theodore roosevelt historiography

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“Leave it as it is” T. R.: Nature’s Rock-Star Quentin Vaterlaus

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This is the paper I wrote on Theodore Roosevelt and how historians have written about his conservation policies over the past 100 years. It is not a biography, but more a culmination of other historians works and analyzing how each one differs or supports the others.

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: Theodore Roosevelt Historiography

“Leave it as it is”

T. R.:

Nature’s Rock-Star

Quentin Vaterlaus

Page 2: Theodore Roosevelt Historiography

“You cannot improve on it. The ages have been at work… and man can only

mar it,” Theodore Roosevelt stated whilst looking over the great expansion that is

the Grand Canyon.1 While many can argue his place in history as an American

President, none can deny his importance and his overall affect on the growth of

conservation for the century that followed his presidency. Theodore Roosevelt was

a rock-star president. He transformed the presidency with the media and his use of

unwritten Presidential powers, pushing his conservation agenda. John Allen Gable,

once the foremost authority on Theodore Roosevelt, stated, “It is hard to

overestimate [Roosevelt’s] importance in seeing and setting the course the country

followed in the twentieth century.”2 This aspect of Roosevelt bled into his work

with conservationism. He was not a conservationist by mistake and history has

finally come to realize this.

In the century since Roosevelt’s presidency, many scholars have reviewed

and written on all aspects of his leadership. However, little has been written about

Roosevelt’s conservation work alone as it is considered by some to be a side or ‘pet’

project. To know conservation at the turn of the twentieth century is to know

Roosevelt. His love for the outdoors and wildlife was spawned at a young age.

When he was still under the age of ten, he had created his own Museum of Natural

History in his home. His father often took him on hunting trips, and gave him his

first firearm at the age of 14. His father, and possibly his uncle, fanned the flames of

1 Theodore Roosevelt, Found in Michael L. Collins, That Damned Cowboy: Theodore Roosevelt and the American West, 1883-1898 (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 1989), 156-57.

2 John Allen Gable, “Foreward” Found in James G. Barber, Theodore Roosevelt: Icon of the American Century, (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1998), 8.

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conservationism within the young man who later became the public face of the

movement.3

Roosevelt loved to hunt. After his time at Harvard University he travelled to

the Badlands in the Dakota Territory. Here he learned to hunt bigger and wilder

game, including the massive American Buffalo. It was from this experience that

Roosevelt came to realize the value the American West held. Roosevelt soon began

campaigning for regions within the American West, such as Yellowstone, even

forming groups of like-minded individuals, such as the Boone & Crockett Club.

These groups lobbied Congress for protection of national parks and game reserves

and eventually helped in the passage of the Forest Reserve Act in 1891.4

Theodore Roosevelt became President of the United States in 1901 after the

assassination of President McKinley. Roosevelt is considered to be the first “modern

president.”5 He used the transforming media to satisfy his love of and need to be in

the spotlight. He pushed political and conservational issues through his use of the

media to educate the public. In his first term, he pushed Congress to pass the 1902

National Reclamation Act, allowing for water reclamation to begin in the American

West, where water was scarce. Roosevelt also went on a national tour out West to

see first-hand the things the nation had to offer. During this time, he met with the

3 John Milton Cooper Jr., The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983), 79; Paul Russell Cutright, Theodore Roosevelt: The Making of a Conservationist (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1985), 6-8, 474 Cutright, 145-845 University of Virginia, American President Reference Resource: Theodore Roosevelt, Gerald L. Balilies, 2010. http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/roosevelt/essays/biography (accessed 2010 1-November).

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preservationist John Muir and spent time in what later became Yosemite National

Park in California. Roosevelt’s first term, although not planned for, was greatly

beneficial for the conservation movement.6

When it was time for the nation to choose its next President in the 1904

election, Roosevelt was a natural choice, and so began his second term, his own

term, as the nation’s leader. Roosevelt did not allow politics to stop his conservation

push. In his second term, he fought to have Congress combine all the divisions that

held powers to forestry and land management into the Bureau of Forestry in the

Department of Agriculture. He also finally used the word ‘conservation’ in a public

message to Congress in 1906. By 1907, he was fighting a war with those in

Congress: the Agriculture Appropriations Bill for that year was a double-edged

blade, which limited the powers of the Forest Reserve Act from 1891. He had

already side-stepped Congress in using the recently signed Antiquities Act to make

the Grand Canyon a protected monument in 1906 and his skirting around the

Appropriations Bill limitations of the Forest Reserve Act infuriated those in power.

In the last months of Roosevelt’s presidency, his conservation merits trailed off.

Roosevelt, being the public face and biggest political ally for the conservation

movement, knew what he had done was just the beginning.7

Theodore Roosevelt’s conservationism spanned his entire life. Due to the

massive volumes of work on Roosevelt alone, this work will focus solely on the

6 Cooper, 69; Edmund Morris, Theodore Rex (New York, NY: Modern Library, 2001), 115, 231.7 Cooper, 78-9; Kathleen Dalton, Theodore Roosevelt: A Strenuous Life (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 246-247; Louis Auchincloss, Theodore Roosevelt: The American President Series (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2001), 96-7; Morris, 485-86; Cutright, 221.

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writings concerning his efforts in conservation. Roosevelt is an exciting individual.

Historians, biologists, environmentalists, journalists and more have reviewed his

conservation work. Due to Roosevelt’s work, environmentalism and

conservationism have a strong presence in twenty-first century America.

In 1985, Paul Russell Cutright, biologist and historian who has written twice

on Roosevelt and once on the Lewis and Clark Expedition, wrote that Roosevelt’s

“conservationism wasn’t coincidental,” but rather he had grown up around it.8

Cutright leaned toward the notion that Roosevelt’s uncle, Robert Barnhill Roosevelt,

encouraged the young boy. This seems completely reasonable, given the fact that he

lived next door and also had a large interest in nature and the conservation thereof,

although Roosevelt himself does not hint that his “Uncle Rob” influenced his

conservationist ways.9 Douglas Brinkley, in 2009, offered an explanation for the

lack of acknowledgement and explained that, “For decades the Roosevelt family—

owing to his philandering with chorus girls and trollops—treated him as a black

sheep.”10 Cutright further explained young Roosevelt’s growing conservationism

when he articulated a trip to Egypt with his father. On this trip, Theodore read the

biological notes of several Nile species written by Reverend Alfred Charles Smith.

The biologist within Cutright stated, “If Theodore’s notebook pages are compared

with those of the Reverend Smith’s, one arrives at the conclusion that, of these two

8 Cutright, xi.9 Douglas Brinkley, The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America (New York: HarperCollins, 2009), 77; Cutright, 6-8.10 Brinkley, 78.

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naturalists, the fourteen-year-old was the more advanced.”11 Theodore was quick

becoming a true naturalist.

Many authors wrote that the most significant part of Roosevelt’s

conservationist beginnings came from the time he spent in the Badlands of the

Dakotas. Michael Collins, in his 1989 book That Damned Cowboy, said that his

experiences in this area “greatly influenced his vision of the nation’s future.”12 He

further elaborated when he said Roosevelt’s “conservation policies may also be

traced directly to his experiences and observations on the frontier.”13 Paul Jeffers,

author of the 2003 Roosevelt the Explorer, supported this claim with his assertion

that Roosevelt began to build an interest in water reclamation and concerns for

forestry when he was a rancher and hunter.14

Collins’ assertion that the Badlands had the greatest influence on Roosevelt’s

conservationist life is quite evident within the pages of his work; a sharp contrast to

Cutright’s view of Roosevelt’s conservation beginning far before he ventured to the

Badlands. Cutright specifically stated that the events in the Badlands, which

occurred from 1880-1900, were not as important to his work of analyzing how the

conservationist within Roosevelt was developed.15 Meanwhile, Collins denied this;

“of the many forces that shaped Theodore Roosevelt, none was more enduring, none

more important than the American West.”16 Brinkley supported Collins and even

11 Cutright, 44-48.12 Collins, 153.13 Ibid., 154.14 H. Paul Jeffers, Roosevelt the Explorer: T.R.'s Amazing Adventures as a Naturalist, Conservationist, and Explorer (New York: Taylor Trade Publishing, 2003), 106-7.15 Cutright, 165.16 Collins, 158.

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titled one of the chapters within his book, “Cradle of Conservation: The Elkhorn

Ranch of North Dakota.”17 Cutright appears to offer the only opposing view of

Roosevelt’s beginnings as a conservationist with several others supporting Collins’

findings.

Paul Schullery wrote in 1978, “Roosevelt was the superb naturalist and

conservationist he was because he was a hunter, not in spite of it” [Schullery’s

emphasis] and further explained that his “intense interest in hunting and nature

study led him into the conservation movement.”18 None doubted that his interest

within the studies allowed him to put his passions at work later in life, but the

notion that his hunting played a large part in his conservationism appears to be

flawed. Cutright and Brinkley both offer countering arguments to Schullery’s claim;

Cutright revealed that Roosevelt’s love of both birds and nature spawned long

before he was a hunter and Brinkley dug deep into the young life of Roosevelt and

his self-education of the “zoology on the streets of Manhattan” when he was a

youth.19 While scholars dispute the most influential part of Roosevelt’s

conservationist upbringing, one can see his first combination of both politics and

conservationism with his part in the creation of the Boone and Crockett Club in

1887.20 William Cooke, in 1965, noted, “the American conservation movement

picked up steam…” and cited the Boone and Crockett Club as having “been highly

17 Brinkley, 177.18 Paul Schullery, “A Partnership in Conservation: Roosevelt & Yellowstone” Montana: The Magazine of Western History 28, no. 3 (Summer 1978): 2-15, 3, 6.19 Brinkley, 29; Cutright, 47.20 Wm. Bridge Cooke, “Basic Conservation History.” Ecology 46, no. 1/2 (January 1965): 220-221, 220.

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influential in the development of a conservation program for the United States.”21

Many others echoed this compliment of the Club, including Collins and Cutright,

both of whom verify that the group was influential in having the Forest Reserve Act

passed by Congress in 1891.22 The tipping point came when Roosevelt reached the

apex of his political career: Presidency of the United States.

Roosevelt was not expecting to be President in 1901, but when he had his

opportunity, he never ignored his true passion. James Rhodes, when he wrote of

Roosevelt in 1929, explained how Roosevelt already knew what needed to be done

for conservation when he was inaugurated.23 Meanwhile, Louis Auchincloss, both a

lawyer and a historian, stated that Roosevelt went immediately to a trusted friend

and the chief forester, Gifford Pinchot, when he became President.24 From Pinchot,

he gathered the information he needed about what to do for the nation’s forests and

wildlife. Edmund Morris’ analysis of Roosevelt’s life in 2001, Theodore Rex, stated

that his first formal message to Congress in December of 1901 included ideas of

conservationism; Morris defined his knowledge of the topic as “impressive.”25 From

here, historians tend to point Roosevelt toward one of two paths: leader or follower.

Kathleen Dalton, a historian at Harvard University, wrote that Pinchot is the “Father

of Environmentalism,” alluding to Roosevelt having a lesser role in the

21 Ibid.22 Collins, 124; Cutright, 177. Cutright calls this “An Act to Repeal Timber Culture Laws and for Other Purposes” on pp. 177, but later refers to it as the “Forest Reserve Act” on pp. 216.23 James Ford Rhodes, History of the United States 1850-1909. Vol. 9. 9 vols (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1929), 356.24 Auchincloss, 94.25 Morris, 76.

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conservationism movement and possibly just being a friendly voice for a cause.26

Schullery lightly touched on this topic as well, having stated, “Under the influence

of… Pinchot,… he did more… than had any previous president.”27 Morris argued that

Roosevelt was more of a leader for conservationists. He wrote that, while the

Newlands Reclamation Act was being debated amongst Congressmen in 1902,

Roosevelt wrote to a legislator concerning a specific bill, which he had not done

prior.28 Meanwhile, Dalton countered her own argument and placed Roosevelt as

the leader when she put forth Roosevelt claiming credit for the Reclamation Act as

he had to “fight Congress” for it.29 Auchincloss, unlike the others, took the

journalistic route and wrote as if both Pinchot and Roosevelt had equal parts to play

in the movement.30 Roosevelt was many things, but sheep does not appear in his

repertoire.

The other issue at hand was differentiating between the two growing

factions of conservationism: utilitarianists—to utilize what is being conserved, but

to utilize it effectively for the greatest benefit for both business and nature—and

preservationists—to preserve something for its beauty alone.31 Gifford Pinchot is

considered a utilitarian, wanting “forest management;” contrasting Pinchot would

be John Muir, a well-known preservationist from California.32 Unfortunately,

26 Dalton, 208.27 Schullery, 14.28 Morris, 115.29 Dalton, 245-46.30 Auchincloss, 94.31 Kurkpatrick Dorsey, The Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy: U.S.-Canadian Wildlife Protection Treaties in the Progressive Era (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1998), 11.32 Cutright, 201-2.

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Roosevelt’s place within the factions is highly debated. Cutright and Collins side

together on this issue. Cutright stated that the Roosevelt would often refer to

America’s “use” of forests and how that “use” is dependant on America’s future.33 He

further pushed this notion when he noted Roosevelt as having gone to Pinchot for

advice and ideas on how his conservationism should be implemented.34 Collins

furthered this argument with the concept that Roosevelt assisted in changing

America’s thought process concerning “endless resources” and requiring “effective

use” of said resources.35 Dalton proposed the opposite with her stance that

Roosevelt wanted to be a preservationist on many of the issues at hand, but political

pressures would not allow him to take such a position.36 She did say that not

everything he did was for the preservationism movement and stated, “his

conservation program always had a moral agenda…” and that he always did what

his heart told him was best.37 Brinkley backed Dalton’s proposition and called

Roosevelt a “strenuous preservationist.”38

Roderick Nash, an environmental historian, wrote on the wilderness in 1967

and stated clearly that Roosevelt had not picked a definitive side for the movement.

Nash showed that Roosevelt was inconsistent in his approach to conservation. He

pointed to how Roosevelt’s message to Congress in 1901 appeared more utilitarian

while using the specific word “preserve.”39 Nash explained that this is due to

33 Ibid, 218.34 Ibid., 213.35 Collins, 160.36 Dalton, 241.37 Ibid, 240.38 Brinkley, 1.39 Roderick Nash, Wilderness & the American Mind Fourth Edition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), 162.

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Roosevelt’s attempt to keep the two sides in balance during his presidency.40 Morris

backed this claim of inconsistency with several notations of Roosevelt bouncing

between utilitarianism and preservationism. Morris presented Roosevelt as

becoming bored and disliking the preachings of Muir during his Western Tour in

1903. Morris further elaborated on the inconsistency with support from two of

Roosevelt’s speeches, which occurred on May 17th and 19th of the same year, where

Roosevelt alluded to preservationism and then leaned towards utilitarianism,

respectively. Whatever stance Roosevelt took, be it the “flip-flop” stance of a normal

politician or a firm belief in a specific path of conservationism, he continued to work

for his passion throughout his presidency.41

During Theodore’s second term, he further pushed conservationism, with

stark resistance from Congress. Dalton affirmed that “conservation of natural

resources was not a major political issue for elected officials: forests [were] sold to

the highest bidder….”42 The second term was one of educating the public. Roosevelt

continued to use conservation topics in all of his annual messages to Congress.43

Theodore Roosevelt’s most critical biographer, Henry Pringle, wrote in 1931 of

Roosevelt’s conservation work as “part of his campaign against the malefactors of

great wealth.”44 Whether he used it as for political gain or not, Dalton insisted that

he used it as a means of escaping such things, “Roosevelt’s love of nature often

40 Ibid.41 Morris, 231.42 Dalton, 204-5.43 Henry F. Pringle, Theodore Roosevelt: A Biography (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1931), 430.44 Ibid.

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provided a relief from politics.”45 Prior to this, Dalton had stated that Roosevelt

used his 1903 tour as a sort of political campaign due to sitting Presidents not

campaigning on their own behalf.46 David Stradling, an environmental historian,

rejected Dalton’s claim and built upon Pringle’s when he wrote that Roosevelt’s

work with conservationism was both a political and scientific game. He did admit

that the work that Roosevelt did was “a high-water mark in environmental

activism.”47

When it came to educating the public concerning conservation, however, all

the authors tend to agree that Roosevelt was the right man for the job. Cutright

affirmed that Roosevelt knew that he must gain public support for the movement to

grow. He did this by publishing educational propaganda in newspapers across the

nation. John Cooper expounded upon this when he stated that Roosevelt used the

press to his advantage, allowing the press to join him on his hunting trips. For this

reason, Pringle claimed, the American people could see the ‘real’ President, the man

behind the office. Cooper furthered his notion when he asserted, “Roosevelt

enjoyed spectacular success as the first practitioner of the modern public side of the

Presidency of the United States.”48 Education major, Betsy Harvey Kraft, wrote that

Theodore used his skill and success with the public to bring his conservation agenda

to the public’s attention. She emphasized that he used “speeches, books, articles,

conferences, arm twisting in Congress [and] trips with naturalists…” to help in his

45 Dalton, 239.46 Ibid., 241.47 David Stradling, “Introduction” Found in Conservation in the Progressive Era: Classic Texts, 3-15 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2004), 8.48 Cooper, 65.

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educational efforts.49 Much of what Roosevelt did to educate the public on behalf of

conservation was summarized by Cooper early in his book when he wrote that

Roosevelt vastly “expanded three aspects of the office – public dramatization,

education of the people and party leadership.”50 Roosevelt’s education of the people

vaulted ‘conservation’ from an unknown term to a household theme.51

Edmund Morris declared that Roosevelt’s education of the public took longer

than many would like. He explained that it took until mid-1908 for Americans to be

aware of Theodore Roosevelt’s use of power in the conservation arena. This may

have been due to the use of “stealth” powers, as Morris put it.52 Noel F. Busch,

author of several works concerning the history of Japan as well as U.S. history, offers

a differing view of why it may have taken longer for the nation to grasp onto

conservationism: “Theodore Roosevelt was also breaking ground with his ideas and

perceptions.”53 Nevertheless, the end result allowed Kurkpatrick Dorsey,

environmental and U.S. foreign policy historian, to call the conservation movement

of that time a movement by the progressive middle-class.54 Roosevelt was not done

fighting for conservation and Congress was not about to make it easy.

In 1907, persuaded by lumber companies, Congress passed an add-on to the

Agricultural Appropriations Bill that declared no new reserves in Oregon,

Washington, Idaho, Montana, Colorado or Wyoming. Cutright and Busch both stated

49 Betsy Harvey Kraft, Theodore Roosevelt: Champion of the American Spirit (New York: Clarion Books, 2003), 121.50 Cooper, xi.51 Cooper, 65-70; Cutright, 217-18; Pringle, 247.52 Morris, 519.53 Noel F. Busch, T. R.: The Story of Theodore Roosevelt and his influence on our times (New York: Reynal & Company, 1963), 155-56.54 Dorsey, 11.

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that Roosevelt needed to sign this bill or it would cripple the Forest Service.55

Therefore, he had Pinchot and his office work to reserve several million acres within

the aforementioned states, nearly negating the add-on, and then he signed the bill.56

Dalton wrote it best: “he refused to let Congress stop him from saving wildlife.

Roosevelt became the best President wildlife ever had, but he did it by

circumventing Congress.”57

In 1908, Roosevelt made his final push for conservation with the Governors’

Conference, soon to be known as the First Conservation Conference. Morris stated

that Roosevelt headed this conference with a speech titled “Conservation as a

National Duty”.58 This conference, as Morris put it, “empowered” Roosevelt to the

extent that he “promptly created a National Conservation Commission” with hopes

to push his agenda to the international level.59 Pringle, as a counter to many others,

recognized that the conference had another agenda all together; the Governors’

Conference was a ploy to “thwart the will of Congress.”60 Whatever the original

scheme behind the conference, it was the end of Roosevelt’s conservation push

while in office. Prior to Taft’s claim to the Presidency, Roosevelt’s newly created

National Conservation Commission published an inventory of the natural resources

within America in 1909; this was the final act linked to conservationism within his

55 Busch, 197-98; Cutright, 220.56 Morris, 487,57 Dalton, 243.58 Morris, 515-19.59 Ibid.60 Pringle, 485.

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term. Luckily, Roosevelt was able to get the word out and the term ‘conservation’

was being used frequently after his presidency.61

“It is entirely within our power as a nation to preserve large tracts of

wilderness, which are useless for agricultural purposes and unfit for settlement, as

playgrounds for rich and poor alike,” Theodore Roosevelt belted out while he was at

Yellowstone National Park.62 Several authors have looked upon Roosevelt as the

builder of conservationism within the United States. All of them, including his

critics, applauded his efforts within this genre of politics. Brinkley clearly wrote

that the conservation movement “needed an indefatigable champion like Theodore

Roosevelt to put the U.S. Government fully on the side of the bird and game and

forest preserves.”63 John Cooper further developed this when he stated,

“Conservation was the one area in which his succession to the presidency made an

indisputably substantive difference.”64 Kraft called his conservation efforts

“unequalled by any other president” and “perhaps, his greatest legacy” and Collins

eliminated all doubt when he exclaimed, “Roosevelt’s conservation initiatives

remain as his greatest legacy to future generations of Americans.”65 Cutright’s deep

review of Roosevelt’s conservationist life was summarized when he illustrated, “No

other president—before or since—has been so well prepared for the task of

inaugurating and implementing a comprehensive, aggressive, nationwide

61 D.T. Kuzmiak, “The American Environmental Movement,” The Geographic Journal 157, no. 3 (November 1991): 265-278, 269; Stradling, 8-9. 62 Theodore Roosevelt, found in Edmund Morris, Theodore Rex, 221.63 Brinkley, 5.64 Cooper, 78.65 Collins, 155-6; Kraft, 121.

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conservative program.”66 Busch echoed this praised with, “One thing that helped

Theodore Roosevelt to dominate… was that he understood it so thoroughly and

from so many aspects. Intimately acquainted with all sections of the country…, he

was equally familiar with its people on every level of wealth, education and social

status.”67 Scholars debate the essence with which Roosevelt conducted many of his

undertakings, however, every one of them praised his work done on the front of

conservationism.

“Hunter and conservationist, scholar and cowboy, an Easterner who

had adopted many Western attitudes and values, Roosevelt would

remain throughout his live a bundle of contradictions.”68

66 Cutright, 212.67 Busch, 155.68 Collins, 116

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Cooke, Wm. Bridge. “Basic Conservation History.” Ecology 46, no. 1/2 (January 1965): 220-221.

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