LEARNING

• The process by which behavior is either modified or wholly changed through experience or training.

• An ongoing process of continued adaptation to our environment, assimilation of new information and accommodation of new input to fit prior knowledge.

The Five Broad Models of

Learning

Behaviourist Model

Epistemology

• Behaviourist theory asserts that knowledge is finite.

• Learning is said to be overt, observable and measurable using empirical methods.

• This contributes to the belief that learning is observable through changes in behaviour of the learner.

Learning theory

• There is a focus on physical behaviour that can be observed, controlled and measured.

• Learning occurs where specific stimuli are introduced to the learner causing certain responses to occur which result in a change in behaviour.

• Learning usually takes place in incremental steps and can be increased through repetition and reinforcement.

• A teacher (or organization) determines what objectives the learner should achieve. (controlled stimuli.)

Methods of learning

• Stimulus response is required for learning to occur.

• The learner takes a passive role and the teacher an active role.

• The teacher determines goals, appropriate stimuli to achieve those goals and an appropriate sequence for delivery.

Theorists

Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949)

• Thorndike conducted experiments with animals that greatly influenced the development of behaviourist theory.

Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904–1990)

• Skinner was seen as a radical behaviourist and conducted a lot of research in the area of ‘operant conditioning’.

Robert Gagne (1916–2002)

• He developed his own theory on ‘Conditions of learning’ that outlines nine events of instruction that can be used to induce learning.

Humanist Model

Epistemology

• Humanist theory posits a natural desire of individuals to learn.

• Knowledge is deemed infinite with limitless possibilities.

• The potential for growth of an individual learner is considered boundless.

• Learners need to be empowered and to have control over the learning process and not to have learning ‘done’ to them.

Learning theory

• Learning is considered in relation to the learner’s unlimited potential for growth.

• The individual drives learning in an attempt to reach self-actualization.

• Learners are encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning.

• Sometimes this is described as 'facilitation learning theory' where learning is seen to occur through the educator acting as a facilitator, who establishes a supportive environment enabling learners to consider new ideas.

Methods of learning

• The learner is involved at all stages.

• The learning process addresses student needs. Self-analysis and evaluation are useful tools that enable the learner to reflect on their own experience.

• The lecturer may be seen to extract lessons from the learner with the use of inquiry to help students find out for themselves what is important.

Theorists

John Dewey (1859–1952)

• He believed human interaction with the world contributed to learning as part of a self-guided discovery.

Alexander Sutherland Neill (1883–1973)

• Neill’s primary interest lay with the education of the whole person.

Carl Rogers (1902–1987)

• He was interested in self-actualization associated with the desire to improve and develop.

Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)

• Maslow’s most notable work is associated with his theory on a hierarchy of 'basic needs' and his research on motivation.

Information Processing Model

Epistemology

• Meaningful information is easier to learn and remember.

• If a learner links relatively meaningless information with prior schema it will be easier to retain.

• Knowledge of the world is organized and reorganized until some level of understanding is acquired.

• The structure of knowledge is linked to the gradual level of development of the learner.

Learning theory

• The information processing model has its roots in cognitivist theory, although characteristics of constructivist theory are also considered.

• Cognitivism is based on the principle that learning develops through exposure of information that is logically presented, and that new information can be more easily understood when it is linked to something that is already learned.

Methods of learning

• Consideration is given to the current understanding of the subject matter.

• Thereafter structures may be put in place to support the learning process that will enable the learner to relate new information to their current understanding and, then, through the reorganization and processing of this knowledge form new insights.

Theorists

Kurt Lewin (1890–1947)

• He believed that democracy was an important aspect of group dynamics but that the process could not be enforced.

Jean Piaget (1896–1980)

• Piaget conducted considerable research in the area of child development. Involved students promotes cognitive development.

Jerome Bruner (1915–present)

• He believes that instruction should take cognizance of student experience in order to ensure a state of readiness towards learning.

David Ausubel (1918–present)

• Ausubel is best known for his development of advance organizers to assist student learning.

Activity Model

Epistemology

• The activity model adopts the belief that learning is a process of constructing knowledge.

• Activist learning empowers learners to articulate themselves in a way that is relevant to their lives and their roles as agents of change.

• The nature of knowledge is constructed and based on experience.

Learning theory

• Students are no longer passive receptacles of information and knowledge in traditional classroom settings.

• Stems from constructivism.

• Based on the principle of the learner questioning their current view of knowledge and acquiring new knowledge that allows a new understanding to be formed.

• It incorporates social interaction.

• This is done through an active learning process that is driven by a particular task or activity.

Methods of learning

• The methods adopted are completely dependent on the context of the particular activity, which in turn influences the collaborative process of identifying and exploring the sequence of learning.

Theorists

Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896–1934)

• Vygotsky argued that social interaction was an important component in the development of student learning.

Albert Bandura (1925–present)

• Emphasizes the importance of learning from others and not relying solely on the individual’s own practices.

David Boud (contemporary)

• Boud’s research focuses on experience-based learning, adult learning and development of professional practice.

Michael Eraut (contemporary)

• Eraut’s research is primarily concerned with learning in the workplace, continuing professional development and the actual learning that takes place in the context of work.

Situated Learning Model

Epistemology

• This model stresses the integral link between context, social environment and learning.

• Learning is a function of the activity, context and culture in which it occurs.

• Therefore knowledge is meaningful when it is learned in an authentic context and situation.

• The emphasis is on providing meaningful and relevant learning experiences in authentic contexts.

Learning theory

• As with the activity model, situated learning also adopts constructivist principles.

• Social interaction is a critical component of situated learning: learners become involved in a ‘community of practice’ that embodies certain beliefs and behaviours.

• Participatory learning theory claims that knowledge is not a thing or set of descriptions, nor a collection of facts and rules that can be transmitted to the learner but rather that knowledge is constructed by the learner.

Methods of learning

• Given the dynamics of the situated learning model, learning will always take place within a given context and therefore this gives any arising tasks or situation a meaningful purpose.

• Procedures and structures emerge out of the specific situation.

Theorists

Jean Lave (contemporary)

• She believes that learning is more natural when it takes place in the environment where it is supposed to occur, and that learning in the classroom is abstract.

Etienne Wenger (contemporary)

• Wenger has partnered Lave in research studies of situated learning.

Stephen Billet (contemporary)

• Billet’s main research area focuses on learning at work.

Paul Hager (contemporary)

• Hager’s background lies in vocational training and professional development of teachers and trainers.

They are sets of conjectures and hypotheses that explain the process of learning or how learning takes place.

1. Behavioral Learning Theories or Associative Learning Theories

• Prefer to concentrate on actual behavior

• Conclusions based on observations of external manifestations of learning.

1.1 Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov

Believes that individual learns when a previously neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until the neutral stimulus evokes a conditioned response.

Includes the following

1. Stimulus Generalization - a process by which the conditioned response transfer to other stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus

2. Discrimination - a process by which one learns not to respond to similar stimuli in an identical manner because of previous experiences.

3. Extinction - the process by which a conditioned response is lost.

1.2 Edward Thorndike's Connectionism

Puts more emphasis on the response of the organism not limiting himself to the association between the stimulus and the response.

Involves the Three Major Laws of Learning

• Law of Readiness - readiness is an important condition of learning. A learner may be satisfied or frustrated depending on his/her stage of readiness. The learner should be biologically prepared.

• Law of Exercise - explains that any connection is strengthened in proportion to the number of times it occurs and in proportion to the average vigor and duration of the connection. Practice alone is not enough for improvement

• Law of Effect - when an organism's response is accompanied or followed by a satisfactory state, the strength of the connection is increased. If an annoying state accompanies or follows the response, the strength of the connection is decreased. Rewards, successes or positive reinforcement further learning, while punishment, failure, or negative experiences hinder it.

1.3 Burrhus Skinner's Reinforcement and Operant Conditioning

Stresses the consequence of behavior in order to learn.

Proved that reinforcement is a powerful tool in shaping and controlling behavior in and out of the classroom.

Classifies Reinforcements into• Verbal – praise, encouragement• Physical - touches, pats, hugs• Non-Verbal - smiles, winks, warm looks• Activity - being allowed to play games. Listen to

music, etc.• Token - points, chips, stars• Consumable - cookies

2. Albert Bandura's Social Learning TheoryIs also called observational learning theory

States that learning takes place when one person observes and then imitates the behavior of others.

Stresses the Importance of Models because the observer-learner may:

• Acquire new responses;

• Strengthen or weaken every existing response;

• Cause the reappearance of responses that have been apparently forgotten.

Involves Four Phases

1. Attention - mere exposure does not ensure acquisition of behavior. Observer must attend and recognize the distinctive features of the model's response.

2. Retention - reproduction of the desired behavior Implies that student symbolically retains that observed behavior.

3. Motor Reproduction Process - after observation, have students demonstrate as soon as possible. Correct behavior can be reinforced while incorrect ones are altered.

4. Motivational Process - although observer acquires and retains ability to perform the modeled behavior, there will be no overt performance unless conditions are favorable.

3. Cognitive Learning TheoriesPrefer to concentrate on analyzing cognitive process.

Believe In the non-observable behavior.

3.1 David Ausubel's Meaningful Reception Learning Theory• Concerned with how students learn large

amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting.

• Meaningful learning results when Information Is acquired by linking the new information in the learner's own cognitive structure.

• Meaningful learning occurs when new experiences are related to what a learner already knows.

• A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers (different from overviews and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas) which help to link new learning material with existing related ideas

• Is different from discovery learning, since• Reception Learning - is concerned about

resenting the Ideas to be learned to the learner in a well organized fashion, while

• Discovery Learning - focuses on having identify the key ideas to be learned by themselves and work out to store this information on their own.

3.2 Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory (Inquiry Method)• Implies learning by discovering the

solution

• Contends that students should be given a wide variety of examples of certain facts and Information and encourage them to discover the answer or the underlying rules or principles.

• An approach to Instruction through which students interact with their environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies or performing experiments.

• Emphasizes that students should learn to recognize a problem characterize what a solution would like, search for relevant information, develop a solution strategy and execute the chosen strategy

• Believes that: “You can't teach people everything they need to know. The best you can do is to position them where they can find what they need to know when they need to know it" - Seymour Papert

You can teach a student a lesson for a day; but if you can teach

him to learn by creating curiosity, he will continue the learning process as long as he lives.

Clay P. Bedford

Theories of Learning and Curriculum Design

Key Positionalities and their Relationships

Tony Cunningham, Julie Gannon, Mary Kavanagh, John Greene, Louise Reddy, Laurence Whitson

Professional Education

Principles and Theories of Learning and Motivation

Prof. Aurelia T. Estrada

Prof. Marivilla Lydia B. Aggarao

pp. 45-55

JOSE R. MIÑANOMAIE-AS

• The definitions of intelligence are numerous depending on the context of a given situation.

• Sternberg defined intelligence as “a person’s ability to adapt to the environment and to learn from experiences”.

• In Sternberg’s research these elements were used in defining intelligence:

(a) higher-level abilities

(b) ability to learn

(c) adaptation to meet the demands of the environment effectively.

• In order to possess the abilities to solve problems, individuals must have the cognitive abilities, the motivation, and the abilities to apply these behaviors to adapt and make changes.

• According to Sternberg (1997), a person’s ability to infer a process could differ between verbal and quantitative or other representational domains (Sternberg & Gardner, 1983).

• How an individual utilizes intelligence to solve problems can be explained by some of the major theories of intelligence.

• One of the most important theories of intelligence, Daniel Goleman’s emotional intelligence, assists in understanding how individuals control how they learn.

• This theory best explains how humans must be able to understand the origins of these feelings before they act so that the most intelligent decisions can be made.

• Sternberg also adds that, with age, individuals learn to make the best of the abilities that remain intact while learning to compensate for the abilities they are losing.

• As individuals think and behave differently, this difference allows for enriched interactions between individuals.

• It is argued, by McClellan and Conti (2008), that humans possess a number of distinct intelligences that is beyond verbal and logical abilities that appear in different skills:• Linguistic• Logical-mathematical• Musical• Bodily-kinesthetic• Naturalistic• Interpersonal• Intrapersonal• Existential

• All of these construct the beauty of multiple intelligence (as cited by Gardner, 1983).

• Moran et al. (2006) elucidate that all individuals possess each of the skills to some extent but differ in the degree of skill and in their combinations

• Moran et al. (2006) define multiple intelligence as “…the ability to solve problems or devise products that are of significance in a particular cultural setting…”

• Each learner’s intelligence profile consists of a combination of relative strengths and weaknesses which allow for problem solving skill to “approach a situation that requires a goal to be met and locate the appropriate route to that goal” (Garner, 1993)

• As intelligence generally refers to more than just “adapting to the environment”, successful intelligence distinguishes among adapting, shaping, and selecting of an environment (Sternberg, 2005).

• Over the course of one’s life-time, environmental conditions change significantly.

• To survive these changes, one needs to continuously adapt, which is a key skill of intelligence.

• Humans constantly use real personal interactions to understand and apply intelligence in the world.

• Since individuals change their locations, it would be most impractical to retain an individual in one place so that training in communication skills can be employed at a particular location.

• The most appropriate solution, suggested by Persson, Laaksolahti and Lonnqvist (2002), is to use computers so that social intelligence can help improve communication skills.

• Practical intelligence involves individuals applying their abilities to the kinds of problems that confront them in daily life, such as on the job or in the home.

• Practical intelligence involves applying the components of intelligence to experience so as to:

a) adapt to,

b) shape, and,

c) select environments.

• People differ in their balance of adaptation, shaping, and selection, and in the competence with which they balance among the three possible courses of action.

• Much of our work on practical intelligence has centered on the concept of tacit knowledge, defined as what one needs to know in order to work effectively in an environment that one is not explicitly taught and that often is not even verbalized.

• We typically have measured tacit knowledge using work-related problems that present problems one might encounter on the job.

• In a typical tacit-knowledge problem, people are asked to read a story about a problem someone faces and to rate, for each statement in a set of statements, how adequate a solution the statement represents.

• We have found, first, that practical intelligence as embodied in tacit knowledge increases with experience, but it is profiting from experience, rather than experience per se, that results in increases in scores.

• Also, scores on tacit-knowledge tests do not correlate with scores on conventional tests of intelligence, whether the measures used are single-score measures of multiple-ability batteries.

• Despite the lack of correlation of practical intelligence with conventional measures, the scores on tacit knowledge tests predict performance on the job as well as or better than do conventional psychometric intelligence tests.

• To adapt to or make positive changes in one’s life and environment, intelligence is required to ensure that it is understood what is to be changed and how to do so.

• As every individual differs in their intellect, the theory of multiple intelligence explains that every human being is able to interact and learn from each other.

• As we learn from our emotional intelligence and other’s multiple intelligence, we gain more education and learn how to use successful intelligence to adapt and make changes to the world.

Cherniss, C., Extein, M., Goleman, D., & Weissberg, R. P., (2006). Emotional intelligence: What does the research really indicate? Educational Psychologist, 41(4), 239-245. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?hid

McClellan, J., & Conti, G. (2008). Identifying the multiple intelligences. Journal of Adult Education, 37(1). 13-36. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ891071.pdf

Moran, S., Kornhaber, M., & Gardner, H. (2006, September). Orchestrating multiple intelligences. Educational Leadership, 64(1). 23-27. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov

O’Neil, J. (1996, Sept ember). On emotional intelligence: A conversation with Daniel Goleman. Educational Leadership. 6-11.

Persson, P., Laaksolahti, J., & Lonnqvist, P. (2002). Understanding social intelligence. Socially intelligent agents: Creating relationships with computers and robots. 21-28. Retrieved from https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://kolxo3.tiera.ru/Cs_Computer%2520

Sternberg, R. J. (1997, October). The concept of intelligence and its role in lifelong learning and success. American Psychologist, 52(10), 1030-1037.

Sternberg, R. J. (2005). The theory of successful intelligence. International Journal of Psychology. 39(2), 189-202. Retrieved from http://www.psicorip.org/Resumos/PerPRIP/RIP036a0?RIP03921.pdf

There are no great limits to growth because there are no limits of human intelligence, imagination, and wonder.

Ronald Reagan