Theoretical Basis for Public RelationsTheoretical Basis for Public Relations

Theory In Public RelationsTheory In Public Relations

There is no single theory that covers There is no single theory that covers all public relations and all public relations and communication.communication.

We will study three theories about We will study three theories about relationships, five about cognition and relationships, five about cognition and behavior, and two about media and behavior, and two about media and communication.communication.

Why Understand Why Understand Theory?Theory?

Theories help practitioners explain Theories help practitioners explain and predict human behavior and and predict human behavior and communication and guide communication and guide organizational decision making.organizational decision making.

Let’s discuss communication theory…Let’s discuss communication theory…

How Theories Connect with How Theories Connect with Public RelationsPublic Relations

What is theory?What is theory?– A theory is a prediction of how events A theory is a prediction of how events

and actions are related.and actions are related. How do theories help the PR How do theories help the PR

practitioner?practitioner?– Using theories can make campaigns Using theories can make campaigns

and messages more effective.and messages more effective.

Theories of RelationshipsTheories of Relationships

Three cause-effect principles or Three cause-effect principles or theories can guide you in theories can guide you in understanding how organizations understanding how organizations relate to their publics.relate to their publics.– Systems theorySystems theory– Situational theorySituational theory– Conflict resolutionConflict resolution

First, the systems theory…First, the systems theory…

Systems TheorySystems Theory

Definition: The attitudes and Definition: The attitudes and actions of an organization or actions of an organization or public contribute to a cause-public contribute to a cause-effect chain reaction within their effect chain reaction within their environment.environment.– The parts of an organization and The parts of an organization and

public exist in relationship to each public exist in relationship to each other, meaning the actions of one other, meaning the actions of one part affect the others.part affect the others.

Applying Systems Theory to Applying Systems Theory to Public RelationsPublic Relations

Systems theory is especially Systems theory is especially useful to public relations because useful to public relations because it helps the practitioner manage it helps the practitioner manage the organization’s relationships. the organization’s relationships.

This theory emphasizes This theory emphasizes interdependence between an interdependence between an organization and its internal and organization and its internal and external environments.external environments.

There are two types of systems…There are two types of systems…

Closed and Open SystemsClosed and Open Systems

Closed System: Focuses on the Closed System: Focuses on the history of the organization and history of the organization and makes decisions based on past makes decisions based on past experiences.experiences.

Open System: Focuses on input Open System: Focuses on input from external publics and the from external publics and the organization’s external organization’s external environment.environment.

Situational TheorySituational Theory Definition: People will act on an issue or Definition: People will act on an issue or

situation when they believe it affects situation when they believe it affects them personally and their actions can them personally and their actions can make a difference. make a difference.

Three variables:Three variables:– Problem recognition: People must be able Problem recognition: People must be able

to see the potential of an issue to affect to see the potential of an issue to affect them personally.them personally.

– Constraint recognition: People must see Constraint recognition: People must see that they can do something about the issue.that they can do something about the issue.

– Level of involvement: People must care Level of involvement: People must care about resolving the issue.about resolving the issue.

Definition: People will act on an issue or Definition: People will act on an issue or situation when they believe it affects situation when they believe it affects them personally and their actions can them personally and their actions can make a difference. make a difference.

Three variables:Three variables:– Problem recognition: People must be able Problem recognition: People must be able

to see the potential of an issue to affect to see the potential of an issue to affect them personally.them personally.

– Constraint recognition: People must see Constraint recognition: People must see that they can do something about the issue.that they can do something about the issue.

– Level of involvement: People must care Level of involvement: People must care about resolving the issue.about resolving the issue.

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Two Benefits of Situational Two Benefits of Situational TheoryTheory

Helps the practitioner predict Helps the practitioner predict when groups will become active when groups will become active or remain apathetic.or remain apathetic.

Helps the practitioner create Helps the practitioner create communication strategies for communication strategies for specific publics.specific publics.

How to handle conflicts…How to handle conflicts…

Conflict Resolution Conflict Resolution ApproachesApproaches

Conflicts involve an individual or Conflicts involve an individual or group actively opposing another group actively opposing another because of differences in values because of differences in values and goals.and goals.

Four resolution elements:Four resolution elements:– Separate the people from the Separate the people from the

problem.problem.– Focus on interests, not positions.Focus on interests, not positions.– Invent options for mutual gain.Invent options for mutual gain.– Insist on objective criteria. Insist on objective criteria.

Cognition and BehaviorCognition and Behavior Cognitive theories deal with thought processes Cognitive theories deal with thought processes

while behavioral theories deal with action.while behavioral theories deal with action. Public relations practitioners find it useful to Public relations practitioners find it useful to

think about effects—how its client’s behavior think about effects—how its client’s behavior affects others. affects others. – Practitioners know that words and actions Practitioners know that words and actions

are given personalized meanings by are given personalized meanings by others, and sometimes that meaning is not others, and sometimes that meaning is not what was intended.what was intended.

– The practitioner seeks to influence his or The practitioner seeks to influence his or her publics’ interpretations to accurately her publics’ interpretations to accurately reflect the original intent.reflect the original intent.

Theories of Cognition and Theories of Cognition and BehaviorBehavior

To learn how humans think and To learn how humans think and behave, we will look at four behave, we will look at four theories and one model:theories and one model:– Action assembly theoryAction assembly theory– Social exchange theorySocial exchange theory– Diffusion theoryDiffusion theory– Social learning theorySocial learning theory– Elaborated likelihood modelElaborated likelihood model

How do people listen and remember?

Action Assembly TheoryAction Assembly Theory People filter information People filter information

through personal values and through personal values and expectations and selectively expectations and selectively retain what appearsretain what appears to be to be worthwhile to them.worthwhile to them.

To understand someone’s To understand someone’s behavior, we must realize behavior, we must realize that it seems logical to the that it seems logical to the person exhibiting that person exhibiting that behavior.behavior.

Three Constructs of Three Constructs of ThoughtThought

To understand behavior, we must try to To understand behavior, we must try to understand how people think. Thinking can be understand how people think. Thinking can be explained at a very abstract level by three explained at a very abstract level by three constructs: structures, content, and processes.constructs: structures, content, and processes. – Cognitive structuresCognitive structures defines the form of our defines the form of our

thought. Our expectations affect how we thought. Our expectations affect how we process and store information. process and store information.

– Cognitive contentCognitive content is the specific information, is the specific information, or details, within the basic cognitive structure.or details, within the basic cognitive structure.

– Cognitive processesCognitive processes are how we take in, are how we take in, transform and store information.transform and store information.

How Action Assembly WorksHow Action Assembly Works Through observation, people Through observation, people

begin to expect that certain begin to expect that certain actions will result in actions will result in predictable outcomespredictable outcomes in in similar situations. similar situations. – Habitual expectations Habitual expectations

are developed about are developed about such actions-outcomes.such actions-outcomes.

– Expectations can Expectations can become so strong that become so strong that you may fail to notice you may fail to notice when the actions or when the actions or outcomes vary from outcomes vary from what you expect to see.what you expect to see.

Relationship to public relations…Relationship to public relations…

A matador develops certain A matador develops certain expectations about bulls.expectations about bulls.

Application of Action Assembly Application of Action Assembly TheoryTheory

Practitioners must decide if they Practitioners must decide if they should tap into their public's existing should tap into their public's existing memory structures, or try to establish memory structures, or try to establish and reinforce entirely new ones. and reinforce entirely new ones. – Example: to avoid being ignored, put Example: to avoid being ignored, put

vital communiqués where your public vital communiqués where your public looks for important facts.looks for important facts. Such as in employee pay packets, instead Such as in employee pay packets, instead

of on the company bulletin board.of on the company bulletin board.

Social Exchange TheorySocial Exchange Theory

People People generally act generally act in ways that in ways that they assume they assume will reduce will reduce costs and costs and increase increase rewards.rewards.

DDEECCRREEAASSEE

IINNCCRREEAASSEE

Social Exchange Theory Social Exchange Theory and Decision Makingand Decision Making

PR practitioners try to make decisions based PR practitioners try to make decisions based on the assertion that people will factor in the on the assertion that people will factor in the consequences of their behavior before they consequences of their behavior before they act.act.

Practitioners must try to keep costs low and Practitioners must try to keep costs low and rewards high in everything from survey rewards high in everything from survey responses to product recalls. responses to product recalls.

When the situation is complex, the When the situation is complex, the practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to evaluate all possible decisions and with their evaluate all possible decisions and with their accompanying costs and rewards.accompanying costs and rewards.

Pay-off Matrix ExamplePay-off Matrix Example(Based on Social Exchange Theory)

Issue: Defective lot of screws

CustomersU

nit

ed P

R W

ork

s

Option 1:Recall Screws

Option 2:Ignore Defect

Find Out Doesn’t Find Out

Rewards

Rewards Rewards

N/A

CostsCosts

Costs

N/A

•Company tied with quality

•positive publicity

•money• Initial negative publicity

• lose goodwill

•negative publicity

• law suits• lose customers

•no immediate cost

•no negative publicity

•save cost of recall

Diffusion TheoryDiffusion TheoryIndividuals can be influenced to diffuse and adopt an idea by going through five stages.

Mass media is useful in the first two stages, and personal influence is needed in the next two before adoption takes place.

1. awareness1. awareness

2. interest2. interest3. evaluation3. evaluation

4. trial4. trial5. adoption5. adoption

Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory

Personal example and mass media Personal example and mass media can be important for acquiring new can be important for acquiring new behaviors.behaviors.

New behavior is likely to occur when New behavior is likely to occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.it is seen as potentially rewarding.

What makes people change their minds?What makes people change their minds?

Elaborated Likelihood ModelElaborated Likelihood Model

Describes two routes to possible Describes two routes to possible changes in human attitudes and changes in human attitudes and behavior.behavior.

Understanding these two options helps Understanding these two options helps the practitioner devise effective ways the practitioner devise effective ways to present information.to present information.

The Central RouteThe Central Route

In the Elaborated Likelihood In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the central route of Model, the central route of communicating a message communicating a message presumes that people are presumes that people are interested in your message, will interested in your message, will actively think about an issue and actively think about an issue and will evaluate it with an open will evaluate it with an open mind. mind.

But, that’s not always the case…

The Peripheral RouteThe Peripheral Route

The peripheral route is taken when a The peripheral route is taken when a receiver is deemed unable or unwilling receiver is deemed unable or unwilling to think directly about an issue.to think directly about an issue.

Hence the person is presented with Hence the person is presented with softer cues peripheral to the issue, softer cues peripheral to the issue, such as…such as…

repetition of the messagerepetition of the message credible sourcescredible sources rewards or premiumrewards or premium

A Summary of Theories A Summary of Theories about Cognition and about Cognition and

BehaviorBehavior Action Assembly Theory:Action Assembly Theory: people filter and people filter and retain data by personalized logic and habitual retain data by personalized logic and habitual expectations.expectations.

Social Exchange Theory:Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways people act in ways that reduce costs and increase rewards.that reduce costs and increase rewards.

Diffusion Theory:Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to people can be influenced to diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.

Elaborated Likelihood Model:Elaborated Likelihood Model: message message strategies choose between central/peripheral strategies choose between central/peripheral routes based on receiver’s motivation to routes based on receiver’s motivation to process.process.

Theories of Mass CommunicationTheories of Mass Communication

There are two theories that help There are two theories that help us understand the powerful us understand the powerful influence of media.influence of media.– Use and Gratification TheoryUse and Gratification Theory– Agenda Setting TheoryAgenda Setting Theory

How do we define media?How do we define media?

A Definition of MediaA Definition of Media

The English word The English word media media is a Latinis a Latin derivative of derivative of medius, medius, meaning meaning middle.middle.

For our purposes we define media as… For our purposes we define media as… – all the means of communication, as all the means of communication, as

newspapers, radio, and TV, that provide newspapers, radio, and TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc., the public with news, entertainment, etc., usually along with advertising usually along with advertising (Webster’s (Webster’s New World College Dictionary, 1999).New World College Dictionary, 1999).

– Therefore, in your writing, media is always Therefore, in your writing, media is always a plural noun.a plural noun.

Use and Gratification TheoryUse and Gratification Theory People are active users of media and People are active users of media and

choose how and when to use media choose how and when to use media based on its gratification for them.based on its gratification for them.

You should research why your You should research why your particular publics use media. Do they particular publics use media. Do they do it…do it…– as entertainmentas entertainment– to scan the environment for to scan the environment for

items that are important to themitems that are important to them– as a diversionas a diversion– as a substitute for personal as a substitute for personal

relationshipsrelationships– as a check on self-identityas a check on self-identity

The connection with PR…

Application for the PractitionerApplication for the Practitioner The use and gratification theory helps the The use and gratification theory helps the

practitioner explain media effects, or the practitioner explain media effects, or the absence of effects.absence of effects.

The practitioner must remember that just The practitioner must remember that just because a message is available doesn’t because a message is available doesn’t mean that people will pay attention and mean that people will pay attention and remember it.remember it.

Agenda Setting TheoryAgenda Setting Theory

Agenda Setting is based on Agenda Setting is based on the assumption that although the assumption that although media can’t tell people what media can’t tell people what opinion to hold about an issue, opinion to hold about an issue, it has influence on what issues it has influence on what issues people think about.people think about.

The Influence of The Influence of Agenda SettingAgenda Setting

The agenda setting The agenda setting theory proposes that theory proposes that media has the media has the potential to:potential to:

– build issue or build issue or product awarenessproduct awareness

– increase issue increase issue salience salience

How do movies, mass media, How do movies, mass media, affect what issues people discuss?affect what issues people discuss?

Useful Typologies for Useful Typologies for Understanding PRUnderstanding PR

It’s time to discuss how the It’s time to discuss how the practitioner’s role is affected by the practitioner’s role is affected by the broad application of public broad application of public relations theory.relations theory.

We’ll consider two aspects:We’ll consider two aspects:– Practitioner rolesPractitioner roles– Grunig’s model of public relationsGrunig’s model of public relations

Practitioner RolesPractitioner Roles There are two broad roles found in public relations.There are two broad roles found in public relations.

– Technician: The public relations technician is Technician: The public relations technician is largely involved in implementing the strategies largely involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a campaign through writing, and tactics of a campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, handling communication editing, taking photos, handling communication production, running special events and dealing production, running special events and dealing with the media. with the media.

– Manager: The public relations manager is a Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-solver that uses the PR process to problem-solver that uses the PR process to support and influence the goals of the support and influence the goals of the organization. organization.

There are three PR manager roles…

PR Manager RolesPR Manager Roles

– Expert Prescriber: works as a consultant to define a problem, suggest options and oversee implementation.

– Communication Facilitator: keeps two-way communication open by spanning the boundary between the organization and its environment.

– Problem-Solving Facilitator: works as a partner with senior management to identify and solve problems.

Models of Public RelationsModels of Public Relations

It is useful to examine the four public It is useful to examine the four public relations models developed by Jim relations models developed by Jim Grunig to understand the key concepts Grunig to understand the key concepts of PR and how they are related to each of PR and how they are related to each other. The models are based on the other. The models are based on the concepts of communication and concepts of communication and research.research.– Press Agentry modelPress Agentry model– Public information modelPublic information model– Two-way asymmetric modelTwo-way asymmetric model– Two-way symmetric modelTwo-way symmetric model

The four models are…

Press Agentry ModelPress Agentry Model

The practitioner holds to a one-The practitioner holds to a one-way movement of information way movement of information from the organization to its from the organization to its publics. publics. – This is the oldest form of This is the oldest form of

public relations and relies on public relations and relies on persuasion.persuasion.

In Grunig’s model, the intention In Grunig’s model, the intention often is to deceive the receiver often is to deceive the receiver on some level for manipulative on some level for manipulative purposes.purposes.

IN

FO

RM

ATI

ON

Public Information ModelPublic Information Model

Like press agentry, this is a one-Like press agentry, this is a one-way movement of information.way movement of information.

The intent is to inform rather The intent is to inform rather than press for promotion and than press for promotion and publicity. publicity. – Often used by government, Often used by government,

educational institutions and not-educational institutions and not-for-profit organizations.for-profit organizations.

Two-way Asymmetric ModelTwo-way Asymmetric Model

Organization uses social science Organization uses social science research methods to persuade in a research methods to persuade in a two-way exchange of information.two-way exchange of information.– This includes the use of surveys, This includes the use of surveys,

interviews and focus groups.interviews and focus groups.– This model is more interested in This model is more interested in

influencing publics about the influencing publics about the company than influencing the company than influencing the company.company.

Two-way Symmetric ModelTwo-way Symmetric Model

Organization seeks mutual Organization seeks mutual understanding and influence with understanding and influence with its publics rather than one-way its publics rather than one-way persuasion. persuasion.

The organization and the public The organization and the public adjust to one another. adjust to one another.

New Model of SymmetryNew Model of Symmetry

In 1995 a new model of public relations was developed. This model is known as the

Model of Symmetry as Two-Way Model of Symmetry as Two-Way PracticePractice

In this model, the publics and the organization are on a continuum. PR practitioners use both two-way symmetrical and two-way asymmetrical models as needed. The organization and the public seek to persuade each other as much as possible.

Developing Models of Public Developing Models of Public RelationsRelations

Two new models have been developed that fall into the asymmetrical category:Cultural Interpreter Model: applies to companies that do business in other countries and need to be cognizant of the language, culture, customs and political systems of those countries.Personal Influence Model: applies to practitioners who try to develop personal relationships with key individuals who can then be contacted as needed by the practitioner.

In Summary…In Summary…

Understanding the theories behind the Understanding the theories behind the behavior of an organization’s publics is behavior of an organization’s publics is essential for developing strategies and essential for developing strategies and tactics that can help an organization achieve tactics that can help an organization achieve its goals. Modern PR practitioners focus on its goals. Modern PR practitioners focus on two-way communication that values the two-way communication that values the input of the publics as much as the input of the publics as much as the persuasive power of the company.persuasive power of the company.