another was that Spartan soldiers grew their

hair long, to make them look bigger and fiercer.

There were also many horsemen. As they

patrolled their large territory on horseback,

they would have appeared powerful and

frightening to the helots, who went on foot.

At night the Spartans learned to move

without torches. They knew the importance of

attacking when the enemy was weakest and

often caught their opponents sleepy and con

fused. Helots were probably forbidden to go

out at night, to stop them plotting secretly

against the Spartans. Groups of young Spar-

ACHAIA

Olympia

their relaxed drinking-parties and expensive

tastes. Instead, Spartans would live the hard,disciplined life of soldiers, constantly ready to

fight helots.

Sikyon ‘Megara

Corinth

ARCADIA ARGOLIS

Mantinea ArgosDipaleis

HysiaiTegea /-

-

• Athens

H

- Aigina

HermioneH

Aegean

Sea

Spartan controlled states

States allied to Sparta c. 500 --

I. Cities allied to Sparta Kythera

Major battle -

Scale 1:2 200 000

0

0

75km

50 miles

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> Landscape defendedSparta — mountains to theeast, north and west, andsea to the south. MountTaygetos, right, separatesLakonia from Messenia.In the foreground is thefertile plain of Sparta.

V Spartan hoplites gazeinto enemy territory. Theircommander will check,before invading, whetherthe gods approve of theventure. He will sacrificea goat, then examineits guts for “good” orbad” signs.

tans crept about in the dark with knives, killingany helots they found out of doors.

Control over neighboring statesIf an enemy state from the north were to invadeSpartan territory, the helots could revolt byjoining the invaders. So Sparta used its army toset up pro-Spartan governments in the centraland northern Peloponnese. These would defend the Spartans, not attack them. The government of Tegea in the mid-6th century BCpromised not to help helots who escaped fromSpartan control. The powerful state of Argosremained an enemy. In 494 a Spartan king,Kleomenes, used a trick to defeat an Argivearmy. He knew that the Argives could hear theorders shouted to his own army. So, secretlytelling his men to be ready for battle, he let hiscrier shout out that it was time for a meal. TheArgives heard this and relaxed to eat too.Kleomenes’ men attacked and won the day.

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THE SPARTAN EMPIRE & THE TEN THOUSAND

When Athens surrendered to Sparta in 404 BC,

the rich in many Greek states were delighted.

Now they could rule. They abolished the

democracies which Athens had protected.

Countless democrats were put to death. At

Athens itself, Spartans demolished the long

walls which for 50 years had protected the city

from fear of siege, joining it to the sea. Flute

girls, entertainers of the rich, played happy

music as the walls came crashing down.

The march of the ten thousandWhen war between Athens and Sparta ended,

many Greek soldiers found themselves

unemployed. To earn a living, about ten

thousand of them went to Mesopotamia (mod

ern Iraq) to fight for a Persian prince, Kyros. But

Kyros was killed and the Greek soldiers found

themselves abandoned, very far from home in

the hostile Persian Empire. The ten thousand

marched northwest, through enemy attacks

and foul weather, for about 600 mi. Only a few

of them were killed. At last the men at the front

of the marching column shouted in excitement

“the sea, the sea!” They had seen the eastern

Black Sea, still very far from mainland Greece.

But, being seafarers, the Greeks were now

confident of getting home. The nightmare of

endless Asia was over.

Sparta’s downfall — defeat at LeuktraThe survival of the ten thousand suggested that

the Persian Empire was weak. Sparta attacked

the Persians in Asia Minor, but with little

success. Sparta had taken over most of the old

Athenian Empire. But Sparta’s way of ruling

made far more enemies than friends. The

Spartans had learned to rule harshly over their

Greek helots at home. Perhaps they found it

hard to treat other Greeks with the necessary

tact and respect. Sparta made sudden attacks,

even in peacetime, on Thebes and on Athens’

port, Peiraieus. Even Sparta’s friends disap

proved. Few Greeks were sad when Thebes

decisively crushed Sparta’s army at the battle of

Leuktra. Sparta’s empire was over.

Three decades of Spartan rule, 404-371 BC

404 Athens surrenders, and Sparta takes over the

Athenian Empire. Democracy in many cities isreplaced by oligarchy — the rule by a wealthy few.

403 Democracy restored at Athens. Athens begins

to regain some independence from Sparta.401-400 The ten thousand march from the heart ofthe Persian Empire to the Black Sea.396-394 Sparta campaigns against Persia in Asia

Minor.395-387 Athens and Sparta at war again.387 Sparta abandons the Greek claim on Asia Minor

and allows Persia to dictate peace terms for Greece.382 Spartan troops seize Thebes.378 Spartan torces try to seize Peiraieus.371 Thebes’ overwhelming numbers crush Sparta

at Leuktra.

A Xenophon, one of theleaders of the tenthousand, described themarch far into the PersianEmpire and back again.He tells how the Greeksdespaired and were homesick in Babylonia, butfought their way homethrough mountains, deepsnow and enemy attacks.

Persian EmpireGreek statesRoute of the ten thousandMajor battle

) Mountain pass

Cyprus

Scale 1 13000000km

0 200 miles

<The march of the tenthousand, 407 BC. To fighthis brother Artaxerxes,Prince Kyros employed aGreek army — the bestsoldiers — and Asiantroops. They were led intoBabylonia and won thebattle of Cunaxa thoughKyros was killed. In spiteof a truce the Persianstreacherously killed theGreek leaders, leaving theten thousand to make theirway home via the Greekcities of the Black Sea.

Many Spartans grewrich from the wealth of theformer Athenian Empire,and spent huge sums onbreeding and training racehorses, like those shownon this Greek vase. To wina chariot-race was a signof the owner’s manliness,even though he hired acharioteer or jockey.

V Thebes destroyed muchof the Spartan army in 371,then crushed Sparta forever by freeing Sparta’sserfs — the helot Greeks ofMessenia. A fortified city,Messene, was built to keepout the Spartans — theynever captured it. Thisaerial picture shows theremains of Messene’swalls. They are the bestsurviving example of4th-century fortifications.

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Daily life in Sparta was very different from thatin Athens. Sparta was like an army camp. Menand boys prepared constantly for the need tofight helots and other enemies. for youngSpartans, life was competitive and savage.

Boys trained as fightersSpartan boys were forced to become tough.They had to walk barefoot. Even in coldweather they could only wear one cloak. Theywere kept hungry and told to steal food, but ifthey were caught stealing they were beaten — toteach them to steal more skillfully in future.There was even a stealing competition. Boyshad to steal pieces of cheese while trying tododge blows from whips. The whip, used byolder boys on younger ones, was an importantpart of Spartan upbringing.

This education in hardship was probablymeant to teach young Spartans how to huntrunaway helots. Helot-hunting would meancreeping undetected around the countrysidefor days and living off stolen food. When a bandof helots was caught there would be a ferociousfight. Strength and courage were also necessaryfor hoplite battles against Sparta’s enemiesfrom other states. Spartan boys learned to fearthe authority of their elders and to do what theywere told. Armies down the ages have taughtthat orders must be obeyed, quickly. On thebattlefield there is no time for argument. InSparta itself the old had more power andrespect than in any other Greek city.

Why the Spartans despised family lifeIn Sparta, boys may have had to sleep togetherrather than returning to their families at night.Young married couples were not allowed to beseen together. They met secretly to breed. Manand wife were not meant to become closecompanions. Men of all ages had to haveevening meals together in military messes,away from their women. Sparta feared thefamily. Differences, from being brought up inseparate families, can make people dislike oneanother. Loyalty to one’s own family can lead tofeuds between families. That was the last thingSparta wanted. If Sparta were weakened byquarrels, helots and other enemies would havea chance to attack. So Spartan boys wereeducated, away from the family, to be loyal to

EVERYDAY LIFE IN SPARTA

This sinister warrior inbronze is most probablySpartan. Notice the longhair, in the Spartan style,reaching far below hishelmet. The sight ofsuch Spartans would havecaused fear.

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the whole community. Spartan citizens were

called the homoioi, “the men who are similar”.

Encouraging bravery by scorning weaknessOther Greek cities, including Athens, had

relaxed and happy times at religious festivals,

when people drank much wine. Mass drunken

ness was common. If the Spartans had been

allowed to do this the helots would have had a

wonderful chance to revolt. But in Sparta heavy

drinking by citizens was banned. Instead a few

helots were deliberately made to get very drunk

while young Spartans were brought to watch

their stupid doings. In this way the young

learned to despise drunkenness.

Sparta often used humiliation as a way ofteaching young citizens. A man who failed to

fight bravely in battle was called a “trembler”.

He was made to shave one side of his face and

grow a beard on the other, so that everyone

would pick on him and laugh at him. He wasforbidden to look happy and ignored when

teams were selected for ball games.The Spartans, who were outnumbered by the

helots, were always anxious to breed more

citizens. Men who did not marry had to strip

naked once a year and walk in a public

procession. Spartan girls were brought to

watch and shout cruel things at them. That,

they thought, would teach men to marry!

V Spartan boys playing arough game. Spartanswere taught to look on thebright side of death. A brave death in battle was asource of pride to relativesrather than grief. The bodies and graves of bravemen were displayed, tomake young people feel atease with the sight. If aking died far away in war,his body was broughthome preserved in honeyfor burial in Sparta.

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