Copyright (c) Nadim EL GHEZAL Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License".

Nadim El Ghezal Frederic Sztrakos

English humour

First part : theoretical analysis

Autonomous project supervised by Petra Norroy – June 2003

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« Comment reconnaître l'humour anglais de l'humour français? L'humour anglais souligne avec amertume et désespoir l'absurdité du monde. L'humour français se rit de ma belle-mère. »

Pierre Desproges, Les Etrangers

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Table of contents

I – Etymology of humour...................................... 4 II - Evolution of English humour .......................... 5 III - The Art of humour ......................................... 8 IV - Bibliography ................................................ 12

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I – Etymology of humour

The Latin word humor is a medical term which has a translation in every “civilized” language

after the 16th century. It refers to the humours’ theory, inherited from the Greeks: Hippocrates

of Cos spoke about four basic temperaments. Each temperament corresponded to the

predominance of one humour in the human body. Later, Galien explained all the diseases with

the imbalance of the humours, which became the foundation of the medicine of the middle-

ages.

At the end of the middle-ages, lots of European scientists criticized Galien’s theory. The

controversies made the word humour so fashionable that, at the beginning of the 17th century,

it became a word without precise meaning, usually used to say commonplaces, just like

“climate” or “Kafkaesque” nowadays. A character of Shakespeare’s Henry V, Nym, uses it as

a hackneyed meaningless expression.

In the 18th century, the content of the word became so important that it reached the breaking

point of its semantic resistance. A new concept appeared: the ancestor of what we call humour

today. Since, an aesthetic of English humour would be constructed and theorized in English

literature. Under the influence of England, most European languages adopted the modern

signification of the word humour during the 18th century: however, the French Academy

would not accept it until 1932.

The meaning of humour has been evolving in different ways according to the countries. This

is why it is so difficult to give it a definition. English humour is unique to England, like

endemic species, and its originality may be owed to the insularity of the country.

Ben Jonson, a contemporary writer of Shakespeare, uses the theory of humours to give a

definition of humour very close to madness1. Jonson keeps the idea of temperament behind

the word humour, but discovers a comical utilisation mode of humours. As Louis Cazamian

said, Jonson has the merit of being behind the semantic association of comic and humour: “He

destroyed any feeling which could always survive that the physical servitude implied by the

medical meaning of humour is a tragic element, better adapted to the pathos than to the

comedy. He gave to the word and to the notion a sharply funny atmosphere. The association

so concluded between the humours and the laugh was full of consequences, much more than

he could imagine.”2 What Jonson means with humour can be found sometimes in Moliere’s

plays; yet nobody outside of England has formulated it like Jonson, who will not be read in

1 Ben Jonson, Every Man Out of his Humour 2 Louis Cazamian, The development of English humor

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France before the middle of the 18th century. That’s why humour stays on its island for 150

years: it is adopted by English people who make of it a tradition, a national feature, felt as

coming from the depth of the English soul.

II - Evolution of English humour

In Every Man Out of his Humour, Ben Jonson uses characters who are out of step with their

humour (temperament) because of the drama : they have a double nature. This duality is a

continuous reality in the story of ideas in England : sad optimism and happy pessimism are

the main ingredients of English people. The French Anglicist Floris Delattre interprets it as

the result of the mixing of French enjoyment for life and Anglo-Saxon morosity during the

Norman invasion3. This interpretation is a little fanciful but it is amazing to notice how this

duality of temperament marks the history of England: contradictory mights are epitomized by

jonsonian humours, men who concentrate all the excentricity of a political and moral attitude,

like in a comedy.

The natural and smiling consciousness of our own character among others, of our excentricity,

is precisely the sense of humour. Stephen Potter calls this ability “the English Reflex”, which

is part of the social life frame in his opinion4. The sense of humour is one of the most valuable

goods English education has passed on. However, it quickly became the luxury of upper-

classes, a recognition sign for real gentlemen. It became so conformist that it finally broke

loose from the humour: the sense of humour, prized by the Victorian society, was still

humourous but no longer all the humour. The humour is rather a conscious excentricity than a

conventional attitude: this is a reflex which less corresponds to the Victorian bourgeoisie than

to the humanist thought. We can find in Sir Thomas More’s Utopia this revealing sentence:

“while I am trying to heal the other’s madness, I must be as foolish as them.”5

The real sense of humour is devoid of any influence of class: a character of Shakespeare’s

Henry IV, Falstaff, gives its infallible recipe in a remarkable expression: “a jest with a sad

brow.”6 A great illustration of this golden rule can be found in Robert Burton’s Anatomy of

Melancholy : this big philosophical and medical treaty about melancholy is a perfect hoax. On

the medical level, the book is not without interest; however, under its imperturbable gravity, it

3 Floris Delattre, La Naissance de l’humour dans la vieille Angleterre, p.289-307 4 Stephen Potter, Sense of Humour, p.4 5 Thomas More, Utopia (édition anglaise de 1869), p.65 6 Shakespeare, Henry V, acte V, sc.1

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reveals preposterous cutting remarks. For instance, as Burton says Jesuits are often physicians

in addition to their priesthood, he adds: “now, there are lots of them who are, permissu

superiorum, surgeon, go-between, souteneur, obstetrician.”7

In the 18th century, the intuition of Shakespeare gives rise to an aesthetic of humour: lots of

definitions are given for it. Henry Home writes, for instance: “the real sense of humour is the

characteristic of the author who seems to be earnest but paints things in a color that provokes

gaiety and laugh8.” Then, humour has nothing to do with its original meaning, nor with an

excentricity: it becomes a voluntary construction, either in writing or in character9, always

with a comical intention (which was not obvious before.) The humorist is born : I mean, the

man we call today “a man with a sense of humour.”

It must be clear that the sense of humour is devoid of any malice, at least concerning the

English use (it can be different concerning what we call “sens de l’humour” in French.) This

is the main difference with wit, which can hurt someone. Wit consists in a concise collection

of ideas, a quick and smart mode of expression, dear to the upper-class. Freud explains10 that

the wit answers to the “principle of pleasure”. It is a game which cheats the critical reason and

social laws in order to find again the euphoria of Childhood, where our instinct was not

bullied: witticisms express the deepest human instincts (sexuality, violence) with the

precautions the social censorship requires. The wit is also a social need, especially developed

during the Victorian austerity, because it was a way to breathe and satisfy human instincts,

and a tool for social recognition. Wit makes fun of someone, humour of everyone. Yet, it is

not always so easy to distinguish humour and wit: there is sometimes a sense of humour in a

witticism, for instance in this sentence from Bradley: “Everything happens if you can wait for

it; death for one.” There is some wit in the concision of the sentence but no ad hominem

argument, no violence against someone or something: just a calm acceptance of the absurdity

of life, which is very close to Home’s definition of humour. Anyway, the “wit/humour

debate” will never end because wit is part of humour. Congreve understood it very well when

he noticed that “witted people have not necessary any sense of humour, but all the humorists

have some wit.”

In the 19th century, the most important renewal arived with the nonsense: in fact, it is a return

to the jonsonian excentricity. With nonsense, the English sense of humour reaches the

paroxysm of its madness. According to Albert Laffay, nonsense would be “the sense of 7 Robert Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy (éd. 1845), p.14 8 Lord Kames (Home), Elements of Criticism, p.161 9 this distinction belongs to Home himself 10 Sigmund Freud, Der Witz und seine Beziehung zum Unbewussten (1905)

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humour applied to words”11. Nonsense may be the English awareness of the irrational part of

the language. Effectively, there is not such an important cult of punning on words in English

literature, contrary to French litterature. Indeed, limericks often play with words and some

English writers have tried to explore the language: in Tristram Shandy, Laurence Sterne even

trys to explore the typographic language and makes a systematic violation of the literary

conventions. But shandyism was never imitated and, in English literature, play on language

seem to have rarely chosen the way of punning on words. The play on words, called “false

wit” by Addison or “wind of brain” by Victor Hugo, was equally despised in both countries,

but often used in France despite that: maybe because French literature will not discover

nonsense before the end of the 19th century, with Jarry, Fourest and Allais.

Anyway, whatever the link may be , it is obvious between humour and nonsense, it is obvious

that nonsense is a humour. The sense of humour consists in describing reality while shaming

to believe it is ideal, and the nonsense in developing meaningless reasoning while shaming to

believe it is logical. The overuse of logic is to nonsense what gravity is to humour. The

mathematician Charles Dodgson, alias Lewis Carroll, is one of the greatest nonsensical

writers. His famous character Alice is the expression of his rational anxiety. Alice’s

adventures are the perfect illustration of nonsense : it would be a pity not to quote a passage:

“ Alice went timidly up to the door and knocked.

“There’s no sort of use in knocking,” said the Footman, “and that for two

reasons. First because I’m on the same side of the door as you are; secondly,

because they’re making such a noise inside, no one could possibly hear you.” And

certainly there was a most extraordinary noise going on within – a constant

howling and sneezing, and every now and then a great crash, as if a dish or kettle

had been broken to pieces.

“Please, then,“ said Alice, “how am I to get in?”

“There might be some sense in your knocking,” the Footman went on, without

attending to her, “if we had the door between us. For instance, if you were inside,

you might knock, and I could let you out, you know.” He was looking up into the

sky all the time he was speaking, and this Alice thought decidedly uncivil. “But

perhaps he can’t help it,” she said to herself; “his eyes are so very nearly at the

top of his head. But at any rate he might answer questions.

11 Albert Laffay, Anatomie de l’humour et du nonsense, p.137

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-How am I to get in?” she repeated, aloud. “

To put the history of English humour in a nutshell, I would say it has a longer maturity than

any other and a real originality in its forms of expression (due to the history of English society

and literature.) Nowadays, the sense of humour doesn’t escape globalisation and it is not so

easy to see the difference between two native senses of humour. However the English one has

kept a philosophical melancholy, a smiling darkness, a taste for self-mockery which are

characteristic of it. “The sense of humour is the politeness of despair”: if this sentence of

Chris Marker should define only one sense of humour, it would be the English one. It is

nevertheless the case that no one has succeeded in giving an exhaustive definition of humour,

as noticed by Robert Escarpit12 before failing himself.

III - The Art of humour

When Falstaff speaks of a jest with a sad brow, what should we understand? Does he mean “a

manner of being”, social behaviour, which would imply that the sense of humour is linked to

affectivity? Or is it an intellectual sense of humour, a rhetorical mechanism to egg people to

laugh? In Falstaff’s case, it is obviously a way to get the prince amused, but it is not

inconsistent with the existence of an “emotionalist humour”13. For example, Burton is rather

emotionalist when he exorcizes his melancholy with a touch of irony against the Jesuits

buried in a serious account. However, most analyses of humour are intellectualist. According

to Louis Cazamian, humour is a break in judgement;14 he makes the distinction between four

kinds of judgement: moral, emotional, comical and philosophical. Amoral humour is often

immoral, in Wilde’s plays for instance: Lady Bracknell doesn’t hesitate to ask the orphan Jack

for precise details about his painful state and even expects him “to make an effort to produce

at any rate one parent, of either sex.”15 Humour “with breaking of emotional judgement” is

very common too. It consists in ignoring the sensibility of the public, as does scatology. The

break in comical judgement occurs when we play with the contrast between the gravity of the

tone and the comedy of the subject. Lastly, humour “with breaking of philosophical

judgement” corresponds to a loss of the faculty of generalization, an infantilization deleting

12 Robert Escarpit, L’Humour, p.5 13 Robert Escarpit speaks about an “emotionalist” and an “intellectualist” humour 14 Louis Cazamian, op. cit. 15 Oscar Wilde, The Importance of being earnest (1895)

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ability of abstraction, like Sterne in Tristram Shandy. The intellectualist theory of L.

Cazamian is infortunately too reducing. As we saw previously, the sense of humour is very

kindly, contrary to other forms of comedy: the man with a sense of humor mocks himself

rather than the others. So, the sense of humour is a tolerant and pityful laugh : it is not only

mechanic, it is linked to affectivity.

Swift’s Modest Proposal is a famous instance of the English sense of humour which was even

quoted in L’Encyclopédie in 1778. This text was written in order to alert the English opinion

to the intolerable misery in Ireland. With the tone of a political economy professor, Swift

explains how to avoid famine by eating children:

“I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London,

that a young healthy child, well nursed, is at a year old a most delicious,

nourishing, and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I

make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee or a ragout […]

I have reckoned, upon a medium, that a child just born will weigh twelve pounds,

and in a solar year, if tolerably nursed, will increase to twenty-eight pounds.

I grant this food will be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for landlords,

who, as they have already devoured most of the parents, seem to have the best

title to the children […]

I have already computed the charge of nursing a beggar’s child (in which list I

reckon all cottagers, labourers, and four fifths of the farmers) to be about two

shilling per annum, rags included; and I believe no gentleman would repine to

give ten shillings for the carcase of a good fat child, which, as I have said, will

make four dishes of excellent nutritive meat, when he has only some particular

friend or his own family to dine with him. Thus the squire will learn to be a good

landlord, and grow popular among his tenants; the mother will have eight

shillings neat profit, and be fit for work till she produces another child […]

I profess, in the sincerity of my heart, that I have not the least personal interest in

endeavouring to promote this necessary work, having no other motive than the

public goog of my country, by advancing our trade, providing for infants,

relieving the poor, and giving some pleasure to the rich. I have no children by

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which I can propose to get a single penny; the youngest being nine years old, and

my wife past chidbearing.16”

The basis of this implacable demonstration is, as says R. Escarpit, a “suspended obviousness”:

we do not eat children. When we ignore this principle, the whole vision of the world Swift

proposes becomes nonsensical. If a cannibal had read this Proposal, he would have found it

very interesting and not funny at all… As we explained before, The sense of humour

corresponds to a civilisation, a cultural frame: it is often national, but it can be characteristic

of very small groups (cf private jokes.) Besides, the public’s nationality is not the only code

necessary to understanding the sense of humour. It requires the support of the auditory: the

public must absolutely understand it is ironical. We can find Swift’s Proposal very humorous

while we do not laugh when we read Mein Kampf. Therefore, if we were convinced that Swift

was a mad economist that really considered eating children, we would be shocked. That is

why the sense of humour requires clarity about the good intention of which it is animated. It is

the role of the “conniving wink.” The bigger the effect, the more the humorous gap will be

obvious. The wink can also consist in an implicit reference, or in the use of wit, as used by

Swift in his Proposal when he points the egoism of landlords in the second paragraph.

So, humour consists in an anomaly in front of a background of normality, and it is always

made of tensions and reassurances, even if the reassurances become rarer when the humour is

darker. This is indissociable from the idea that humour is a national matter, as we have kept

repeating for a while. Yet, does there not exist a superior sense of humour which would

transcend all the cultural frames? I think it could be the case of this sense of humour which

laughs at the nonsense of life: this exorcism of the existential anxiety has nothing to do with

national particularisms. It belongs to the whole of humanity. This sense of humour is well

illustrated by Samuel Beckett: he is like a man sentenced to death who laughs at his

executioner, or asks for the “sterilized guillotine” which is evoked in Beckett’s Murphy17. The

book begins with a typical grinding and resigned irony: “the sun shone, having no alternative,

on the nothing new.” In Beckett’s work, the nonsense is consubstantial to the existence. This

universal humour Beckett epitomizes is of course associated to a necessary impassiveness,

and also to a nearly scientific meticulousness. The taste for details is not humorous in itself,

but is a universal amplifier of humour. Dahl18 uses meticulous description in his novels so that

16 Jonathan Swift, Modest Proposal for Preventing the Children of Poor People in Ireland from being a Burden to their Parents or Country, and for Making Them Beneficial to the Public (1729) 17 Samuel Beckett, Murphy (1938), p.120 18 Roald Dahl is an English writer, very famous -and often despised…- because of his books for children and erotic stories. He is not so famous as a novelist, yet he is a great one.

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his twist ends are more effective. In Three Men in a boat, Jerome K. Jerome uses four

chapters purely for the preparation of the three protagonists’ travel: they try to foresee

everything. Will they take or not a liquid paraffin stove? Is it necessary, on the other hand, to

add some cheese in the supply food? Each of these questions causes the most serious debates

in the world and the arguments are put in perspective with unusual anecdotes…

In the cinema, the Monty Pythons epitomize this absolute and superior sense of humour which

laughs at the nonsense of life and speaks about swallows, sex, religion or death with the same

British impassiveness. The movie called Meaning of life shows a very acute consciousness of

this nonsense: the title itself is a masterpiece of irony and provocation.

In the second part of this work, the instance of the Monty Pythons will illustrate this complex

alchemy of impassivity, breaks in judgements, irony, connivance and meticulousness, which

is the art of humour : in fact, a philosophical behaviour very close to Descartes’ methodical

doubt, since there is the same will to avoid conformism.

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IV - Bibliography J. Addison, The Spectator n°35, Londres, 10 avril 1971. S. Beckett, Murphy, Londres, Pan Books, 1973 E. Bruyas & D. Jamet, « Rires – Glossaire », L’Aleph n°4, 1998-2003, http://aleph.chez.tiscali.fr/quatre/ L. Cazamian, « Pourquoi nous ne pouvons définir l’humour », Revue Germanique, 2e année, Paris, Alcan, 1906 ; repris dans L’Humour anglais, Paris, Didier, 1942. L. Cazamian, The Development of English Humor, Durham (North Carolina), Duke University Press, 1952. F. Delattre, « La naissance de l’humour dans la vieille Angleterre », Revue anglo-américaine, Paris, 1927. V. Effenberg, « Vivoj humoru v modernism umeni », Divadlo n°6, Prague, juin 1965. R. Escarpit, L’Humour, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, coll. « Que sais-je ? », 1960. S. Freud, Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious, Londres, Penguin Books, 1991. A. Kazerouni, Kritik über Humor, technische Studien und Schulsysteme in Allgemeinen, Berlin, Meckern Verlag, 1968. A. Laffay, Anatomie de l’humour et du nonsense, Paris, Masson et Cie, coll. « Documents de Littérature et de Civilisation anglaises », 1970. D. Noguez, L’Arc-en-ciel des humours, Paris, Librairie Générale Française, coll. « Livre de Poche », 2000. J. Swift, Modest Proposal for Preventing the Children of Poor People in Ireland from being a Burden to their Parents or Country, and for Making Them Beneficial to the Public, 1729.

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