Theories of Learning Chapter 10

Theories of LearningChapter 10

Key KnowledgeClassical Conditioning as informed by Ivan Pavlov: roles of neutral, unconditioned, conditioning stimuli unconditioned and conditioned responses. Theories of LearningMost learning theories are based on studies involving observations of learning experiments of animals in laboratory experiments.Throughout these studies psychologists have identified many principles of learning that apply to humans also.

Collectively the theories indicate that there are many ways that we learn and that different types of learning may share common elements.

Also that how we learn can vary from situation to situation, and from individual to individual.

We may also shift from different types of learning depending on personal factors, what we are learning and the context in which learning is occurring.

ConditioningOne of the most basic learning processes involves associating or connecting two events that occur close together.

Conditioning: Is the process of learning associations between a stimulus in the environment (one event) and a behavioural response.

For example: Associating a smile with friendly behaviour.The term conditioning is used interchangeably with learning but conditioning is more to do with the learning process. That is HOW the learning occurs.

Types of LearningThe two main types of conditioning on which psychologists have tended to focus on:Classical Conditioning&Operant ConditioningClassical Conditioning-Ivan Pavlov

Classical Conditioning, was discovered accidentally by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936).

Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who discovered this phenomenon while doing research on digestion.

His research was aimed at better understanding the digestive patterns in dogs.Pavlovs Classical Conditioning in DogsDuring his experiments, he would put meat powder in the mouths of dogs who had tubes inserted into various organs to measure bodily responses. What he discovered was that the dogs began to salivate before the meat powder was presented to them.Then, the dogs began to salivate as soon as the person feeding them would enter the room. He soon began to gain interest in this phenomenon and abandoned his digestion research in favour of his now famous Classical Conditioning study.

Watch Pavlovs Classical Conditioning Experiment.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CpoLxEN54ho

Classical ConditioningPavlov observed that the dogs started to salivate when they heard the rattling sound of the spoon against the container as the food was being prepared.

These unintentional observations intrigued Pavlov and he decided to conduct further experiments to investigate the phenomenon.

Pavlovs subsequent experiments provided clear evidence of a type of learning that was based on the repeated association of two different stimuli.

Classical ConditioningStimulus: is any event that elicits (produces) a response from an organism.

Response: Is a reaction by an organism to a stimulus.

In Pavlovs experiment the stimulus of food initially produced the response of salivation.

Eventually though, the sight or sound of the technician became the stimulus that produces the salivation response.

This process whereby the dog learned to associate the sight or sound of the technician with food, is in essence the process of classical conditioning. Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning: refers to a type of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli.

Learning is only said to have occurred when a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not previously produce.

Classical ConditioningIn later experiments, Pavlov varied the stimulus that had been conditioned to test whether it would still produce the same response (salivation).

He found that the salivation response could be brought on after repeated associations of the meat powder with a range of different stimuli such as a tug on the hind leg, a bell, the musical tone of a tuning fork, a light or even the sight of a circle. Watch The Office Classical Conditioning in action.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WfZfMIHwSkU

Key Elements of Classical ConditioningFour key elements are used to describe the process of classical conditioning. These are know as the:

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)Unconditioned Response (UCR) Conditioned Stimulus (CS)Conditioned Response (CR)

Key Elements of Classical ConditioningThe unconditioned stimulus (UCS): Is any stimulus that consistently produces a particular naturally occurring, automatic response.

In Pavlovs experiment the UCS was the food.

The unconditioned response (UCR) : Is the response the occurs automatically when the UCS is presented. A UCR is a reflexive, involuntary response that is predictively caused by a UCS.

In Pavlovs experiment the UCR was the salivation of the dogs to the presence of food.

Key Elements of Classical ConditioningThe conditioned stimulus (CS): Is the stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning process and does not normally produce the unconditioned response.

However, through repeated association with the UCS, the CS triggers a very similar response to that caused by the UCS.

In Pavlovs experiment the CS could be a number of different things: the technician's presence, a tug on the hind leg, a bell, the musical tone of a tuning fork, a light or the sight of a circle.

Key Elements in Classical ConditioningThe Conditioned Response (CR): Is the learned response that is produced by the CS.

The CR occurs after the CS has been associated with the UCS. The behaviour involved in a CR is very similar to that of the UCR, but it triggered by the CS alone.

Pavlovs dogs displayed a CR (salivation) only when they began to salivate to a CS.

When the dog responded to a CS such as a sound of a bell, classical conditioning has taken place because salivation would not be a usual response to the sound of a bell.

Two & a Half Men Pavlovs Barhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xEDxRCa_wfc&NR=1 How this works in real life The findings support the idea that we develop responses to certain stimuli that are not naturally occurring.

How does your dog know its time for a walk?Why do certain songs have meaning to different people?

Why do people have phobias?Why cant I ever, ever, ever eat that again?

Why do we buy brand name products?

ALL of these things are learned through classical conditioning!Advertisers are conditioning you to buy their product!

Advertising & Classical Conditioning

Coca Cola Commercialhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EnUKurl7Fog&feature=related

Advertising and Classical ConditioningUCS The Simpsons, popular, famous cartoon associated with humour and happinessUCR Feeling good.

NS CokeCS CokeCR Feeling Good about coke / desire to buy coke

We learn to associate coke with positive images. Coke becomes meaningful and we are more likely to purchase it over other drinks

Classical Conditioning hard wires your brain fMRI researchWhen subjects drank un branded cola only the taste sensing parts of the brain become activeWhen subjects could see coke labelling the hippocampus (memory) and parts of the frontal lobe (emotions etc) also became activeRecognition and positive reaction to Coke has been hard wired into the brain

UCS Images of attractive, fit, cool, famous, successful, tough peopleUCR Desire to achieve status of models

NS NikeCS NikeCR Desire to achieve status of models /purchase Nike

We learn to associate Nike with being fit, cool, fun, high status, successful thus we are more likely to purchase Nike over Big W brand because we do not associate Big W with any of these ideasAdvertising and Classical ConditioningChoose one of the following brands below and identify the elements of classical conditioning involved with advertising. ( UCR, UCR, CS & CR).

Why buy brand names?Because we are conditioned to see tangible value that is not there! Physically the products are often made from the same materials, sometimes even in the same factory (footwear and clothing especially).The value we perceive is emotional!Advertising adds emotional value to a product.

Key Processes in classical conditioningAcquisition: Is the overall process during which an organism learns to associate two events (the CS and the UCS).

During Acquisition the presentation of the CS and the UCS occur close together in time and always in the same sequence.

The duration of the acquisition stage is usually measured by the number of trials it takes for the CR to be learned.

One of the important considerations in classical conditioning is the timing of the CS and UCS pairing. Pavlov found that a very short time between presentations of the two stimuli was most effective.

The end of the acquisition stage has occurred when the CS alone produces the CR. Conditioning has then taken place.Key Processes in Classical ConditioningExtinction: Is the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of the CR if the UCS is no longer presented.

Extinction is said to have occurred when a CR no longer occurs following presentation of the CS.For example: Pavlovs dogs eventually stopped salavating(CR) in response to the bell (CS) presented alone after a number of trials in which the food (UCS) did not follow the sound of the bell.

Extinction rates vary, a simple behaviour is more easy to extinguish whereas a complex behaviour is more difficult to extinguish. Key processes in Classical ConditioningSpontaneous Recovery: Is the reappearance of a CR when the CS is presented, following a rest period (that is when no CS is presented) after the CR appears to have been extinguished.

Spontaneous Recovery does not always occur and when it does it is often short lived.

The CR also tends to be weaker than it was originally during acquisition.

If the extinction procedure is repeated several times, eventually the CR will disappear altogether and spontaneous recovery will not occur. Key Processes in Classical ConditioningStimulus Generalisation: Is the tendency for another stimulus- one that is similar to the original CS to produce a response that is similar but not necessarily identical to the CR.

The greater the similarity between stimuli the greater the possibility that a generalisation will occur.

If stimulus generalisation to the sound of a bell occurred for Pavlovs dogs, the dog might also salivate to the ringing of a door bell. However, the amount of saliva produced by the dog would be less than the amount produced by the original conditioning bell.

Another example is a child who was bitten by a dog now fears all dogs not just pit bull terriers

Key Processes in Classical ConditioningStimulus Discrimination: Occurs when a person or animal responds to the CS only, but not to any other stimulus that is similar to the CS.

Examples:

Your dog gets excited when you put your Nike runners on, not any other white shoes.

Consumers only buy coke, not any cola in red and white packaging

You only buy billabong, not the rip off Surfalong brand

Key KnowledgeThe extent to which ethical principles were applied to classical research investigations into learning including John Watsons Little Albert experiment.

Applications of classical conditioning: graduate exposure, aversion therapy and flooding Applications of Classical ConditioningClassical conditioning is considered to be a relatively simple type of learning.

Behaviours that have been classically conditioned may occur so automatically that they appear to be reflexive. In fact Pavlov used the term conditioned reflex to describe what has become conditioned response.

Conditioned responses are reflexive in the sense that they are automatic, involuntary and involve little conscious awareness on the part of the organism.

Applications of Classical ConditioningClassical conditioning can account for the learning of many simple responses in everyday life. SSuch as:Learning to pack up your books to the sound of the bell.To answer the phone when it rings

However, classical conditioning can also account for more complex behaviours such as fears and phobias. Sometimes an emotional reaction such as fear or anger to a specific stimulus is learnt through classical conditioning. Conditioned Emotional ResponseA conditioned emotional response is an emotional reaction that usually occurs when the autonomic nervous system produces a response to a stimulus that did not previously trigger that response.

For example: Many people cringe at the sound of a dentists drill. This is due to the association made between the sound and the potential pain.The sound has become the CS. While through association with the unconditioned stimulus (the drilling of the tooth). Produces a conditioned emotional response (fear).

While it can be beneficial to form a fear of something that could harm you. It may be psychologically harmful to form a fear about something that does not normally harm you.Watsons Little Albert ExperimentCan Fears be learnt?

Yes they can!

Watsons Little Albert Experiment One of the most controversial and best-known studies that used classical conditioning to intentionally condition an emotional response was first reported in the 1920 by American Psychologist John B Watson.The research was designed to test the belief that fears can be acquired through classical conditioning.

Watsons Little Albert ExperimentWatson wanted to demonstrate experimentally that humans undergo the same process in acquiring fears as animals do.The research participants was Albert B (little Albert). The 11 month old son of a woman who worked at the same clinic as Watson.

Watch the following YouTube clip on Watsons Experiment in Little Albert

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0FKZAYt77ZM&feature=related Watsons Little Albert ExperimentThe experiments were held irregularly over a 17-day period. Eventually, Alberts mother left her job at the clinic. Watson claimed that they were denied the opportunity to remove the conditioned emotional responses.

Other Psychologists, have disputed this, stating that Watson knew a month in advance that Alberts mother would be leaving, yet took no steps to extinguish Alberts fear response.

It was believed that Alberts mother was not fully aware that her son was being used in experiments on conditioning fear responses.Watsons Little Albert ExperimentThe issue of informed consent is not referred to in the original journal article reporting the experiment, so a judgement about this ethical consideration cannot be made.

It is possible that Albert was more vulnerable to psychological harm as a result of the experimental procedure than another infant might have been.

Albert was subjected to severe anxiety and distress, and the experimenters made no attempt to end the experiment. Watsons Little Albert Experiment- Breeched EthicsThe experiment was designed to condition an emotional response of fear in the participant. It could therefore be assumed that the participants would be emotionally traumatised, and may have suffered lasting psychological harm as a result.

Watsons failed to seek permission from Alberts mother, therefore no informed consent was obtained or withdrawal rights was explained.

Watson did not extinguish the conditioned fear response, and was probably left with an irrational fear of anything white and fluffy.

Watsons Little Albert Experiment- Breeched EthicsWatson failed to follow the ethical principles of confidentiality. He published results of his experiment without ensuring that little Albert would remain anonymous.

Experiments using any human participant in this way would be considered unethical today and would not be permitted.

Key KnowledgeApplications of classical conditioning, graduated exposure, aversion therapy and flooding.

Trial and Error Learning as informed by Edward Lee Thorndikes puzzle box experiment. Applications of classical conditioningClassical conditioning has a number of real-life applications. Applications of classical conditioningGraduatedexposureAversion therapyPresenting successive approximations of theCS until the CS itself does not produce the CR.The inhibition or discouragement ofundesirable behaviourby pairing it with anaversive stimulus.Flooding

Treatment methodfor fears/phobias byextinguishing theCR.45Applications of Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning principles can be applied to a variety of situations including those involved in behaviour therapy.

During behaviour therapy classical conditioning principles are used to treat phobias and other mental health issues in which fear and/or anxiety play a prominent part. Graduated ExposureGraduated Exposure : Involves gradually presenting successive approximations of the CS until the CS itself does not produce the CR.

It is a type of behavioural therapy used to reduce a phobia, involving exposing a person to their phobia causing stimuli or stimulus or situation very slowly, by degrees, under relaxed conditions until the fear response is extinguished.

Graduated exposure has been successfully used to eliminate a range of disorders involving fear and anxiety responses. Such as fear of flying, fear of heights and public speaking anxiety. teach the person a relaxation strategybreak down the CS into a sequence arranged from least to most anxiety-producing (a fear hierarchy)gradually begin to extinguish the CR by pairing items in the hierarchy with relaxation by working upward through items in the hierarchy.Graduated exposure

The steps in graduated exposure are:48visual imagery (imaginal exposure)

real-life exposure (in vivo exposure)

virtual reality technology.

Graduated exposureSource: Macmillan AustraliaGraduated exposure can be done by using:The best results appear to occur using real life graduated exposures.

49The process of graduated exposureGraduated exposureBefore conditioningDuringconditioningAfterconditioningUCSUCRUCSUCRCSCRRelaxationtrainingRelaxation Relaxation training PLUSSuccessiveapproximationsof thePhobic stimulusRelaxation Phobic stimulusRelaxation50In pairs describe the process by which someone with a fear of enclosed spaces (e.g. using a lift) could overcome it using graduated exposure.

Graduated exposureSource: Image Source

51An anxiety-producing situation such as using a lift could be broken down into a sequence of steps that could include:standing and looking at lifts (watching them come and go)standing in a stationary lift for increasing periods of time with a support person standing in a stationary lift alone for increasing periods of timetravelling up or down one floor with a support person then gradually extending the number of floors travelled, first with a support person, then alone with the support person waiting outside the lift, and finally travelling on a lift alone without a support person nearby.

The person would be using their relaxation strategies at every step of the hierarchy and progression would not be made to the next step until the person successfully manages the previous step.

Flooding involves bringing the client into direct contact with the CS and keeping them in contact with it until the CR is extinguished.

The principle underlying this technique is that anxiety will be experienced at a very high level and then gradually diminish, thereby enabling the client to experience the CS in theabsence of the CR. Flooding

52 In pairs describe the process by which someone with a fear of heights could overcome it using flooding.

FloodingSource: Image Source

53The person with a fear of heights would be taken to the very top of the Rialto Towers and made to stand near the highest window and look down.The person would be made to stand there until their anxiety completely subsides:(this could take a few hours and the person would be extremely distressed. It is expected that they would at first experience very intense and high levels of anxiety but that over time their anxiety levels would gradually diminish. Aversion therapy inhibits (blocks) or discourages undesirable behaviour by pairing it with an aversive stimulus.

It has been used successfully to treat many different behaviours such as alcoholism, drug dependence, nail biting, gambling, inappropriate sexual behaviours.

What is aversion therapy?What kinds of aversive stimuli could be used in aversion therapy? Source: Up the Resolution

54Aversive stimuli could take the form of:electric shocksfoul odoursnasty tastesloud noisespainnausea-inducing drugs

The idea is that alcohol, which was originally neutral with respect to nausea, becomes the conditioned stimulus.

Aversion TherapyThe aim of aversion therapy is to suppress or weaken the undesirable behaviour.

For example: To stop finger nail biting, your fingernails could be painted with a foul tasting substance. The association between the unwanted behaviour (nail biting) and the unpleasant taste is learned very quickly.

Before long, even the thought of biting your nails ( & the unpleasant consequence) will be a strong enough deterrent for you to avoid the undesirable behaviour.

Aversion therapy was used in Anthony Burgesss book A Clockwork Orange (1962), which was adapted as a film by Stanley Kubrick in 1971.

Alex de Large is offered freedom from a long jail sentence if he is prepared to undergo aversion therapy for his violence:

Aversion therapy at the moviesClockwork OrangeAlex is given a drug that induces extreme nausea and anxiety he is strapped into a seat before a large screen and his eyes are clamped open (so that he cannot close them)he is forced to watch an unrelenting series of graphically violent films whilst feeling increasingly sick and panicky.

Alex learns to associate violence with the drug induced nausea thus making him aversive to violence

UCS DrugUCR NauseaNS ViolenceCS ViolenceCR Nausea

56Aversion TherapySometimes used to treat alcohol abuse or smoking:

UCS DrugUCR Nausea NS AlcoholCS AlcoholCR nausea

The alcoholic learns to associate alcohol with the drug induced nausea experience

One of the limitations found with aversion therapy is that the learned aversion often fails to generalise to situations other than those which the learning took place. People may experience the aversion only when they know that the USC (nausea-inducing drug) is going to coincide with alcohol consumption. Trial and error learningThis type of learning occurs when an organism attempts to learn by undertaking a number of alternative behaviours (trials) and makes a number of incorrect choices (errors) before the desired behaviour is learned.

Trial and error learning involves a desire to reach some sort of goal (motivation) by the learner. It also involves trying a number of different behaviours (exploration). And when the correct response is finally achieved, it is rewarding for the organism (reinforcement).

Watch the following YouTube Clip on Trial and Error leaning: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zeL_StmgSNE

Trial and Error LearningReceiving a reward of some kind leads to repeated performance of the correct response, strengthening the association between the behaviour and its outcome.

Once learned, the behaviour will usually be performed quickly and with fewer errors.Trial and error learning is also referred to as instrumental learning and more recently operant learning.

Thorndikes puzzle box experimentsThe first studies of trial & error learning were conducted in the early 1900s by Edward Thorndike, an American Psychologist was studying animal intelligence and used cats as subjects in a puzzle box experiment.

Thorndike put a hungry cat in a puzzle box & placed a piece of fish outside the box. In order to get the food, the cat had to learn to operate a latch to release a door on the side of the box. To measure learning in this situation Thorndike recorded how long it took the cat on consecutive trials, to escape from the box.

Thorndikes puzzle box experimentWatch the following YouTube on Thorndikes experiment:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BDujDOLre-8

The first time the cat escaped, the lever was pushed down after a number of different behaviours. Initially the cat tried numerous ineffective strategies (trial and error).

Eventually the cat accidently pushed the lever and the door was opened and was rewarded with its release and with the fish.

When the cat was put back in the box it went through another series of incorrect responses before eventually pushing the lever again.

The cat become progressively quicker at escaping from the box. Once the connection was formed (after about 7 trials), the cat would press the lever deliberately as soon as it was placed in the box.

Thorndikes Puzzle Box ExperimentsThe results of experiments like these led Thorndike to describe his law of effect.

The law of effect states that if a behaviour is followed by satisfying consequences it is strengthened (likely to occur again), whereas behaviours followed by unpleasant consequences are weakened (less likely to occur).

Thorndike used the term instrumental learning to refer to the process through which an organism learns the association between behaviour and its consequences in the puzzle box experiments, the cat became instrumental in obtaining its release to get to the food.