Theories of learningC&I 393

Mathematics Methods I

Learning TheoryQ: How do people learn?

A: Nobody really knows.

But here are a few theories:Behaviorism

Cognitivism

Sociocultural Theory

Social Constructivism

Multiple Intelligences

What is Learning? A process that brings together cognitive,

emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Illeris, 2004).

The way in which information is absorbed,

processed, and retained.

Ileris, K (April 2001). "Transformative Learning in the Perspective of a Comprehensive Learning Theory". Journal of Transformative Education (2): 79–89.

Behaviorism

Confined to observable and measurable behavior

Classical Conditioning - Pavlov

Operant Conditioning – Skinner

Paris, N.A. Kennesaw State University- M.Ed in Ad Ed program

5

Assumptions of Behaviorism All species of animals learn in similar (equal

ways with the same guiding principles To understand learning processes, focus on

stimulus and responses Internal process should be excluded from

the study of learning. Learning is evidenced by a behavior

change

Paris, N.A. Kennesaw State University- M.Ed in Ad Ed program

6

Assumptions of Behaviorism (cont.)

Organisms are blank slates at birth Learning is a result of environmental events

Behaviorism Classical Conditioning – Pavlov

S R

A stimulus is presented in order to get a response:

Behaviorism Classical Conditioning - Pavlov

S US

UR

CS US

CR

Behaviorism Operant Conditioning - Skinner

The response is made first, then reinforcement follows.

Behaviorism in the Classroom Rewards and

punishments

Responsibility for student learning rests squarely with the teacher

Lecture-based, highly structured

Benny (Erlwanger, 2004)

Stimulus

Response

Paris, N.A. Kennesaw State University- M.Ed in Ad Ed program

12

Your turn! With a partner, list two examples of

operant conditioning that you have used or that you see regularly in your classroom or school.

Try to think of a “behavioral” example and an “instructional or academic” example.

Critiques of Behaviorism

Does not account for processes taking place in the mind that cannot be observed

Advocates for passive student learning in a teacher-centric environment

One size fits all

Knowledge itself is given and absolute

Programmed instruction & teacher-proofing

Learning Theory

Cognitive Learning Theory

Cognitivism

Grew in response to Behaviorism

Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols

Learning is the process of connecting symbols in a meaningful & memorable way

Studies focused on the mental processes that facilitate symbol connection

Cognitive Learning Theory

Discovery Learning - Jerome Bruner

Meaningful Verbal Learning - David Ausubel

Cognitive Learning Theory Discovery Learning

1. Bruner said anybody can learn anything at any age, provided it is stated in terms they can understand.

Cognitive Learning Theory Discovery Learning

2. Powerful Concepts (not isolated facts)

a. Transfer to many different situationsb. Only possible through Discovery Learningc. Confront the learner with problems and help

them find solutions. Do not present sequenced materials.

Examples My 10th grade Chemistry class Identify this green powder:

Cognitive Learning Theory Meaningful Verbal Learning

Advance Organizers:

New material is presented in a

systematic way, and is connected to

existing cognitive structures in a

meaningful way.

Meaningful Verbal Learning

Cognitive Learning Theory

When learners have difficulty with new

material, go back to the concrete anchors

(Advance Organizers). Provide a Discovery

approach, and they’ll learn.

Cognitivism in the Classroom Inquiry-oriented

projects

Opportunities for the testing of hypotheses

Curiosity encouraged

Staged scaffolding

Critiques of Cognitivism Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given

and absolute

Input – Process – Output model is mechanistic and deterministic

Does not account enough for individuality

Little emphasis on affective characteristics

Learning Theory Situative Cognition

What is Situative Cognition? Also known as Situated, Sociohistoric or

Sociocultural.

Learning is tied to the context or situation, students’ culture shapes their cognitive development

All learning is highly social, rather than individual.

A Little on Learning Two main elements of learning in

situated cognition:

1. All learning is social and happens within a community through participation.

2. Learning is tied to its situation or context.

…and more on Learning Collins (1988) defines situated learning as

“the notion of learning knowledge and skills in contexts that reflect the way the knowledge will be useful in real life”

Examples of situated learning: Brazilian street kids’ math when making sales

on the street

Transfer According to situated cognition,

knowledge does not transfer between tasks.

Teaching through abstraction is of little use since real learning occurs in authentic situations only Ex: New police academy grads being told by

experienced cops “now forget everything you learned”.

More on Transfer If learning is being able to participate in a

community of practice, the issue of transfer can be problematic. Does transfer apply to new practices within a

community (e.g. new math problems) or to practices outside the community (e.g. work) ?

Many resources and supports in one community don’t carry over to a different community.

Situative Cognition in Education Knowing how to participate in social

practices has a large role in schools. Classroom activities are often organized as

social groups and children participate in these groups with varying degrees of success.

Much of students’ identities are formed by the groups they participate in at school, e.g. sports, chess, journalism, A.P. classes ...

Situative Cognition in Education A push for “authentic learning” where

students learn content matter that is situated in a real world context (ex: Resnick article) Students are encouraged to think and work like

scientists, historians, mathematicians, etc. Authentic does not necessarily mean “real world”

but rather tasks that are “true” to the domain

Encouraging classrooms to create a community of learning that promotes inquiry and development of identities.

Critiques of Situative Cognition While the theory takes into account the

social, the individual tends to be ignored. Transfer is problematic since knowledge

doesn’t transfer between tasks. The theory can’t account for learning

through abstraction or generalization (most school learning)

Learning Theory Social Constructivism

Social Constructivism

Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism, framed around metacognition

Knowledge is actively constructed

Learning is… A search for meaning by the learner Contextualized An inherently social activity Dialogic and recursive The responsibility of the learner

Lev Vygotsky Social Learning

Zone of Proximal Development

Lev Vygotsky (1896 –1933)

A Russian psychologist, Vygotsky worked in the post-revolutionary Soviet Union to rebuild psychology alongMarxist lines. He worked to apply psychology to the problems confronting the new state, especially in the field of ed psych. Vygotsky’s writings were banned in the Soviet Union in 1936 and only became available in the west in the 1960’s at which point they became highly influential.

Vygotsky Continued

Cognitive development depends on interactions with people and tools.

Tools are real: pens, paper, computers; or symbols: language, math systems, signs

...and more Vygotsky Vygotsky developed the theory of the

Zone of proximal development (ZPD) The ZPD is the distance between where a

learner is at developmentally on their own and where a learner could be with the help of a more knowledgeable other.

A more knowledgeable other can be an adult or a peer, helping a learner in this way is to scaffold their learning.

Social Constructivism in the Classroom

Journaling

Experiential activities

Personal focus

Collaborative & cooperative learning

Critiques of Social Constructivism Suggests that knowledge is neither given

nor absolute

Often seen as less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction

Does not fit well with traditional age grouping and rigid terms/semesters

Learning Theory Multiple Intelligences

Multiple Intelligences (MI) Grew out of Constructivism, framed around

metacognition (H. Gardner 1983 to present)

All people are born with eight intelligences:

Enables students to leverage their strengths and purposefully target and develop their weaknesses

1. Verbal-Linguistic 5. Musical

2. Visual-Spatial 6. Naturalist

3. Logical-Mathematical 7. Interpersonal

4. Kinesthetic 8. Intrapersonal

MI in the Classroom Delivery of

instruction via multiple mediums

Student-centered classroom

Authentic Assessment

Self-directed learning

Critiques of MI Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI exist

Lack of evidence that use of MI as a curricular and methodological approach has any discernable impact on learning

Suggestive of a departure from core curricula and standards