Theological Foundations of Christian SpiritualityCS/TH 650

Defining this CourseCS/TS 650

Horizon of Ultimate Value(Sandra Schneider’s statement in Holder, Chapter One)

Christian Spirituality specifies the horizon of ultimate value as the triune God revealed in Jesus Christ to whom Scripture normatively witnesses and whose life is communicated to the believer by the Holy Spirit making her or him a child of God. This “new life”…is celebrated sacramentally within the believing community and lived in the world as mission in and to the coming reign of God.

• Triune God; Jesus Christ; Scripture; Holy Spirit; sacramental celebration; believing community; coming reign of God

The seven Theological Loci of this course1) The Trinity (“triune God”)2) Christology (“revealed in Jesus Christ”)3) Scripture (“to whom Scripture normatively witnesses”)4) Pneumatology (“communicated…by the Holy Spirit”)5) Sacraments (“is celebrated sacramentally”)6) Ecclesiology (“within the believing community”)7) Eschatology (“lived in the world as mission in and to the

coming reign of God.”)

Defining Christian Spirituality

(“Christian Spirituality specifies the horizon of ultimate value…”) • Definition: The existential phenomenon of a life of faith and

discipleship.

What we want to be able to answer…

• What we believe to be of ultimate value, and how this is communicated to us;

• How belief forms our lives;• How our beliefs are lived out in the world.

The Ordo Theologiae for this Course…1. The Holy Scriptures2. The Trinity3. Christ (Christology)4. The Holy Spirit (Pneumatology)5. Sacraments6. Church (Ecclesiology)7. The Kingdom of God (Eschatology)

Defining this Course(Sandra Schneider’s statement in Holder, Chapter One)

Christian Spirituality specifies the horizon of ultimate value as the triune God revealed in Jesus Christ to whom Scripture normatively witnesses and whose life is communicated to the believer by the Holy Spirit making her or him a child of God. This “new life”…is celebrated sacramentally within the believing community and lived in the world as mission in and to the coming reign of God.

A word about Soteriology…

…The horizon of ultimate value as the triune God revealed in Jesus Christ…whose life is communicated to the believer by the Holy Spirit making her or him a child of God.

• Christology• Pneumatology• Role of Faith• Nature of Grace and Justification: Forensic or Regenerative?

(declared righteous and/or made righteous?)

Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity (M. Noll)

1. The Fall of Jerusalem (AD 70)2. The Council of Nicaea (325)3. The Council of Chalcedon (451)4. The Monastic Rescue of the Church – Benedict’s Rule (530)5. Christendom – Coronation of Charlemagne (800)6. The Great Schism (1054)7. Diet of Worms (1521)8. English Act of Supremacy (1534)9. The Conversion of the Wesleys (1738)

A “Rough” Correspondence

Theological Loci

1. The Holy Scriptures2. The Trinity3. Christ (Christology)4. The Holy Spirit

(Pneumatology)5. Sacraments6. Church (Ecclesiology)7. The Kingdom of God

(Eschatology)

“Turning Points”Fall of JerusalemCouncil of NicaeaCouncil of ChalcedonGreat Schism

Diet of WormsAct of Supremacy,

MonasticismChristendom, Wesleys

Major Figures in this Course: Church Fathers

• Irenaeus of Lyons • Tertullian• Origen of Alexandria• Athanasius• Cappadocian Fathers: Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa,

Gregory of Nazianzus• Augustine of Hippo

Honorable Mention: Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius of Caesarea, Jerome

Dishonorable Mention: Marcion of Sinope, Arius, Apollinarius, Sabellius, Nestorius, Pelagius

Major Figures: Monks, Mystics• Anthony of the Desert• Benedict of Nursia• Francis of Assisi• Dominic

Honorable Mention: Teresa of Avila, Catherine of Sienna, Thomas a Kempis, Ignatius of Loyola, Martin of Tours, Julian of Norwich

Major Figures: Scholastics• Thomas Aquinas• Peter Abelard• Duns Scotus• William of Occam

Honorable Mention: Albertus Magnus, Anselm of Canterbury,

Major Figures: Reformers• Martin Luther• John Calvin• Menno Simons• Thomas Cranmer• John Wesley

Honorable Mention: John Wycliffe & Jan Hus (pre-Reformation), Ulrich Zwingli, John Knox, Jacobus Arminius, Richard Allen

Major Figures: Modern Period• Karl Barth• Dietrich Bonhoeffer• Martin Luther King, Jr.• Gustavo Gutierrez

Honorable Mention: Friedrich Schleiermacher, William Seymour, Paul Tillich, James Cone

First Theological LocusThe Holy Scriptures

First Theological Locus: The Holy Scriptures• Canonical Considerations:

• Hebrew Bible or Old Testament (39)• New Testament (27)• Deuterocanonical books (Apocrypha)

• Hermeneutical Considerations:• Allegorical, typological, historical-literal• Christian interpretation is EMINENTLY Christological

• Doctrinal Considerations• Who or what defines the faith?

Turning Point: Destruction of Jerusalem (AD 70)

Effects of AD 70• The loss of the Temple – Israel’s cultus no longer serves as the

focus of unity for worldwide Jewry.• The importance of synagogue and the power of

excommunication• The decline of the Sadducees; the ascent of the Pharisees• The decline of “Jewish Christianity”; the ascent of “Pauline

Christianity” – (Gentiles outnumber Jews)• Hellenism loses its influence on Judaism; permanent hold on

Christianity

Developments in Judaism (post-AD 70)

• Hebrew/Aramaic became the exclusive sacred language-base• Hellenism was rejected• Rejection of the LXX and/or the Old Testament in Koine Greek• Rejection of books not known to exist in extant Hebrew or

Aramaic manuscripts and/or books known to have been written after the time of Ezra (480-440 BCE)

• The curse of the “Minim” – a group that included the Judeo-Christians and Gnostics

• The gradual expansion of the concept of Torah to include Mishnah (220 CE, “oral Torah”), Tosefta (supplement to Mishnah), The Jerusalem & Babylonian Talmuds (3rd-5th centuries CE, “instruction,” rabbinical commentaries on the Mishnah), and the midrashim (homiletical method of interpretation)

Which Old Testament?• Septuagint (LXX) – the Bible of the early church.

Approximately 85% of OT quotes in the NT come from the LXX• Apocrypha – What status?

• Jerome was the first to advocate for using the Hebrew Bible as the basis for the “official” OT of the Church (Vulgate)

• Jerome did not consider the apocryphal books to be of equal inspiration with the rest of the OT

King James’ List of Apocrypha• 1 Esdras (Vulgate – 3 Esdras, in appendix)• 2 Esdras (Vulgate – 4 Esdras, in appendix)• Tobit• Judith • Rest of Esther (Vulgate – Esther 10:4-16:24)• Wisdom• Ecclesiasticus (also known as Sirach)• Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremy (Vulgate – all part of Baruch)• Song of the Three Children (Vulgate – Daniel 3:24-90)• Story of Susanna (Vulgate – Daniel 13)• The Idol Bel and the Dragon (Vulgate – Daniel 14)• Prayer of Manasses (Vulgate, in appendix)• 1 Maccabees• 2 Maccabees

How this question divided the Church

• DIVISION OF EAST/WEST• The Eastern Church continued to recognize the LXX as the

Christian Old Testament• The Western Church opted for the Hebrew Bible as the Christian

Old Testament• DIVISION OF ROMAN CATHOLIC/PROTESTANT

• The Roman Church recognized the Apocrypha as inspired• The Protestants regarded the Apocrypha as something less than

inspired

NT composition in relation to AD 70

Written well prior to AD 70• Undisputed letters of Paul (50-

60)• 1 Thessalonians, Galatians, 1

Corinthians, Philemon, Philippians, 2 Corinthians, Romans

Written between AD 60s-80s• Revelation (if early – 60s)• Mark (shortly before AD 70?)• Matthew (shortly after AD 70?)• James (80s)• Colossians (80s)

• If not Pauline

• Hebrews (80s)

Written well after AD 70• Late First Century (80s-90s)

• Luke/Acts• Ephesians (If not Pauline)• Gospel of John• 1,2,3 John• Revelation (if late)• Jude

• Early Second Century• 2 Thessalonians (if not Pauline)• 1 Peter• 1 & 2 Timothy, Titus• 2 Peter (AD 120)

Overview of the Gospels in light of AD 70”

• Mark – written in anticipation of destruction of Jerusalem; announces imminent return of Jesus Christ

• Matthew – rewrite of Mark (but probably shortly after the destruction), so perspective the same on Jerusalem; however, Matthew includes more parables about the return of Christ and the unexpected nature of it (seems more disassociated from the destruction of Jerusalem)

• Luke – used Mark’s gospel, but obviously retrospective, providing details of the siege of Jerusalem; second coming is even further disassociated from the destruction

• John – contains the statement “Destroy this temple, and I will raise it up in three days”; the antagonists are called “the Jews”

Other NT works…• Hebrews (80s) – theological treatise explaining how the work

of Christ (both during his life and continuing in heaven) fulfills and completes the role of the OT Tabernacle, priesthood, and sacrificial system

• Revelation (early-60s, or late-90s) – If early, the book is describing events leading up to AD 70, particularly the reign of Nero; if late, then retrospective; anticipates the inevitable conflict that Christians will have with the state

• Late “Pauline” Epistles – reflect later theology and the “institutionalizing” of the church

Emergence of the NT Canon• Marcion of Sinope (110-160)• Marcion’s “Dilemma”

Since Marcion separated the New Testament from the Old, he is necessarily subsequent to that which he separated, inasmuch as it was only in his power to separate what was previously united. Having been united previous to its separation, the fact of its subsequent separation proves the subsequence also of the man who effected the separation. (Tertullian, De praescriptione haereticorum, 30 – early third century)

Muratorian Canon (AD 200)

• Four Gospels and Acts• 13 Epistles of Paul• James• 1, 2 John• Jude• Revelation of John• Revelation of Peter (?)• Shepherd of Hermas (only for devotional

purposes)

Attested to by Origen (early 3rd century)• Four Gospels and Acts• 13 Epistles of Paul• 1 Peter• 1 John• Revelation• Disputed: Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2-3 John, Shepherd,

Barnabas, Didache, Gospel of the Hebrews

Attested to by Eusebius (early 4th century)Books Received by All• 4 Gospels / Acts• 13 Pauline Epistles• 1 Peter• 1 John• Revelation (which he personally excluded)

Books Disputed, but Well-Known• James• 2 Peter• 2-3 John• Jude

Attested to by Eusebius

Books to be Excluded:• Shepherd of Hermas• Epistle of Barnabas• Didache• Gospel of the Hebrews• Revelation of Peter• Acts of Peter

Council of Carthage (AD 396)

• Four Gospels and Acts• 13 Pauline Epistles• Hebrews• James• 1-2 Peter• 1-3 John• Jude• Revelation

Christological Interpretation• Prime Example: Isaiah 7 & Matthew 1

• “A virgin will conceive…”• Different approaches to Christological Interpretation:

• Allegorical (i.e. gleaning a higher meaning from the text than the literal)

• Typological (e.g. David Christ)• Literal (e.g. predictive prophecy)

Authority & Doctrine

The Bible as a Source of Doctrine: Who or What Defines the Faith?• Pope?• Ecumenical Council? (Who calls councils?)• Local consensus? (By whose authority?)• The Individual?

Second Theological LocusThe Holy Trinity

Second Theological Locus: The Holy TrinityBe familiar with:• The 4th century Arian controversy• The Council of Nicaea (325 AD)• Monarchianism• The definition of homoousios• The distinction between Essence & Person (ousia & hypostasis)• Athanasius’ aphorism: “God became Man so that Man might

become god.”

Turning Point: The Council of Nicaea (325)

Arianism• Radical Monotheism: tenacious to maintain the sole Monarchy

of the Father• The Son as the “firstborn” over all Creation (“begotten in

time”)• The Son is given the title “god” because he is created as the

perfect Image of God• Condemned by the Council of Nicaea (325)

The Arian Controversy• Seedbed of the controversy: Alexandrian approach

• Accommodationist stance towards Philosophy• Representative theologians: Justin, Clement, Origen

• God seen as “perfection” (i.e. immutable, impassible, and fixed, unbegotten)• Allegorical interpretation helped Hellenistic thinkers to make

sense of a Bible which presented an “earthy” God• Logos theology: Logos = reason of God (personal, capable of

direct relations with the world and with humans)

Logos Theology

Immutable God(Perfection)

Mediating Logos (Reason)

Mutable Created Order (Humanity)(Imperfect)

Logos Theology: “Begottenness”

• The Arian controversy would hinge on the interpretation of the Greek term gennetos (“begotten”)• In Greek philosophy this term had a broader, hence vaguer sense

than the way it is used in the NT • “came to be” or “derived from” or “generated”

• Alexandrian Christian thought had learned to express its monotheistic stance by insisting that God is the sole agennetos (“underived” or “unbegotten”)• All else that exists was derived or generated (including the Son)• However, the way that the Son was generated was unique over

against the way all other things were generated

Origen’s understanding

• All things were generated or “begotten” out of nonexistence (creatio ex nihilo), except for the Son

• The Logos (Son) was generated or “born” from God, and thus was truly the “only-begotten Son” of the Father• The Logos is “eternally begotten” (begotten from eternity)• Hence the Logos is in a secondary but real sense divine

• What Origenist tradition envisaged was a pluralism of divine persons within a hierarchy of being:

God (eternal, unchanging first principle)The Logos or Son (Image of God, begotten from God)

All Creatures (called out of non-existence)

Monarchianism: a “Western” heresy

Emphasize that God is one person…• Sabellianism (Modalism):

• God manifested and works in three modes: Father, Son, Holy Spirit

• No personal distinctions within Godhead• Adoptionism:

• Christ as man is totally infused (indwelt) by the God, thus “adopted” into the Godhead

Council of Nicaea (325)• Called by Constantine the Great• Condemned Arius• Defined the Son as homoousios with the Father• Articulated a statement that would become the basis for the

later “Nicene Creed.”

The parties at Nicaea…

1. Arian Party led by Eusebius of Nicodemia (small group)2. Anti-Arian Party led by Alexander of Alexandria (small group)3. The Western Position: Saw the matter as a controversy

between Eastern followers of Origen; sufficient to declare that in God were “three persons and one substance” (Tertullian’s position)

4. Patripassianism (Sabellians or Monarchians): The Father and the Son are the same person (the Father “suffered the passion”)

5. Majority of bishops at the council held to the traditional Eastern Subordinationist position; sought a compromise position

The Eastern Subordination View

• Based on Logos Theology (Origen’s explanation)• God (Father) is sole agennetos; all else is gennetos (begotten)• Creatures are generated or begotten out of nonexistence, thus

are “begotten and made”• The Son is “eternally begotten” from God (thus born of God),

hence is “begotten, not made.”• Christ is divine in the sense of being from God, but

subordinate to God• UNRESOLVED: What is the true nature of the Logos?

Homoousios• Definition: “of one substance” or “consubstantial”• To say that the Son is homoousios with the Father is to say the

Son shares a common substance, nature or essence with the Father.

• Not to be confused with homoiousios which would mean that the Son’s substance or essence is “like” or “similar” to the Father’s.

Creed of Nicaea (325)We believe in one God the Father all powerful, maker of all things both seen and unseen. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only-begotten begotten from the Father, that is from the substance [Gr. ousias] of the Father, God from God, light from light, true God from true God, begotten [Gr. gennethenta] not made [Gr. poethenta], CONSUBSTANTIAL [Gr. homoousion] with the Father, through whom all things came to be, both those in heaven and those in earth; for us humans and for our salvation he came down and became incarnate, became human, suffered and rose up on the third day, went up into the heavens, is coming to judge the living and the dead. And in the holy Spirit.

And those who say "there once was when he was not", and "before he was begotten he was not", and that he came to be from things that were not, or from another hypostasis [Gr. hypostaseos] or substance [Gr. ousias], affirming that the Son of God is subject to change or alteration, these the catholic and apostolic church anathematizes.

Distinction between Essence and Person

• Tertullian: “One God in three Personae” (Trinitas)• Persona means “role or character” played by an actor or agent

• Cappadocian Fathers: Gregory of Nyssa, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus• Ousia = Essence = Being

• God is one Essence• Hypostasis = Instantiation of Being

• God is Three Hypostases • Retained the language of Personae (i.e. Persons) in Latin, though this

proved to be a very awkward translation• This distinction enabled the Church to maintain Monotheism

while acknowledging the distinction of “Persons” within the Godhead

Relating Doctrine to Spirituality: ImplicationsAthanasius’ Aphorism:“The Word (or God) was made Man that we might become god (or divine).”

• Soteriological implications?• Eschatological implications?

Third Theological LocusChristology

Third Theological Locus: Christology

Be familiar with…• The concept of Incarnation• Apollinaris’ Christology• Nestorius’ Christology (Nestorianism)• Eutyches’ Christology (Monophysitism)• The Council of Chalcedon (451)• The Hypostatic Union

Turning Point: Council of Chalcedon (451)

Incarnation• “Embodied in flesh”; “The assumption of a physical body &

nature”• In what sense did the Word, who is homoousios with the

Father, become incarnate?• Did Christ assume a full human nature? Is he one hypostasis

(person) or two hypostases (persons) after the incarnation? One physis (nature) or two?

Apollinaris of Laodicea (d. 390)• Friend and supporter of Athanasius and the Nicene faith• Largely responsible for converting Basil of Caesarea to the

homoousian position• Christology was driven by the desire to affirm that Christ, the

divine Son, was immediately present to transform and divinize the sinful mortality of the human creature

• Taught that the true “ego” (or life-principle) in Jesus was simply the Logos himself

• Impossible to assert that the divine Son united with a complete, normal human being, for that would require the union of two competing wills, two minds, two selves, and hence two Sons, human and divine

• The unity of Christ would be destroyed; God would not be “with us”

Apollinaris’ Christology• A “trichotomy” of the divine mind, and a human body & soul

DivineLogos(Mind)

Human Body/Soul

Apollinaris’ views attacked• Gregory of Nyssa – Against Apollinaris• Gregory of Nazianzus insisted that since it is not merely the

flesh which sins, but soul and mind as well, it was necessary for the divine Logos to take a complete human nature, intellect as well as ensouled body

• Condemned by a Roman synod in 377 and by a synod in Antioch in 379

• Council of Constantinople included Apollinarianism in its lengthy list of erroneous teachings to be condemned (Canon 1)

“For that which he has not assumed he has not healed, but that which is united to his Godhead is also saved.” (Gregory of

Nazianzus)

Summary: Apollinaris’ Position• Eager to assert the deity of Christ and the unity of his person

led him to deny that Christ had a rational (human) soul.• The Logos (Word) was the seat of rationality, replacing the

human nous (mind)• Christ was thus a spiritualized or “divinized” form of human

being (Docetism)• VERDICT: Not fully human

“Nestorianism”• Initially, the Antiochene position was articulated by Diodore of

Tarsus and his pupil, Theodore of Mopsuestia• The Antiochene opposed Apollinarianism’s teaching that the

Christ is “one composite nature,” objecting that this negated what they wanted to affirm – namely that in Christ were TWO SUBJECTS of action and predication – TWO NATURES (physes) and TWO HYPOSTASES

• This position was too much for those who embraced the Alexandrian position

• The elevation of Nestorius to the patriarchate of Constantinople in 428 brought this issue to a head

Summary: Nestorius’ position• Nestorius was Patriarch of Constantinople (428-431)• Emphasized the disunion of natures (physes): “Divine Word” &

“Human Jesus” (two Christs??)• Objected to the title Theotokos (God-bearer) for Mary;

preferred the title Christotokos (Christ-bearer)• Nestorius’ position assumed that physis and hypostasis were

essentially synonymous• Insisted a “true” union at the level of prosopon

• Condemned at the Council of Ephesus (431)• Verdict: Two natures (physes) = two Christs (not a true union

of the divine and human)

Prosopon• In Greek, a theatrical term that meant a mask or face; hence,

virtually synonymous with persona in Latin• Terminology was often the source of much theological confusion

between East and West• In Greek theology, prosopon came to mean a “self-

manifestation of an individual” • The Antiochene position (championed by Nestorius and many

of his predecessors) was that a true union existed at the level of the prosopa, hence a prosopic union

• Antiochene theology assumed that hypostasis and physis were synonyms

Nestorianism• Prosopic union : One “Prosopon” (i.e. face) – Unity of

Indwelling

“The Man” Complete

Human Hypostasis

“The Logos”Complete

Divine Hypostasis

Cyril of Alexandrian: Champion of Alexandrian Christology• “One incarnate nature of the divine Logos”• The one Lord Jesus Christ was identical to the only begotten

Son of God, who was “enfleshed and became a human being”• Therefore, there could only be ONE subject, one nature and

one hypostasis, that of the Divine Logos• The humanity of Christ, body and soul, was a mode of

existence which the Logos made his own through his birth of a woman; the humanity could not be separated from the Logos as “another” beside him

• Nestorius understood Cyril to be saying that the humanity and the divinity had somehow been fused into Christ into something that was no longer either divine or human

Nestorian Controversy• Early on in Constantinople, Nestorius delivered a sermon in

which he condemned the use of Theotokos (God-bearer) as a title for the Virgin Mary• “That which is formed in the womb is not…God”• “God was within the one who was assumed”• “The one who was assumed is styled God because of the One

who assumed him”• More appropriate to refer to Mary as “Christotokos”

• Nestorius’ views were reported to Cyril of Alexandria, a strong supporter of the Theotokos position; Cyril had been looking for an occasion against Nestorius over a case in which Nestorius had reversed a judgment of Cyril in the case of some Egyptian monks

Council of Ephesus (431)• Called by Theodosius II in the East and Valentinian III in the

West• Cyril and his allies were the first to arrive and quickly

condemned Nestorius before his supporters could stop him• John of Antioch (Nestorius’ main support) was delayed in

getting to Ephesus and thus convened his own council to condemn Cyril and exonerate Nestorius

• Finally, the delegates of Pope Celestine (Rome) joined the Cyrillian assembly and proceeded to add John of Antioch to the deposed

• The two sides were at an impasse with Theodosius unsure as to what to do

Formula of Reunion• In 433, John of Antioch sent Cyril his text called the Formula of

Reunion, which admitted to the use of Theotokos, and also that Christ was “complete God and complete human being” and that a “union of two natures had occurred, as a consequence of which we confess one Son.”

• Cyril signed it with enthusiasm; Nestorius’ cause was now lost, and he was exiled: the Cyrillian assembly at Ephesus was vindicated

• This council is known now as the Council of Ephesus (431), the third council considered “general” or “ecumenical”

• However, the document turned out to be a compromise which each side; by 438, Cyril was convinced that the Antiochenes had been duplicitous; he then wrote against the teachings of Diodore of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia

• The stage was set for a renewal of acrimony

Controversy flares up again• Cyril’s condemnation of the teachings of Diodore of Tarsus and

Theodore of Mopseustia, which many Antiochene signers of the Formula of Reunion still honored

• Cyril dies in 444, succeeded as bishop of Alexandria by Dioscorus, who had little regard for the Formula

• The new bishop of Constantinople was Flavian (447-449), who supported the Formula but was inclined towards the Antiochene position

Eutyches (380-456)• Popular leader of a monastery in Constantinople and the principle

support of Dioscorus of Alexandria in that city; influential in the imperial court

• Accused before Flavian at a synod of teaching that the human nature of Christ was altered or absorbed by his deity

• Eutyches refused to admit that Christ’s humanity was the same (homoousios) as ours, famously maitaining that Christ was “from two natures before the union, but in one nature after the union”

• Eutyches was condemned by the synod but made an immeidate appeal to the imperial court, which then proceeded to demand that Flavian, not Eutyches, produce a confession of faith!

• Back in Alexandria, Dioscorus called for and obtained an imperial summons for a general council

Summary: Eutychianism• Eutyches was a monk of Constantinople (380-456)• Vehemently reacted against Nestorianism• Two natures before the incarnation (divine and human), one

nature after the incarnation (“divinized humanity”) • Christ’s “humanity” without limitations or weaknesses• Verdict: A confusion of the two natures

Prelude to Chalcedon• Both Flavian and Dioscorus appealed to Leo I of Rome (440-

461)• Leo responded to Flavian in a long and carefully argued letter

(Leo’s Tome) that Eutyches was an extremely foolish and altogether ignorant man

• Leo appealed to the baptismal creed of the Roman church to substantiate the traditional western view that Christ has two substances or natures that remain intact and come together in “one person”

• Leo’s Tome would prove to set Rome against its normal ally, Alexandria, in favor of a more Antiochene-friendly christology

Prelude to Chalcedon• Theodosius II called for a council to meet at Ephesus in 449• Dioscorus and his supporters took all necessary steps to

predetermine the outcome• Flavian was condemned; Eutyches vindicated• Leo’s Tome was denied a reading• Flavian died of suspicious circumstances on the way to exile

• Rupture of the ancient alliance between Rome and Alexandria results• Leo calls the council a “robbers’ synod”; calls for a new council to

be held in Italy• Theodosius II refuses; then accidentally dies in 450

• The new empress, Pulchera and her husband, Marcian agree to a new council to be held in Chalcedon (451)

Council of Chalcedon (451) • Fourth council to be called “ecumenical”• Acted quickly to depose Dioscorus and Eutyches (a “win” for

the Antiochenes)• Rehabilitated Antiochene supporters of the Formula of

Reunion (a “win” for the Antiochenes)• Canonized the Second Letter of Cyril of Alexandria to Nestorius

and his letter affirming the Formula of Reunion as adequate expositions of the meaning of the Nicene Faith against the errors of Nestorius (a “win” for the Alexandrians)

• Crafted a formula composed largely of phrases and ideas drawn from Cyril’s letters, Leo’s Tome, and the Formula of Reunion (a “draw” between Alexandria and Antioch with Rome coming out on top)

Chalcedonian Definition• Does not define the union (i.e. how it took place)• Set limits beyond which error lies, for example:

• Nestorius had gone too far in not admitting to the unity of person• Eutyches had gone to far in not admitting the distinction of

natures

“…One and the same Christ, Son, Lord, Only-begotten, manifested in two natures without confusion, change, division or separation. The union does not destroy the difference of the two natures, but on the contrary the properties of each are kept, and both are joined in one person and hypostasis.”

Aftermath of Chalcedon• Became the standard orthodoxy of the entire Western church

and most of the East• The cause of the first long-lasting schisms in Christian history

• Nestorians (Syrian Churches of the East)• Monophysites (Church of Armenia; Coptic Church)

• Christological differences became both the cause and the excuse for political discord in the empire

• Emperor Zeno’s Henoticon (482) attempted to settle the christological disputes by requiring all to go back to the beliefs held prior to the controversy – failure of imperial policy resulting in the Acacian Schism (between East and West)• Schism healed in 519

Summary: Council of Chalcedon• 451, City of Chalcedon (near Nicaea)• Fourth Ecumenical Council• Affirmed Leo’s Tome (i.e. the Pope of Rome’s treatise on the

Incarnation)• Condemned Eutyches and reasserted the Council of Ephesus’

condemnation of Nestorius• Definition: Hypostatic Union

Important Terms• Monophysitism: Christ has “one nature”

• Prevailing theology of Alexandria• Athanasius, Cyril (but also Apollinaris)

• Dyophysitism: Christ has “two natures”• Prevailing theology of Antioch• John of Antioch, Pope Leo (but also Nestorius)

Christological Ironies• The Council of Ephesus (431) had condemned Nestorian

Dyophysitism in the face of Cyrillian Monophysite challenges.• The Council of Chalcedon (451) condemned Eutychian

Monophysitism in light of Leo’s Dyophysitism (while upholding Ephesus’ earlier verdict!)

Hypostatic Union• Christ is one Divine Person in two natures, divine and human

• Notice: not “of two natures” (deemed monophysite)• En hypostasis, duo phuses• Human nature is enhypostatically united to the Divine Person

Relating Doctrine to SpiritualityThe Importance of Incarnational Theology:• Soteriological implications?• Eschatological implications?• Implications for Christian Spirituality?

Fourth Theological LocusPneumatology – Doctrine of the Spirit

Fourth Theological Locus: Pneumatology

Be familiar with…• East vs. West: Theological Differences • The Influence of Augustine in the West• The Filioque controversy• The Decline of Pneumatology in the West• Consequences of theological neglect

East vs. WestThe East…• Concerned with the

“immanent or ontological Trinity”

• Concerned to maintain proper monarchy of Father

• Concerned to maintain full deity of the Spirit

• Concerned to maintain proper distinctions between Essence, Existence, and Energies

The West…• Concerned more with

the “economic Trinity”• Concerned to maintain

the full deity of the Son• Concerned to maintain

the unity of the Godhead

• Understood the Spirit as the principle of unity (i.e. love between Father and Son)

The East• Concerned with the immanent Trinity (or “ontological Trinity”)

• The interior life of the Trinity• The reciprocal relations between Father, Son, and Holy Spirit

without reference to God’s relation to Creation• Concerned to maintain proper monarchy of Father

• The Father is the principle or “source” of deity (hypostatic property distinctive to the Father)

• Concerned to maintain full deity of the Spirit• The Son is “begotten” from the Father• The Spirit “proceeds” from the Father

• Concerned to maintain proper distinctions between Essence, Existence, and Energies

Eastern Trinity

Father

Holy SpiritSon

Proceeds fromthe Father

Begotten ofthe Father

Fountainhead ofDeity

Eastern View of Trinity• The Son and the Spirit are the two “hands” of the Father • The monarchy of the Father is emphasized• Emphasis on three distinct persons in unity

Gregory Palamas (1296-1359)

Eastern Theology• Essence (ousia) – uncreated, incommunicable, the “whatness”

of God• Existence (hypostasis) – The instance or existence of an

essence; essence exists only in persons; God is three Persons• Energies – uncreated, but communicable; the Divine life in

which we are able and enabled to participate

Eastern View of Trinity• The Son and the Spirit are the two “hands” of the Father • The monarchy of the Father is emphasized• Emphasis on three distinct persons in unity

Salvation in Eastern Thought• Synergism (synegia) – Salvation cannot be earned; however, its

acquisition requires our cooperation with God since God will not violate free will• Life of faith and repentance and participation in the sacraments

are the ways that humans cooperate with God• Stages of Salvation:

• Carthasis (Purification) – process of becoming sinless• Theoria (Illumination) – process of being filled with divine light,

gained through contemplation on the Divine Mystery• Theosis (Deification) – process of achieving union (without

fusion) with the Divine Life (the energies of God)• In theosis, humans take on the attributes of God without

being merged into the Trinity (essence/energies distinction)

The West• Concerned more with the “economic Trinity”

• Refers to the acts of the Trinity within Creation; the different roles that each Hypostasis assumes in history

• Concerned to maintain the full deity of the Son• Whatever is characteristic of the Father is characteristic of the

Son• Concerned to maintain the unity of the Godhead

• The Spirit as the principle of unity within the Trinity (Augustine)• The Spirit is the reciprocating love or “bond of love” shared

between Father and Son (Augustine)

The Western Trinity• Emphasis on the unity of three persons• Co-Equality of the three persons• Spirit proceeds from Father and Son in one of two ways:

• The Spirit proceeds from the Father through the Son• The Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son as from one

principle and one spiration

Augustine’s De Trinitate• Spirit as unifying principle of Trinity• Spirit defined as “Bond of Love”• Love reciprocated Double procession

• Father is the “Lover”• Son is the “Beloved”• The Spirit is “Love”

Influence of Augustine on West• Defining the Holy Spirit as “Love” in some sense

depersonalized the Third Person of the Trinity (i.e. made the Spirit a quasi-attribute of God)

• The concept of Grace was thus depersonalized• Something not quite the “Holy Spirit” him/herself

• Augustine’s doctrine of double-predestination• Grace (love) given only to the elect• Thus Spirit is not operative in the world beyond the sphere of

salvation (i.e. the church)

Filioque

We believe…• in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceedeth from

the Father and the Son (Latin: filioque), who with the Father and the Son together is worshiped and glorified, who spake by the prophets.

• Added to the Creed by the Council of Toledo (589) to combat semi-Arianism

• Augustine’s doctrine of double procession of the Spirit meant the inevitable triumph of the filioque in the West

• Finally added to the Roman rite in 1014 by Benedict VIII, thus making it universal in the Western Church.

Salvation in Western Thought• Monergism (monegia) – Salvation cannot be earned; even its very

acquisition requires a monergistic act of God’s grace (regeneration); the will is not truly free

• Gratia Cooperans • Life of repentance, faith and works nonetheless requires the cooperation

of the regenerated will; participation in the sacraments is the means through which God confers grace

• Stages of Salvation:• Regeneration – The free gift of adoption and conferring of new life• Justification – becoming righteous, through the remission of sin and acts

of penance (later being “declared righteous” in Protestant thought) • Sanctification (Protestant)– process of being made righteous (sinless)• Beatific Vision or Glorification – achieving the “vision of God”

• The Beatific Vision entails a direct self-communication of God to the individual person (heaven); analogous to theosis in Eastern thought

Decline of Pneumatology in the West• Exitus-reditus scheme (lit. procession and return)

• Nature of God and his will to create is an expression of the procession of his love

• The goal of his creation, particularly rational beings, is to return his love

• As scholastics codified different loci (sing. locus) under which theological themes would be discussed:• NO SPECIFIC LOCUS was assigned for the Holy Spirit in the

exitus-reditus scheme• The Holy Spirit considered solely under the locus of the

Trinity• Failure in the West to account structurally for the Spirit’s

ecclesial, sacramental, and eschatological role

Consequences…

• Over-emphasis on the nature and name of “love” (e.g. Romantic Movement)

• Depersonalization of the Spirit• Implicit “Binatarianism”• Over-emphasis on Augustine’s rule of

monarche: that the external acts of the Trinity are undivided

Consequences…

• Lost sight of the Spirit’s communal and eschatological dynamism

• Failure to appreciate Trinitarian rhythms in Scripture, prayers, liturgy

• Trinity becomes a mere abstraction into the inner nature of God

• Isolation of the Spirit from the Christian life• Treatment of the Godhead as a fourth kind of

thing that all three have in common

Implications for Christian Spirituality

The decline of pneumatology in the West has resulted in spiritualities where the Spirit either:• disappears into Christology, or • is depersonalized by making either the Godhead an

impersonal fourth thing or grace a quasi-substance• “God is Spirit” – ergo the Holy Spirit is the “stuff” that God is

made of

Relating Doctrine to SpiritualityThe Importance of pneumatology to Christian Spirituality:

• Communal (Ecclesial) implications?• Sacramental implications?• Eschatological implications?

Interlude: The Shifting Sands of Western Theology

Seven Sacraments Altarpiece by Rogier van der Weyden (ca. 1450)

Scholasticism

Transubstantiation• Defined by the 2nd Lateran Council, 1215• CLASSIC DEFINITION: The conversion of the whole substance

of the bread and wine into the whole substance of the Body and Blood of Christ, only the accidents (i.e. appearances) of the bread and wine remaining

Thomas Aquinas’ Understanding

First, because it is not customary but horrible for men to eat the flesh of a man and drink his blood, the flesh and blood of Christ are offered under the form of things which are more frequently used, namely bread and wine. Secondly, lest this sacrament might be ridiculed by unbelievers if we ate our Lord in his own form. Thirdly, that while we receive the body and blood of our Lord invisibly this may contribute to the merit of our faith (ST, III, q. 75:5)

Defining Terms• Form = The underlying reality of a thing

• Substantial Form = That which distinguishes the substance of one thing from the substance of another. That which makes a “thing” what it is, and not something else.

• Matter = What a thing is made of; a thing’s constituent parts; the corporeal substratum of a thing

• Form + Matter = Substance• Form inheres in matter to make a substance

Accidents• Real but incidental properties of things, contingently

conjoined to a substance (color, quantity, taste, texture, etc.)

• Examples:• Heating a rock changes the “accident” of temperature, but not

the substance of the rock (transaccidentation)

• The process of decay changes both the substance and the accidents of a “thing” (transformation)

Transubstantiation• The substance changes (as in transformation), however the

accidents remain the same• How? Thomas posits the radical separability of substance and

accidents• But Transubstantiation takes place only in the realm of the

miraculous• In the miracle of Transubstantiation, substance exists without

its accidents (properties), and accidents exist without their substance

• Thus Christ’s presence is a “non-local” presence, since locality is an accident

Thomistic View of Grace

operans: moves the will to interior action

Motus (motion) cooperans: moves the will to exterior actionGratia operans: justifies man Habitus (habit) cooperans: functions as the principle of meritorious action

Thomistic Conception of Justification

gratiae infusio | motus liberi arbitrii | contritio | peccatorum remissio

• Infusion of Grace• Movement of the free will towards God through faith• Movement of the free will against sin• Remission of sins

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

Luther’s first theological breakthrough• Originally Luther held that the precondition to justification

was a human work (meritum de congruo).• However, following Augustine he abandoned this idea for the

understanding that God met the precondition, graciously giving sinners what they required to be justified.

Luther’s second theological breakthrough: fiduciaREDEFINING FAITH IN PAULINE TERMS:• Faith is not simply historical knowledge. Even sinners are

perfectly capable of trusting in the historical details of the Gospel message.

• Faith to be understood as “trust” (fiducia). Using a nautical analogy, Luther mused, “Faith is not simply about believing that a ship exists -- it is about stepping into it, and entrusting ourselves to it. ”

• Faith unites the sinner with Christ. It is a response of the whole person to God, making both Christ and his benefits available to believers.

Luther’s departure from Augustine• Augustine, true to his philosophical roots, had defined

faith in purely intellectualist terms. Thus he was obliged to add to his truncated idea of faith the concept of caritas or dilectio (charity or love).

• Justification for Augustine is “faith working through love.”

• Luther’s re-definition of faith in Pauline terms, while a material departure from St. Augustine, is not necessarily a formal departure.

• This re-definition allows Luther to posit justificatio per solam fide (“justification by faith only”).

Luther’s third theological breakthrough: “alien righteousness”• A true theological novum: extrinsic righteousness. The

location of justifying righteousness remains outside of believers.

• Justification as an iustitia aliena imputed to the believer• God treats or reckons this righteousness as it were part

of the sinner’s person.• Imputation of righteousness on the basis of union with

Christ• Believers are simul iustes et peccator (at one and the

same time righteous and sinners), but not in the sense that Augustine meant it.

• This represents a fundamental departure from Augustine.

Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560)

Later Lutheran Thought: Melanchthon’s Contribution• Early on, Luther still considered justification in terms of being

“made righteous.”• Justification was extrinsic, in that it was effected by the

believer’s union with the indwelling Christ.• Melanchthon began to draw a sharp distinction between the

event of being declared righteous and being made righteous.

Melanchthon and Forensic Justification• Justification: the event of being “declared righteous” in foro

divino (in the heavenly court)• Regeneration or Sanctification: Process of being “made

righteous.”• NOTE: This development represents a complete break with

the teaching of the Western Church up to this point in history.

Council of Trent (1545-63)

• The nature of justification is the process of regeneration and renovation (being made righteous)

• The “single” formal cause of justification is the interior gift of righteousness by which God makes us righteous.

• Faith is the beginning of justification, but works must attend faith throughout the process of justification.

• No one can have complete assurance of salvation.

Fifth & Sixth Theological LociSacraments & Church

Fifth & Sixth Theological Loci: Sacraments & the ChurchBe familiar with:

• The traditional Seven Sacraments (in the West)• Sacramental models in history• The “Ecclesiologies” that correspond to Sacramental models

Sacraments as spiritual participation in the mystery of salvation• Based on Pauline influence/interpretation• Emphasis of the Patristic era (100-800 AD)• Sacraments are initiatory (Baptism) and integrative (Holy

Communion)• The spiritual realm is very real, yet invisible; made visible in

the Sacraments• Ecclesiology: “Community of the Spirit,” characterized by

communalism (koinonia), mysticism

Apophatic/Speculative: e.g. early church (catechumenate)Apophatic/Affective: e.g. Desert Fathers; Ceonobites

“Community of the Spirit”

Church

World

Sacraments as conduits or channels of grace• Augustine’s definition: “Outward and visible signs of an inward

and invisible grace”• Emphasis on REAL presence• Medieval period (up to Vatican 2 for RCC)• Sacraments are salvific (personally)• Sacraments are enumerated (7), thus fostering a limited view

of the realm of the spiritual• Ecclesiology: Church as “Institution of Grace”; hospital for

soulsKataphatic/Speculative: e.g. Western scholasticism

Kataphatic/Affective: e.g. Western monasticism (Catherine of Sienna, Francis of Assisi)

“Institution of Grace”

Worrld

Christendom“Kingdom of

Christ”

Church defined as Hierarchical institution

Sacraments as “Visible Words”• Historical example: Lutheran Reformation • The sacraments are the Word of God visibly offered; just as

the Bible is the Word of God audibly offered• Reduced to two or three: those signs that offer justification• Ecclesiology: Church as “Herald of Grace,” proclaiming God’s

justifying grace and/or God’s kingdom

Kataphatic/Speculative: e.g. Confessionalism Apophatic/Speculative: e.g. Moralism; Liberationism

“Herald of Grace”

Worrld

God’s Reign

Church as Herald ofThe Gospel

Sacraments as signs and seals of a covenant relationship• Historical example: John Calvin and Reformed thought• Covenantal signs (legal, juridical)• Assist and augment faith, both of individual and community• What is offered to the receiver is truly received by faith

(virtually, spiritually)• Ecclesiology: “Community of the Covenant,” the means of

realizing God’s elective decree

Kataphatic/Speculative: e.g. Covenant TheologyKataphatic/Affective: e.g. Great Awakening

“Community of the Covenant”

Worrld

The World

NON-ELECT

Invisible Church

(True Elect)

Visible Church

Sacraments as memorials• Historical Example: Radical Reformation (Anabaptists)• Metaphorical, symbolic; aids to memory• Denial of “real” presence or grace (grace is a disposition, not a

quasi-substance)• Effect of sacraments: evocative, emotive – they stir up faith

(which saves)• Ecclesiology: “Community of True Believers”

Kataphatic/Affective: e.g. Revivalism; HolinessApophatic /Affective: e.g. Quakerism (no sacraments!)

“Community of True Believers”

Worrld

The World

NON-BELIEVERS

True Believers

Sacraments as creaturely participation in the divine life• Postmodern Period (seen in many churches)• All created things ultimately point to the Creator• Sacraments are celebratory, vocational, holistic, ecological, call

to action, advance of the kingdom of Christ• No interest in enumerating, though “traditional” sacraments

still have primary role in the Church• Ecclesiology: “Community of the Advancing Kingdom”

Apophatic/Speculative: Apophatic/Affective

“Community of the Advancing Kingdom”

Worrld

The World

Body of Christ

Monastic Ideal• Affective (Apophatic or Kataphatic)

ChurchM

Ecclesiola in Ecclesia• “Church within the Church”• Theology Type D: Holiness• Spirituality: “Charismatic”

Sectarian• Differences in doctrine or practice are so significant that a

separate, parallel life is formed outside of the main Body of recognized Christians

• Usually Type A

Seventh Theological LocusEschatology

What is Eschatology?• The study of the four last things: death, judgment, heaven,

hell• Futurology: concerned with what are believed to be the final

events of history or the ultimate destiny of humanity, usually revealed by prophetic oracle or sacred text

• A specifically Christian eschatology deals with:• Death and the nature of the intermediate state (individual

eschatology)• The resurrection of the dead and eternal destiny of humanity

(corporate eschatology)• The events or historical realities that anticipate (or that constitute

the necessary conditions for) the parousia or Second Coming of Jesus, which for Christians is the ultimate (or penultimate) event prior to the consummation of human history

Nicene Creed (325, 381)

…[Christ] ascended into heaven, and sits on the right hand of the Father; and He shall come again, with glory, to judge the quick and the dead; whose kingdom shall have no end. …I look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.

The Four Creedal affirmations

1) Christ’s present reign from heaven (ascension and session “at the right hand of the Father”)

2) Christ’s return (or “Second Coming”) to judge the living and the dead

3) Christ’s kingdom “without end”4) The resurrection and consummation (“world to come,” i.e.

the promise of a new heavens and earth)

What is not affirmed or articulated in the Creeds 1) The existence or nature of a conscious or unconscious

intermediate state between death and the resurrection• Purgatory? Heaven? So-called “Soul Sleep”?

2) The ultimate destiny of the damned• Hell (Conditional or unconditional)? Annihilation? Apocatastasis

(universalism)?3) A series of events or occurrences (“signs”) that point to,

announce, or are associated with the Parousia4) The nature of the “millennium” or kingdom of God

Primitive Christian EschatologyEschatological beliefs gleaned from the New Testament

Primitive Christian Eschatology: Christ’s Resurrection is the “first fruits” of an anticipated General ResurrectionBut in fact Christ has been raised from the dead, the first fruits of those who have died. For since death came through a human being, the resurrection of the dead has also come through a human being; for as all die in Adam, so all will be made alive in Christ. [1 Corinthians 15:20-22]

• The general resurrection of the dead is a belief shared with first century Judaism

• However, in Christian theology, Christ is not merely the first resurrected human being, but is rather the ground and certainty of the resurrection

Primitive Christian Eschatology: The Resurrection will take place at the Parousia

But we do not want you to be uninformed, brothers and sisters, about those who have died, so that you may not grieve as others do who have no hope. For since we believe that Jesus died and rose again, even so, through Jesus, God will bring with him those who have died. For this we declare to you by the word of the Lord, that we who are alive, who are left until the coming of the Lord, will by no means precede those who have died. For the Lord himself, with a cry of command, with the archangel’s call and with the sound of God’s trumpet, will descend from heaven, and the dead in Christ will rise first. Then we who are alive, who are left, will be caught up in the clouds together with them to meet the Lord in the air; and so we will be with the Lord for ever. Therefore encourage one another with these words. [1 Thessalonians 4:13-18]

Primitive Christian Eschatology: The Parousia marks the final judgment of humankind

When the Son of Man comes in his glory, and all the angels with him, then he will sit on the throne of his glory. All the nations will be gathered before him, and he will separate people one from another as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats, and he will put the sheep at his right hand and the goats at the left. [Matthew 25:31-33]

Primitive Christian Eschatology: The Parousia was an imminent event expected within a generation or so from the time of ChristFrom the fig tree learn its lesson: as soon as its branch becomes tender and puts forth its leaves, you know that summer is near. So also, when you see all these things, you know that he is near, at the very gates. Truly I tell you, this generation will not pass away until all these things have taken place. Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will not pass away. But about that day and hour no one knows, neither the angels of heaven, nor the Son, but only the Father. [Matthew 24:32-36]

• The Olivet Discourse (Matthew 24, Mark 13, Luke 21) associate the Parousia with Christ’s prediction of the destruction of the Temple and Fall of Jerusalem in AD 70

As to the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ and our being gathered together to him, we beg you, brothers and sisters, not to be quickly shaken in mind or alarmed, either by spirit or by word or by letter, as though from us, to the effect that the day of the Lord is already here. Let no one deceive you in any way; for that day will not come unless the rebellion comes first and the lawless one is revealed, the one destined for destruction. He opposes and exalts himself above every so-called god or object of worship, so that he takes his seat in the temple of God, declaring himself to be God… And then the lawless one will be revealed, whom the Lord Jesus will destroy with the breath of his mouth, annihilating him by the manifestation of his coming. [2 Thessalonians 2:1-4, 8]

Primitive Christian Eschatology: The Parousia is associated with a “dissolution” and “re-creation” of the heavens and earthBut do not ignore this one fact, beloved, that with the Lord one day is like a thousand years, and a thousand years are like one day. The Lord is not slow about his promise, as some think of slowness, but is patient with you, not wanting any to perish, but all to come to repentance. But the day of the Lord will come like a thief, and then the heavens will pass away with a loud noise, and the elements will be dissolved with fire, and the earth and everything that is done on it will be disclosed. [2 Peter 3:8-10]

Then I saw a new heaven and a new earth; for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away, and the sea was no more. And I saw the holy city, the new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband. [Revelation 21:1-2]

The Millennium of Revelation 20

Then I saw an angel coming down from heaven, holding in his hand the key to the bottomless pit and a great chain. He seized the dragon, that ancient serpent, who is the Devil and Satan, and bound him for a thousand years, and threw him into the pit, and locked and sealed it over him, so that he would deceive the nations no more, until the thousand years were ended. After that he must be let out for a little while.Then I saw thrones, and those seated on them were given authority to judge. I also saw the souls of those who had been beheaded for their testimony to Jesus and for the word of God. They had not worshipped the beast or its image and had not received its mark on their foreheads or their hands. They came to life and reigned with Christ for a thousand years. (The rest of the dead did not come to life until the thousand years were ended.) This is the first resurrection. Blessed and holy are those who share in the first resurrection. Over these the second death has no power, but they will be priests of God and of Christ, and they will reign with him for a thousand years.[Revelation 20:1-6]

When the thousand years are ended, Satan will be released from his prison and will come out to deceive the nations at the four corners of the earth, Gog and Magog, in order to gather them for battle; they are as numerous as the sands of the sea. They marched up over the breadth of the earth and surrounded the camp of the saints and the beloved city. And fire came down from heaven and consumed them. And the devil who had deceived them was thrown into the lake of fire and sulphur, where the beast and the false prophet were, and they will be tormented day and night for ever and ever. Then I saw a great white throne and the one who sat on it; the earth and the heaven fled from his presence, and no place was found for them. And I saw the dead, great and small, standing before the throne, and books were opened. Also another book was opened, the book of life. And the dead were judged according to their works, as recorded in the books. And the sea gave up the dead that were in it, Death and Hades gave up the dead that were in them, and all were judged according to what they had done. Then Death and Hades were thrown into the lake of fire. This is the second death, the lake of fire; and anyone whose name was not found written in the book of life was thrown into the lake of fire. [Revelation 20:8-14]

Summary of Revelation Chapter 20’s “Millennium”:• Satan (the ancient dragon) bound for 1000 years; cannot

deceive the nations during this time• Thrones set up for the martyrs; they “came to life and reigned

with Christ” for a thousand years – the first resurrection • Satan released that he might deceive the nations once more;

final battle at “Jerusalem” and the “camp of saints”• Final judgment of Satan; thrown into the lake of fire for

eternal torment• Judgment seat is set up; a “second resurrection” of all the

dead who are judged according to their deeds• Destruction of death and Hades; the “second death”; all who

are not in the Book of Life thrown into the lake of fire

What Christians make of the Millennium of Revelation 20Millennial Views

Chiliasm or “Pre-Millennialism”• Chiliasm: from the Greek word for “thousand”• Pre-Millennialism: the belief that the Parousia will occur

before the millennium predicted in Revelation 20• Characteristics of the Millennium:

• A literal period of 1000 years• A “Golden Age” or “Messianic Age”• Christ and those who take part in the “first resurrection” (a

physical resurrection) will reign on earth during this time• After 1000 years, a final apostasy will occur• Judgment, general resurrection• Final Consummation: New Heavens, New Earth (Rev. 21)

“Post-Millennialism”• The belief that the Parousia will occur after the “millennium”

of Revelation 20, which is identified as the period between the victory of Christ’s resurrection and a final (but brief) apostasy which immediately precedes the return of Christ

• Characteristics of the Millennium:• Not a literal 1000 years; metaphorical image of Church Age• Period marked by increasing progress and spread of the Gospel

until the whole earth is “filled with the knowledge of the Lord”• Christ and the saints reign from heaven; “living and reigning”

with Christ constitutes the “first resurrection”• Christ’s return will bring about the general resurrection and

judgment according to one’s deeds• Final Consummation: New Heavens and New Earth

“A-Millennialism”• Literally “no millennium”; like Post-Millennialism, this view holds

identifies the millennium in Revelation 20 as the present age between the resurrection and the end of the age, after which the Parousia will take place; unlike Post-Millennialism, the reign of Christ is an exclusively spiritual reign in the hearts of believers (or the church) with no necessary historical effects

• Characteristics of the Millennium:• Metaphorical period, not literal 1000 years• Christ’s reign is in the heart of believers and heaven is the reward for

martyrdom; the Gospel may advance on earth to a great extent, but there is no earthly claim to the kingdom of Christ

• The first resurrection is “regeneration”• Christ’s return brings about the general resurrection and judgment

according to one’s deeds; final consummation in the New Heavens and New Earth

DifferencesPre-Mill A-Mill Post-Mill

Before Parousia After Parousia After Parousia

Literal thousand years Metaphor – 1000 years Metaphor – 1000 years

Golden Age of Christ’s Rule

Christ’s kingdom is exclusively internal

Christ’s kingdom is internal and external

First & Second Resurrections – physical

First Resurrection – regenerationSecond Resurrection - physical

First Resurrection – reign of saints with ChristSecond Resurrection - physical

Changing positions over time• New Testament Age: imminent return, associated with

destruction of Jerusalem• Early Church (100-500): Prevailing view is Chiliasm

• Papias, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Irenaeus• Medieval Period (500-1500): Prevailing view is A- or Post-

Millennial (difficult to distinguish)• Early proponent: Augustine, who changed from Chiliasm due to the

excesses of those who were expecting the return of Christ in 500; another expectation in 1000

• Reformation Period: 1500-1800: Prevailing view is A-Millennial• Modern Period: 1800-2000: Revival of Chiliasm in modern

Dispensational movement; optimism on mission field and Great Awakenings prompts a more confident Post-Millennialism that is recognizably distinct from A-Millennialism

Eschatology & CultureA Theology of God’s Kingdom and Mission in the World

H. Richard Niebuhr’s models of “Christ and Culture” 1. Christ against Culture2. Christ of Culture3. Christ above Culture4. Christ and Culture in Paradox5. Christ transforming Culture

Christ against Culture• Antithetical View; encouraging opposition, total separation,

and hostility towards culture• The values of the Kingdom of God stand in opposition to the

values of the world• Early proponent: Tertullian “What has Athens to do with

Jerusalem?”• Extreme example – Anabaptists: stressed the need to form

alternative Christian communities; refused to have anything to do with secular power or authority

• Fundamentalism is the most prevalent form of this model in American society

Christ of Culture• Attempt to bring culture and Christianity together, regardless

of differences; world-affirming• Early manifestation: “Christendom”• Amalgamation of culture and Christian ideals: German Liberal

Protestantism• Liberal Protestantism was inspired by a vision of a humanity

which was ascending upwards into new realms of progress and prosperity; the doctrine of evolution (as opposed to the scientific theory of biological descent via natural selection) gave new vitality to this belief

• Liberation, process, and feminist theologies are current examples of a similar trend

Christ above Culture• Synthetic View of Christ and Culture• Culture is neither inherently good or bad; God orders and

sustains culture as the best way to address the problem of sin• Cannot separate human culture from the grace of God; culture

is only possible through grace; Thomas Aquinas: “Grace does not abolish nature, but perfect it.”

• Both human rebellion against God and the love of God by the redeemed are expressed in cultural terms

• Conversely, cannot separate the experience of grace from cultural activity, for how can humans express love for the unseen God without serving the visible brother in human society?

Example (Christ above Culture)• Thomas Aquinas and the High Middle Ages• Separate realms for Philosophy (Reason) and Theology (Faith)

The Synthesis of Philosophy and Theology

Philosophy• Operates on the basis of

autonomous principles• Can be known apart

from revelation• Seek truth by a strict

rational method• Does not seek to prove

what the mind cannot understand

Theology• Starts its inquiry from

the basis of revealed truths

• Revealed truths are those which cannot be known by reason alone

• Revealed truths are more certain than those of reason (which may err)

Christ and Culture in Paradox • Similar to the “Christ above Culture” – but a more Dualist

approach• Christians belong to “two realms” (the spiritual and the

temporal), which must live in tension of fulfilling both• Christian community must expect to live in a degree of tension

in the world• Example: Martin Luther’s doctrine of the “Two Kingdoms” –

the “kingdom of the world” and the “kingdom of God”• Two kingdoms coexist and overlap, with the result of

Christians trying to live in one kingdom while obeying the authority of another

Christ transforming Culture• Conversionist position; hopeful view toward culture• Attempt to convert the values and goals of secular culture into

the service of the kingdom of God • Affirm God’s dramatic interaction with men in historical

human events • Human culture can be “a transformed human life in and to the

glory of God” through the grace of God • In practice, work in culture for its betterment, because God

ultimately had some hand in human creativity, and it was good (and can be good); also work for its transformation because while there is sin in culture, it is not all lost, there is hope through Christ, for redemption of cultures

• John Calvin, John Wesley, Jonathan Edwards