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Myth to Science FictionMyth to Science Fiction

11 October 201111 October 2011

The epic spares no time in moving The epic spares no time in moving from triumph to tragedy. Once from triumph to tragedy. Once Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeat Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeat Humbaba and return, triumphant, to Humbaba and return, triumphant, to Uruk, Ishtar appears. Uruk, Ishtar appears.

She is the goddess of sex, love, She is the goddess of sex, love, fertility – and war. fertility – and war.

The seeming contradiction in those The seeming contradiction in those roles merely serves to highlight the roles merely serves to highlight the violence at the heart of powerful violence at the heart of powerful love. love.

From Triumph to TragedyFrom Triumph to Tragedy

Notes on IshtarNotes on Ishtar She pops up without preamble, although She pops up without preamble, although

it’s worth noting that she has a larger role it’s worth noting that she has a larger role in the entire epic than in Mason’s verse in the entire epic than in Mason’s verse narrative. narrative.

Even with her abrupt entrance, her motive Even with her abrupt entrance, her motive is clear: Gilgamesh has won glory, and in is clear: Gilgamesh has won glory, and in changing into his kingly attire appears changing into his kingly attire appears even more beautiful than before. even more beautiful than before.

She’s easily drawn to new things, as well She’s easily drawn to new things, as well as to power, and (as a goddess) is as to power, and (as a goddess) is accustomed to getting her way. accustomed to getting her way.

But no sooner does Ishtar preposition But no sooner does Ishtar preposition Gilgamesh than the king rebukes her, and Gilgamesh than the king rebukes her, and fiercely at that. fiercely at that.

Mason cuts much of what Gilgamesh says Mason cuts much of what Gilgamesh says (the Mitchell translation includes three-(the Mitchell translation includes three-and-a-half uninterrupted pages of verbal and-a-half uninterrupted pages of verbal abuse), but what he does include is more abuse), but what he does include is more than enough to register our hero’s than enough to register our hero’s disapproval. disapproval.

Initially, we’re left wondering why Initially, we’re left wondering why Gilgamesh reacts as he does; after all, Gilgamesh reacts as he does; after all, he’s not married, and we’re well aware of he’s not married, and we’re well aware of his loneliness. his loneliness.

A Curious RejectionA Curious Rejection

Yet as he continues through his Yet as he continues through his litany of insults, a pattern emergeslitany of insults, a pattern emerges

As Gilgamesh lists every lover Ishtar As Gilgamesh lists every lover Ishtar has taken, we become well-has taken, we become well-acquainted with her history of acquainted with her history of betrayal and pain. betrayal and pain.

Those she convinces to love her Those she convinces to love her know only grief in the end. know only grief in the end.

She turns on those she grows She turns on those she grows satisfied with and forces them to satisfied with and forces them to suffer – and she grows satisfied with suffer – and she grows satisfied with everyone in time.everyone in time.

A Rational ExplanationA Rational Explanation

Gilgamesh points out that it's naïve to Gilgamesh points out that it's naïve to assume that a goddess could love a mortalassume that a goddess could love a mortal

After all, he's part god, and that alone had After all, he's part god, and that alone had been enough to separate him from the been enough to separate him from the mortal world until Enkidu came along. mortal world until Enkidu came along. In this way, she is as he was. In this way, she is as he was.

By alluding to her romantic past in the By alluding to her romantic past in the crudest way possible, Gilgamesh isn’t just crudest way possible, Gilgamesh isn’t just causing as much offense as he cancausing as much offense as he can He’s refusing the ultimate temptation, to join He’s refusing the ultimate temptation, to join

with that which transcends our mortal limits. with that which transcends our mortal limits.

Those a Goddess Cannot LoveThose a Goddess Cannot Love

This results in a very complicated scene, with at This results in a very complicated scene, with at least three questionable elements. least three questionable elements.

Gilgamesh may not crave what Ishtar represents Gilgamesh may not crave what Ishtar represents sexually, but he soon wants what she represents sexually, but he soon wants what she represents personally – immortality, power beyond even personally – immortality, power beyond even hishis human reckoning. human reckoning. Once Enkidu dies, he’ll give in to the pursuit of Once Enkidu dies, he’ll give in to the pursuit of thatthat

temptation far more readily. temptation far more readily. Furthermore, one could argue that Gilgamesh Furthermore, one could argue that Gilgamesh

shows great wisdom in resisting Ishtar’s shows great wisdom in resisting Ishtar’s advances; most would simply surrender to advances; most would simply surrender to instinct. instinct.

On the other hand, is rejecting a goddess – let On the other hand, is rejecting a goddess – let alone intentionally hurting (and therefore alone intentionally hurting (and therefore infuriating) one really a sign of wisdom? infuriating) one really a sign of wisdom? Remember, wisdom matters here; the story’s supposed Remember, wisdom matters here; the story’s supposed

to be about how Gilgamesh learns to come to terms with to be about how Gilgamesh learns to come to terms with the things he can’t change, and he’s supposed to be the things he can’t change, and he’s supposed to be demonstrating demonstrating nēmēqunēmēqu..

ComplicationsComplications

At any rate, Gilgamesh makes his scorn At any rate, Gilgamesh makes his scorn and displeasure clear, and Ishtar goes and displeasure clear, and Ishtar goes straight to Anu, her father. straight to Anu, her father.

She demands the right to unleash the Bull She demands the right to unleash the Bull of Heaven on Uruk: “I will send of Heaven on Uruk: “I will send [Gilgamesh] something / He would never [Gilgamesh] something / He would never wish to dream. / There will be more dead / wish to dream. / There will be more dead / Than living on this earth.” Than living on this earth.”

We’ll learn in time that Ishtar’s perfectly We’ll learn in time that Ishtar’s perfectly capable of slaughtering mankind if she’s capable of slaughtering mankind if she’s moved tomoved to

She’s the one who unleashed the Flood She’s the one who unleashed the Flood that only Utnapishtim and his family that only Utnapishtim and his family survived.survived.

Capable of AtrocityCapable of Atrocity

Anu tries to calm her at first, asking her whether Anu tries to calm her at first, asking her whether she’s considered every consequence of the action she’s considered every consequence of the action she’s about to take. she’s about to take.

Successfully bringing the Bull to Earth to kill Successfully bringing the Bull to Earth to kill Gilgamesh will cause a famine, he says; you’ll destroy Gilgamesh will cause a famine, he says; you’ll destroy all of your beloved humans again if you don’t have all of your beloved humans again if you don’t have them set aside enough grain to survive, and you them set aside enough grain to survive, and you regretted doing so last time. regretted doing so last time.

Ishtar is immovable, as implacable in her rage as Ishtar is immovable, as implacable in her rage as Gilgamesh once was in his tyrannyGilgamesh once was in his tyranny

She insists she’s taken enough steps to ensure that She insists she’s taken enough steps to ensure that somesome of us will survive this time. of us will survive this time.

Moreover, she threatens to shatter the gates of the Moreover, she threatens to shatter the gates of the Underworld, unleashing a million dead souls, unless Underworld, unleashing a million dead souls, unless her father complies. her father complies.

In the end, Anu simply isn’t wired to resist his In the end, Anu simply isn’t wired to resist his daughter’s demands; just as with Gilgamesh in the daughter’s demands; just as with Gilgamesh in the beginning of the epic, Ishtar has no equal to keep her beginning of the epic, Ishtar has no equal to keep her in check, and no satisfactory outlets for the emotions in check, and no satisfactory outlets for the emotions that overwhelm her. that overwhelm her.

Giving In, Giving WayGiving In, Giving Way

Ishtar brings the Bull down, whereupon the beast’s Ishtar brings the Bull down, whereupon the beast’s snorting and stamping fractures the world. snorting and stamping fractures the world.

In an instant, three hundred of Gilgamesh’s warriors In an instant, three hundred of Gilgamesh’s warriors plummet to the center of the earth. plummet to the center of the earth.

But Enkidu sets on the creature before it can do any But Enkidu sets on the creature before it can do any more damage; Mason devotes a single short passage to more damage; Mason devotes a single short passage to his victory. his victory.

In other translations, Gilgamesh is the one to kill the In other translations, Gilgamesh is the one to kill the Bull while Enkidu holds it in place. Bull while Enkidu holds it in place.

Mason shows Enkidu killing it instead, which perhaps Mason shows Enkidu killing it instead, which perhaps makes more sense, considering that the gods condemn makes more sense, considering that the gods condemn him and not his king. him and not his king.

(If Gilgamesh kills both Humbaba and the Bull, why is (If Gilgamesh kills both Humbaba and the Bull, why is Enkidu the one to perish?)Enkidu the one to perish?)

Once the Bull dies, Ishtar flees to the top of Uruk’s Once the Bull dies, Ishtar flees to the top of Uruk’s walls, cursing Gilgamesh (and, in Mason’s version, walls, cursing Gilgamesh (and, in Mason’s version, Enkidu). Enkidu).

Enkidu responds by ripping the Bull’s leg from its Enkidu responds by ripping the Bull’s leg from its carcass and flinging it at her – which, in hindsight, is carcass and flinging it at her – which, in hindsight, is perhaps not the most well-considered move.perhaps not the most well-considered move.

The Battle in a NutshellThe Battle in a Nutshell

Indeed, the epic spends no time basking Indeed, the epic spends no time basking in its heroes’ glory; it’s too busy making in its heroes’ glory; it’s too busy making them suffer. them suffer.

That very night, Enkidu dreams of a That very night, Enkidu dreams of a meeting between the gods. meeting between the gods.

Almost all of them are furious, Enlil Almost all of them are furious, Enlil particularly so: Gilgamesh and Enkidu particularly so: Gilgamesh and Enkidu have killed our Forest Guardian, have killed our Forest Guardian, Gilgamesh and Enkidu have chopped down Gilgamesh and Enkidu have chopped down our trees, Gilgamesh and Enkidu have our trees, Gilgamesh and Enkidu have slaughtered our Bull of Heaven and slaughtered our Bull of Heaven and desecrated its corpse. desecrated its corpse.

Both must die, but Enlil wants Enkidu’s Both must die, but Enlil wants Enkidu’s blood alone; he says Gilgamesh should be blood alone; he says Gilgamesh should be spared because he’s two-thirds divine. spared because he’s two-thirds divine.

The Worst Dream One Can HaveThe Worst Dream One Can Have

Shamash, Ishtar’s husband/brother (it’s Shamash, Ishtar’s husband/brother (it’s the gods), interjects on Enkidu’s behalf, the gods), interjects on Enkidu’s behalf, but it’s hopeless. but it’s hopeless.

No reason is given for this split between No reason is given for this split between the gods; Shamash apparently didn’t the gods; Shamash apparently didn’t consult any of the others before sending consult any of the others before sending Gilgamesh on his quest, but none of the Gilgamesh on his quest, but none of the surviving tablets explain why. surviving tablets explain why. It is, perhaps, a decision whose reasoning It is, perhaps, a decision whose reasoning

made inherent sense to contemporary made inherent sense to contemporary audiences, and whose explanation has now audiences, and whose explanation has now been forever lost.been forever lost.

An Unexplained DisagreementAn Unexplained Disagreement

This strikes audiences as unfair, to say This strikes audiences as unfair, to say the least. the least. Gilgamesh didn’t exactly request to be visited Gilgamesh didn’t exactly request to be visited

by the Bull of Heaven; he and Enkidu fought to by the Bull of Heaven; he and Enkidu fought to protect the city and its people. protect the city and its people.

For that matter, Gilgamesh’s initial desire to For that matter, Gilgamesh’s initial desire to kill Humbaba is not entirely his own: Shamash kill Humbaba is not entirely his own: Shamash sent him to do his bidding, even over Ninsun’s sent him to do his bidding, even over Ninsun’s objections. objections.

How can our heroes be justifiably killed How can our heroes be justifiably killed for serving the dictates of the gods? for serving the dictates of the gods?

Does their willingness to resist the fates Does their willingness to resist the fates that divinities set up for them warrant that divinities set up for them warrant death? death?

No JusticeNo Justice

It’s important to consider this It’s important to consider this development – this entire section, in fact – development – this entire section, in fact – in the context of Sumerian, Akkadian, and in the context of Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian attitudes. Babylonian attitudes.

Remember, these cultures considered Remember, these cultures considered death an unfair interruption of mankind’s death an unfair interruption of mankind’s potential. potential.

Here, the larger forces responsible for Here, the larger forces responsible for birth, fate and death are portrayed as birth, fate and death are portrayed as flawed, shallow, irrational, untrustworthy, flawed, shallow, irrational, untrustworthy, capricious, arbitrary, – even abusive. capricious, arbitrary, – even abusive.

Death and Its BringersDeath and Its Bringers

In many ways, the section provides more In many ways, the section provides more ammunition for the camp that sees ammunition for the camp that sees Gilgamesh as a “rebellion against death” Gilgamesh as a “rebellion against death” rather than a chroniclerather than a chronicle

What better justification for claiming What better justification for claiming death is unjust than to show those who death is unjust than to show those who introduced death to the universe in an introduced death to the universe in an unkind light?unkind light?

So we see the tension humans felt while So we see the tension humans felt while regarding the divine, the joy of knowing regarding the divine, the joy of knowing life given by gods, the agony of seeing life given by gods, the agony of seeing that life taken away by the same deities, that life taken away by the same deities, and the anger that results from not and the anger that results from not understanding the greater meaning of the understanding the greater meaning of the bigger picture bigger picture The ancient question: why do the good die?The ancient question: why do the good die?

The Tension and the TerrorThe Tension and the Terror

In the meantime, Enkidu knows the end is near. In the meantime, Enkidu knows the end is near. Mason cuts his enraged, frustrated reaction a bit short, Mason cuts his enraged, frustrated reaction a bit short,

keeping only the portion where he curses the harlot, keeping only the portion where he curses the harlot, Shamhat, for introducing him to civilized life. Shamhat, for introducing him to civilized life. He also curses the trapper whose visit to Uruk caused He also curses the trapper whose visit to Uruk caused

Gilgamesh to send Shamhat to the Steppe, as well as the great Gilgamesh to send Shamhat to the Steppe, as well as the great door he and Gilgamesh built from the trees in the Cedar door he and Gilgamesh built from the trees in the Cedar Forest.Forest.

It’s not a dignified moment. It’s not a dignified moment. Few of us can greet death with any sort of equanimity, Few of us can greet death with any sort of equanimity,

whether we’re the ones dying or losing. whether we’re the ones dying or losing. We’re much likelier to rage, as Enkidu does, at the We’re much likelier to rage, as Enkidu does, at the

unfairness of what’s befallen us; most people fall before unfairness of what’s befallen us; most people fall before they’re ready to go, and Enkidu himself is certainly no they’re ready to go, and Enkidu himself is certainly no exception. exception.

Moreover, his death isn’t even a glorious one. Moreover, his death isn’t even a glorious one. There are no epic battles for him to fight, no invaders There are no epic battles for him to fight, no invaders

against whom he must defend his adopted city, no against whom he must defend his adopted city, no sacrifices he can nobly make. sacrifices he can nobly make.

He’s forced to just sit and wait for the gods to kill him, He’s forced to just sit and wait for the gods to kill him, unable to do anything to change or challenge his fate. unable to do anything to change or challenge his fate.

Rage Against the Dying of the LightRage Against the Dying of the Light

Nothing Comes Without CostNothing Comes Without Cost Shamash comes to him then (at least in other Shamash comes to him then (at least in other

translations), and tells him this:translations), and tells him this: Enkidu, why are you cursing the priestess Enkidu, why are you cursing the priestess

Shamhat? Wasn’t it she who gave you fine bread Shamhat? Wasn’t it she who gave you fine bread fit for a god and fine beer fit for a king, who fit for a god and fine beer fit for a king, who clothed you in a glorious robe and gave you clothed you in a glorious robe and gave you splendid Gilgamesh as your intimate friend? He splendid Gilgamesh as your intimate friend? He will lay you down on a bed of honor, he will put will lay you down on a bed of honor, he will put you on a royal bier, on his left he will place your you on a royal bier, on his left he will place your statue in the seat of repose, the princes of the statue in the seat of repose, the princes of the earth will kiss its feet, [and] the people of Uruk earth will kiss its feet, [and] the people of Uruk will mourn you…will mourn you…

What’s left unsaid is that none of this happens What’s left unsaid is that none of this happens without Shamhat’s “conversion” of Enkidu; he without Shamhat’s “conversion” of Enkidu; he simply would have lived out his days on the simply would have lived out his days on the Steppe, never knowing the companionship or Steppe, never knowing the companionship or love he discovered in the city.love he discovered in the city.

Looking for Life That’s GoneLooking for Life That’s Gone After this, Enkidu calms himself After this, Enkidu calms himself

somewhat. Before he passes on, he has somewhat. Before he passes on, he has one last conversation with his friend:one last conversation with his friend:

A man sees death in things.A man sees death in things.That is what it is to be a man. You’ll knowThat is what it is to be a man. You’ll knowWhen you have lost the strength to seeWhen you have lost the strength to seeThe way you once did. You’ll be alone and The way you once did. You’ll be alone and

wanderwanderLooking for that life that’s gone, or someLooking for that life that’s gone, or someEternal life you have to find.Eternal life you have to find.

Strength Reduced to TearsStrength Reduced to Tears And Gilgamesh, for all his terrible strength and And Gilgamesh, for all his terrible strength and

prowess, proves powerless in the face of the prowess, proves powerless in the face of the gods’ demands: he can find no words with which gods’ demands: he can find no words with which to convince them to reverse their decision, can to convince them to reverse their decision, can perform no feat of strength to prevent them from perform no feat of strength to prevent them from carrying out their will.carrying out their will.

In Mason’s translation, Enkidu dies not from In Mason’s translation, Enkidu dies not from fighting the Bull of Heaven, but from the wound fighting the Bull of Heaven, but from the wound he suffered while battling Humbaba as Gilgamesh he suffered while battling Humbaba as Gilgamesh stood paralyzed – a wound that resulted from his stood paralyzed – a wound that resulted from his prior crippling at Humbaba’s gate, a crippling prior crippling at Humbaba’s gate, a crippling that the king trivialized at the time. that the king trivialized at the time.

In others, he simply falls ill, expiring slowly over In others, he simply falls ill, expiring slowly over twelve days as Gilgamesh stands by helplessly.twelve days as Gilgamesh stands by helplessly.

The ending’s the same either way: Enkidu slips The ending’s the same either way: Enkidu slips from the world, and Gilgamesh is utterly alone from the world, and Gilgamesh is utterly alone once more. once more.

Why am I to die,Why am I to die,

You to wander on alone?You to wander on alone?

Is that the way it is with friends?Is that the way it is with friends?

Converted to a Thing That Sees…Converted to a Thing That Sees… At this point, Gilgamesh begins to revert to his old ways – At this point, Gilgamesh begins to revert to his old ways –

fixated only on one thing, he grows maniacal in his desire fixated only on one thing, he grows maniacal in his desire to relieve himself of pain.to relieve himself of pain.

The only nourishment The only nourishment He knew was grief, endless in its hidden sourceHe knew was grief, endless in its hidden sourceYet never ending hunger.Yet never ending hunger.All that is left to once who grievesAll that is left to once who grievesIs convalescence. No change of heart or spiritualIs convalescence. No change of heart or spiritualConversion, for the heart has changedConversion, for the heart has changedAnd the soul has been convertedAnd the soul has been convertedTo a thing that seesTo a thing that seesHow much it costs to lose a friend it loved.How much it costs to lose a friend it loved.

This three-page section immediately following Enkidu’s This three-page section immediately following Enkidu’s passing is one of my favorites in the epic; it has some truly passing is one of my favorites in the epic; it has some truly profound things to say about grief, why we grieve, and how profound things to say about grief, why we grieve, and how we recover. we recover.

Recover or Drown…Flip It NowRecover or Drown…Flip It Now Gilgamesh eventually travels through the desert Gilgamesh eventually travels through the desert

– the literal and metaphorical one – in search of – the literal and metaphorical one – in search of Utnapishtim. Utnapishtim.

The book refers to him as “the one who survived The book refers to him as “the one who survived the flood,” and here we see another parallel with the flood,” and here we see another parallel with a Biblical archetype: whereas before we saw a Biblical archetype: whereas before we saw Enkidu cast out of Eden, we’re now told of Enkidu cast out of Eden, we’re now told of Ishtar’s Flood, which wiped out virtually Ishtar’s Flood, which wiped out virtually everything save Utnapishtim, his family, and the everything save Utnapishtim, his family, and the animals he could save.animals he could save.

The king is now driven to take back what the The king is now driven to take back what the gods wrongfully took from mankind. gods wrongfully took from mankind.

He aims to defeat death, and searches for the He aims to defeat death, and searches for the only man who can live forever.only man who can live forever.

What Gilgamesh discovers during his journey will What Gilgamesh discovers during his journey will ultimately determine whether he will be ultimately determine whether he will be successful – whether he will recover from pain, or successful – whether he will recover from pain, or drown in it…drown in it…