Theories of Theories of Propaganda Propaganda

Baran & Davis (2003)Baran & Davis (2003)Chapter 4Chapter 4Severin & Tankard (1997)Severin & Tankard (1997)Chapter 6Chapter 6Griffin (2000) Chapter 23 Griffin (2000) Chapter 23

At the end of this lesson students At the end of this lesson students should be able to learn the following:should be able to learn the following:

The meaning of propaganda.The meaning of propaganda. The origin of propaganda.The origin of propaganda. Modern development of propaganda.Modern development of propaganda. The merging of Magic Bullet Theory.The merging of Magic Bullet Theory. The objectives of propaganda.The objectives of propaganda. The categories of propaganda.The categories of propaganda.

Contemporary theorists on propaganda Contemporary theorists on propaganda such works like such works like The Propaganda TheoryThe Propaganda Theory by Lasswell 1934, by Lasswell 1934, The Public opinion The Public opinion TheoryTheory by Lipmann’s 1922, & Dewey’s by Lipmann’s 1922, & Dewey’s criticism on propaganda, 1927.criticism on propaganda, 1927.The The Bullet TheoryBullet Theory by Schramm 1971; by Schramm 1971; The The Hypodermic Needle theoryHypodermic Needle theory by Berlo, by Berlo, 1960; 1960; Stimulus –response TheoryStimulus –response Theory by by DeFleur & Ball-Rokeach, 1989; DeFleur & Ball-Rokeach, 1989;

Mc Luhan (1964Mc Luhan (1964) Media or ) Media or Technological Determinism Technological Determinism TheoryTheory Media or Technological Media or Technological Determinism TheoryDeterminism Theory

The devices of propaganda.The devices of propaganda. The effectiveness of propaganda The effectiveness of propaganda

devices.devices. Conclusion.Conclusion.

What is Propaganda?What is Propaganda?The Origin of The Origin of PropagandaPropaganda The term propaganda comes form the The term propaganda comes form the

Latin Latin Congregatio de propaganda fideCongregatio de propaganda fide (Congregation for the Propagation of (Congregation for the Propagation of Faith) established by Catholic Church in Faith) established by Catholic Church in 1622 during the Counter-Reformation 1622 during the Counter-Reformation movement where various groups are movement where various groups are breaking away from the Catholic Church breaking away from the Catholic Church (p.109-110)(p.109-110)

The congregation was part of the The congregation was part of the Church’s Counter-Reformation Church’s Counter-Reformation movement.movement.

One of the debated issues during that One of the debated issues during that period was that the struggle between period was that the struggle between sciencescience & & religionreligion as the source of as the source of knowledge about the world.knowledge about the world.

PropagandaPropaganda at this point of time often at this point of time often was associated with negative or was associated with negative or connotations and with the untruth connotations and with the untruth from the above debate (Severin & from the above debate (Severin & Tankard,p.110)Tankard,p.110)

Now, the term Now, the term propagandapropaganda refers refers to the use of communication to the use of communication messages to propagate specific messages to propagate specific beliefs & expectations (Baran & beliefs & expectations (Baran & Davis, p.71)Davis, p.71)

Early DevelopmentEarly Development

By 1920s By 1920s FreudianismFreudianism & & BehaviorismBehaviorism attempts to produce a attempts to produce a simplistic propaganda theory.simplistic propaganda theory.

For the For the Behaviorism theoristsBehaviorism theorists they they had the notion that all human action had the notion that all human action is a conditional response to external , is a conditional response to external , environmental stimuli.environmental stimuli.

For the For the Freudianism theoristsFreudianism theorists on the other hand, they had the on the other hand, they had the notion that human behavior is notion that human behavior is the product of the conflict the product of the conflict between individuals’ id, ego & between individuals’ id, ego & superego. Fulfilling these needs superego. Fulfilling these needs allow them to be persuaded. allow them to be persuaded.

In the In the Magic Bullet TheoryMagic Bullet Theory – the rationale – the rationale was that the media penetrate people’s mind was that the media penetrate people’s mind and instantly create effects. The external and instantly create effects. The external stimuli (mass media) are able to condition stimuli (mass media) are able to condition anyone to behave whatever way a anyone to behave whatever way a propagandist wants. propagandist wants.

E.g. by controlling these media messages E.g. by controlling these media messages propagandist’s felt that could condition propagandist’s felt that could condition people to associates with good or bad people to associates with good or bad emotions, fear or loyalty emotions etc. emotions, fear or loyalty emotions etc.

The propagandists saw that the The propagandists saw that the average people are powerless to average people are powerless to consciously resists this influence or consciously resists this influence or be manipulated. No matter what be manipulated. No matter what their social status, how well their social status, how well educated they are the magic bullet educated they are the magic bullet of propaganda penetrates their of propaganda penetrates their defenses & transform their thoughts defenses & transform their thoughts and actions.and actions.

The advocates of Magic Bullet The advocates of Magic Bullet Theory argued in support that the Theory argued in support that the power of the media to influence power of the media to influence the audience are great. An the audience are great. An average audience therefore average audience therefore cannot resist media manipulation.cannot resist media manipulation.

Lasswell’s (1927) classic work Lasswell’s (1927) classic work ““PropagandaPropaganda Technique in World WarTechnique in World War” ” was the first attempt to define was the first attempt to define propaganda in modern times. propaganda in modern times.

His work refers to the control of His work refers to the control of opinion using significant symbols such opinion using significant symbols such as stories, rumors, reports, pictures as stories, rumors, reports, pictures and other form of social and other form of social communication.”communication.”

In 1937,-ten years later- Lasswell In 1937,-ten years later- Lasswell presented a slightly different definition presented a slightly different definition than before. than before.

“ “ Propaganda in a broader sense is a Propaganda in a broader sense is a technique of influencing human action by technique of influencing human action by the manipulation of representations. the manipulation of representations. These manipulations may be in a form of These manipulations may be in a form of spoken, written, pictorial or musical spoken, written, pictorial or musical form”form”

Lasswell’s definition of propaganda Lasswell’s definition of propaganda often times are also referred by other often times are also referred by other scholars as part of theory of scholars as part of theory of persuasionpersuasion which also includes both which also includes both advertising and other means of advertising and other means of publicity.publicity.

Both the term Both the term propaganda & persuasionpropaganda & persuasion was hotly debated some scholars. was hotly debated some scholars. Brown (1958) for example makes a Brown (1958) for example makes a clear distinction by defining clear distinction by defining persuasionpersuasion as ‘symbol-manipulation as ‘symbol-manipulation designed to produce action in others’. designed to produce action in others’.

‘‘PropagandaPropaganda on the other hand is the on the other hand is the process when someone judges that the process when someone judges that the action taken by the persuader is not in action taken by the persuader is not in the interest of the persuadee’. The the interest of the persuadee’. The differences lies on the source and the differences lies on the source and the receiver. receiver.

Although the techniques applied Although the techniques applied for both persuasion and for both persuasion and propaganda are identical – the propaganda are identical – the benefits gained by the source and benefits gained by the source and the receiver is certainly differs.the receiver is certainly differs.

Lasswell (1927) also discussed four Lasswell (1927) also discussed four major objectives of propaganda as major objectives of propaganda as follows:follows:

1. To mobilize hatred against the 1. To mobilize hatred against the enemy. enemy.

2. To preserve the friendship of allies.2. To preserve the friendship of allies. 3. To preserve the friendship and if 3. To preserve the friendship and if

possible to acquire the cooperation of possible to acquire the cooperation of neutralsneutrals

4. To demoralize the enemy. 4. To demoralize the enemy.

As a matter of fact the war time As a matter of fact the war time propaganda could then be traced propaganda could then be traced as far back to as far back to The Art of WarThe Art of War - a - a book written by Sun Tsu in China book written by Sun Tsu in China before the birth of Christianity. before the birth of Christianity.

The rise of Nazis to power in Germany The rise of Nazis to power in Germany through the propaganda minister through the propaganda minister Goebbels, provided evidence of greater Goebbels, provided evidence of greater success in Hitler’s regime Germany.success in Hitler’s regime Germany.

Propagandists often rely on the concept Propagandists often rely on the concept of of disinformationdisinformation to discredit their to discredit their opposition. opposition.

Disinformation Disinformation referring to the spread of referring to the spread of false information to discredit the false information to discredit the opposition. opposition.

Categories of Categories of PropagandaPropaganda

As theorists studied propaganda they are able to As theorists studied propaganda they are able to differentiate the different categories of differentiate the different categories of propaganda. They are as follows:propaganda. They are as follows:

Black PropagandaBlack Propaganda involved deliberate strategic involved deliberate strategic transmissions of lies (e.g Nazis, Germany)transmissions of lies (e.g Nazis, Germany)

White PropagandaWhite Propaganda involved international involved international suppression of potentially harmful information & suppression of potentially harmful information & ideas combined with deliberate promotion of ideas combined with deliberate promotion of positive information or ideas to distract attention.positive information or ideas to distract attention.

Grey PropagandaGrey Propaganda involved involved transmission of information or transmission of information or ideas that might or might not be ideas that might or might not be false. No effort to determine their false. No effort to determine their validity. validity.

Although, Lasswell’s work was never widely Although, Lasswell’s work was never widely read, his views were shared by Walter read, his views were shared by Walter Lippmann a columnist for the New York Times. Lippmann a columnist for the New York Times.

Lippmann’s (1922) writing on the roles of Lippmann’s (1922) writing on the roles of Public OpinionPublic Opinion pointed out the discrepancies pointed out the discrepancies that exist between that exist between ‘the world outside & the ‘the world outside & the pictures in ourpictures in our head’head’ . These differences were . These differences were unavoidable, because he doubted whether the unavoidable, because he doubted whether the average people could govern themselves. average people could govern themselves. People simply couldn't learn enough form People simply couldn't learn enough form media to help them understand the total media to help them understand the total environment (like democracy, the roles of free environment (like democracy, the roles of free press etc).press etc).

Lippmann’s believed that Lippmann’s believed that propaganda through media posed a propaganda through media posed a severe challenge that a drastic severe challenge that a drastic changes in the political system is changes in the political system is required. According to him the required. According to him the public was venerable to public was venerable to propaganda. Therefore some form propaganda. Therefore some form agency (as gate keeping) is needed agency (as gate keeping) is needed to protect the public.to protect the public.

Media control was necessary. Self-Media control was necessary. Self-censorship by media alone was not censorship by media alone was not sufficient. The best solution to the sufficient. The best solution to the problem was to place control of problem was to place control of information gathering and distribution information gathering and distribution in the hands of benevolent (caring / in the hands of benevolent (caring / trusted) technocracy like a scientific trusted) technocracy like a scientific elite – that could be trusted to use elite – that could be trusted to use scientific methods to sort facts from scientific methods to sort facts from fictions and make good decisions fictions and make good decisions about who should received these about who should received these messages.messages.

To accomplish this - a governmental To accomplish this - a governmental intelligent bureau was suggested. intelligent bureau was suggested.

This bureau could determine which This bureau could determine which information could be transmitted to information could be transmitted to the public through the mass media the public through the mass media and which information people are and which information people are better off not knowing. better off not knowing.

Both Lasswell & Lippmann ideas were Both Lasswell & Lippmann ideas were strongly criticized by other scholars like strongly criticized by other scholars like Dewey (1927). Dewey (1927).

As champion of democracy against As champion of democracy against totalitarian Dewey refuse to accept the totalitarian Dewey refuse to accept the need for a technocracy that would use need for a technocracy that would use scientific methods to protect the people scientific methods to protect the people themselves. themselves.

He argued would that people could learn He argued would that people could learn to defend themselves if they were only to defend themselves if they were only taught how to defense themselves. taught how to defense themselves.

E.g. he argued that newspapers could do E.g. he argued that newspapers could do more than just simply serve as more than just simply serve as ‘bulletin ‘bulletin boardboard’’ for information about current ’’ for information about current happening. happening.

They should serve as vehicles for public They should serve as vehicles for public education and debate. They should teach education and debate. They should teach critical thinking skills and structure critical thinking skills and structure public discussion of important issues.public discussion of important issues.

Media should be understood not as Media should be understood not as external agents but as servants that external agents but as servants that should facilitate public discussions and should facilitate public discussions and debate. They should serve as guidance debate. They should serve as guidance & facilitators of public forum in which & facilitators of public forum in which democratic politics are conducted. democratic politics are conducted.

But when the media assume the role But when the media assume the role of of external agentsexternal agents and work to and work to ‘manipulate the pictures in people’s ‘manipulate the pictures in people’s head’ the media loose their power to head’ the media loose their power to serve as credible facilitators & serve as credible facilitators & guardians of public debate. They just guardians of public debate. They just become another competitor for our become another competitor for our attention. attention.

Modern Theory of Modern Theory of PropagandaPropaganda Some contemporary critics argue Some contemporary critics argue

that the type propaganda that the type propaganda conforming to the traditional conforming to the traditional rules is still alive. Today it is rules is still alive. Today it is practiced with sophistication and practiced with sophistication and effectiveness. Political discourse effectiveness. Political discourse and advertising are some of the and advertising are some of the examples . examples .

Powerful elites control the mass Powerful elites control the mass media contents and on this score media contents and on this score they have little trouble imposing they have little trouble imposing their own ‘truth’ or ‘values’ on their own ‘truth’ or ‘values’ on others. others.

Advertising for example although Advertising for example although different ads may appear with different different ads may appear with different products but the logic assumption is that products but the logic assumption is that it supports the ideas of it supports the ideas of consumption & consumption & capitalism.capitalism.

Not that consumption and capitalism by Not that consumption and capitalism by itself bad ( although they had the itself bad ( although they had the tendency to manipulate) other tendency to manipulate) other alternatives were not considered. alternatives were not considered.

In cases where alternatives are In cases where alternatives are considered those who raised considered those who raised these alternatives are viewed as these alternatives are viewed as out of the main stream. (as out of the main stream. (as argument put forward by critical argument put forward by critical theorists) theorists)

The Devices of The Devices of Propaganda Propaganda Severin & tankard (1997) listed 7 most Severin & tankard (1997) listed 7 most

common devices of propaganda used in common devices of propaganda used in contemporary society. They are widely contemporary society. They are widely used in political campaigns, used in political campaigns, advertisements, newspaper columns and advertisements, newspaper columns and statements by extremist groups. They statements by extremist groups. They are as follows:are as follows:

1. 1. Name Calling / Negative LabelingName Calling / Negative Labeling is the process of giving an idea a bad is the process of giving an idea a bad label which is used to reject and label which is used to reject and condemn the idea without really condemn the idea without really examining the evidence (Lee & Lee examining the evidence (Lee & Lee 1939) 1939)

Name calling does not appear much in Name calling does not appear much in ads because company are reluctant to ads because company are reluctant to name their competitive products name their competitive products (Brand x vs brand y ) but is widely used (Brand x vs brand y ) but is widely used in politics & other public discourse.in politics & other public discourse.

E.g. labeling certain groups as Terrorist E.g. labeling certain groups as Terrorist or Terrorism, guerrilla vs freedom or Terrorism, guerrilla vs freedom fighter or a martyr’. fighter or a martyr’.

2. 2. Glittering GeneralityGlittering Generality –that is using a –that is using a ‘virtue word’ to make us accept and ‘virtue word’ to make us accept and approve without examining the evidence approve without examining the evidence (Lee &Lee 1939). (Lee &Lee 1939).

E.g. in Product names & promotion such as E.g. in Product names & promotion such as Gold Medal flour, Imperial Margarine, Gold Medal flour, Imperial Margarine, Super Shell, Superior Diary etc. Claims Super Shell, Superior Diary etc. Claims such as ‘natural ingredients’.such as ‘natural ingredients’.

E.g. in Politics and Business – phrases like E.g. in Politics and Business – phrases like the ‘right to work’, ‘the right to vote’ the ‘right to work’, ‘the right to vote’ ‘bottom line profit’ ‘private enterprise’ ‘bottom line profit’ ‘private enterprise’ ‘globalization’ etc are examples in politics ‘globalization’ etc are examples in politics and business.and business.

E.g in International Relations –E.g in International Relations –concepts or phrases like ‘operation concepts or phrases like ‘operation just cause’ , ‘Sustainable Environment’ just cause’ , ‘Sustainable Environment’ are common type of propaganda.are common type of propaganda.

E.g. Transfer words through a process E.g. Transfer words through a process of associations. ‘Peace signs’ and use of associations. ‘Peace signs’ and use of other symbols to illustrate quality.of other symbols to illustrate quality.

E.g. In Commercial phrases used like E.g. In Commercial phrases used like

‘celebrating new century’, Made in ‘celebrating new century’, Made in USA/Malaysia etc are examples. USA/Malaysia etc are examples.

E.g. In Music –the use of E.g. In Music –the use of recognizable music theme like film recognizable music theme like film music such as ‘mission impossible’ music such as ‘mission impossible’ ‘music from the film Titanic are ‘music from the film Titanic are some of the examples.some of the examples.

or use of news photographs, film or use of news photographs, film clip, video tapes etc.clip, video tapes etc.

E.g. In Advertising the use of cowboys for E.g. In Advertising the use of cowboys for endorsement condusive environment like endorsement condusive environment like the ‘cowboys’ for Marlboro, J&B Scotch the ‘cowboys’ for Marlboro, J&B Scotch with Christmas, use of celebrity with Christmas, use of celebrity personality, ‘Betty Crocker endorsing personality, ‘Betty Crocker endorsing food products. food products.

E.g. the use of Testimonial – use of E.g. the use of Testimonial – use of respected personality to endorse the respected personality to endorse the products or cases to instill public trust.products or cases to instill public trust.

3. 3. Plain FolksPlain Folks is the process by which a is the process by which a speaker attempts to convince his speaker attempts to convince his audience that he and his ideas are good audience that he and his ideas are good because they are ‘of the people’ and the because they are ‘of the people’ and the ‘plain folk’ (Lee & Lee, 1939)‘plain folk’ (Lee & Lee, 1939)

E.g. In Advertising – similar to an E.g. In Advertising – similar to an endorsement method and ads used the endorsement method and ads used the commoners as role models –’the commoners as role models –’the Petronas commercials. ‘land of the Petronas commercials. ‘land of the Green Giant’ Green Giant’

E.g. In Politics –projecting the political E.g. In Politics –projecting the political candidate as part of the ordinary citizen candidate as part of the ordinary citizen to gain support of the commoners – the to gain support of the commoners – the introduction of ‘the peoples candidate introduction of ‘the peoples candidate or the people choice’ or the people choice’

4. 4. Card StackingCard Stacking –is the process –is the process involving the selection and use of facts involving the selection and use of facts or falsehoods, illustrations or or falsehoods, illustrations or distractions, logical or illogical distractions, logical or illogical statements in order to give the best or statements in order to give the best or worse possible case for an idea, worse possible case for an idea, program, person or product.program, person or product.

E.g. In TV commercials – a tv commercial E.g. In TV commercials – a tv commercial who show a person who is interviewed who show a person who is interviewed over a cup of coffee and asked after over a cup of coffee and asked after testing it ‘would you say the coffee tastes testing it ‘would you say the coffee tastes as rich as it look’. The person then as rich as it look’. The person then endorse the product.endorse the product.

This type of commercial do not show the This type of commercial do not show the

report or the number of interviewees –or report or the number of interviewees –or it did not show others who did not agree it did not show others who did not agree with it. ‘ a self fulfillment prophesy’.with it. ‘ a self fulfillment prophesy’.

E.g. In Controlling the news –the E.g. In Controlling the news –the establishment usually try to attempt to establishment usually try to attempt to ensure only the ‘correct’ version of ensure only the ‘correct’ version of events get published inline with the events get published inline with the establishment policy.establishment policy.

5. 5. Band WagonBand Wagon – propagandist – propagandist attempts to convince us that all attempts to convince us that all members of the group to which we members of the group to which we belong are accepting his program and belong are accepting his program and that we must therefore follow the that we must therefore follow the crowd.crowd.

E.g. In Advertising –appeal that E.g. In Advertising –appeal that describe majority choice –’the describe majority choice –’the people choice’, ‘the Pepsi people choice’, ‘the Pepsi Generation’, are some of the Generation’, are some of the examples.examples.

E.g. In War time use – nations involving in E.g. In War time use – nations involving in combat needs war heroes to build moral.combat needs war heroes to build moral.

E.g. In Government propaganda – Often E.g. In Government propaganda – Often

government needs models for others to government needs models for others to emulate.- In China Mao praised the group emulate.- In China Mao praised the group TachaiTachai Production BrigadeProduction Brigade as a model of as a model of self-reliance. ‘In agriculture learn from self-reliance. ‘In agriculture learn from Tachai’ Tachai’

Effectiveness of Effectiveness of Propaganda DevicesPropaganda Devices Scientific evidence is now available Scientific evidence is now available

ineffectiveness of some of the ineffectiveness of some of the propaganda devices. Most of it comes propaganda devices. Most of it comes from experiments done by social from experiments done by social psychologists how attitudes can be psychologists how attitudes can be changed. changed.

Evidence of effectiveness on card staking Evidence of effectiveness on card staking comes from experiments conducted by comes from experiments conducted by Hovland, Lumsdaine & Sheffield ,1949; Hovland, Lumsdaine & Sheffield ,1949; Lmsdaine & Janis 1953) Lmsdaine & Janis 1953)

Modern Propaganda Modern Propaganda TheoryTheory Testimonial & Bad WagonTestimonial & Bad Wagon by Brown, 1958; by Brown, 1958;

Hovelnd & weiss, 1951; Asch, 1958; Serif, Hovelnd & weiss, 1951; Asch, 1958; Serif, 1958)1958)

The Bullet TheoryThe Bullet Theory by Schramm 1971; by Schramm 1971; the Hypodermic Needle theorythe Hypodermic Needle theory by Berlo, by Berlo,

1960; 1960; Stimulus –response TheoryStimulus –response Theory by DeFleur & by DeFleur &

Ball-Rokeach, 1989,. Ball-Rokeach, 1989,. These theories suggest that people are These theories suggest that people are

extremely vulnerable to mass extremely vulnerable to mass communication messages. communication messages.

Mc Luhan (1964Mc Luhan (1964) Media or Technological ) Media or Technological Determinism TheoryDeterminism Theory argued that the argued that the effects of technology alter our patterns effects of technology alter our patterns of perceptions and without resistance. It of perceptions and without resistance. It however does not alter our opinions.however does not alter our opinions.

In his book ‘Media is the Message’ & In his book ‘Media is the Message’ & ‘Understanding Media’ he is saying that ‘Understanding Media’ he is saying that the most important effect of the most important effect of communication media is that it effect communication media is that it effect our habits of perceptions and thinking. our habits of perceptions and thinking.

Mc Luhan (1978) proposed the Mc Luhan (1978) proposed the notion of two different styles of notion of two different styles of thinking – the two sides of the thinking – the two sides of the brain (left & right). The left brain brain (left & right). The left brain being logical, rational and being logical, rational and language oriented while the right language oriented while the right side is institutive, irrational and side is institutive, irrational and picture –oriented. picture –oriented.

Noelle-Neumann (1973, 1980) Noelle-Neumann (1973, 1980) introduced the introduced the theory of ‘Spiral theory of ‘Spiral Silence’Silence’ which also gives the mass which also gives the mass media more powerful than other media more powerful than other theories. theories.

Noelle-Neumann argued that mass Noelle-Neumann argued that mass media do have powerful effect on media do have powerful effect on pubic opinions (accumulation, ubiquity pubic opinions (accumulation, ubiquity & consonance).& consonance).

ConsonanceConsonance refers to the unified refers to the unified picture of an event that can picture of an event that can develop and often share by develop and often share by different newspapers, magazines, different newspapers, magazines, tv channels etc. that the message tv channels etc. that the message is to present the impression the is to present the impression the way the media is presenting it. way the media is presenting it.

In the case of the controversial issues In the case of the controversial issues people form impressions about the people form impressions about the distribution of public opinion. distribution of public opinion.

The theory try to determine whether The theory try to determine whether they are in the majority and then they they are in the majority and then they try to determine whether public try to determine whether public opinion is changing to agree with opinion is changing to agree with them. If they feel they are in the them. If they feel they are in the minority, they tend to remain silence. minority, they tend to remain silence.

Conclusion: Conclusion: The work of the Institute for The work of the Institute for

Propaganda Analysis led to what we Propaganda Analysis led to what we can consider a primitive theory of can consider a primitive theory of attitude change. There is a need for attitude change. There is a need for further work. The knowledge of the further work. The knowledge of the devices can make us better devices can make us better informed on the effects of informed on the effects of propaganda.propaganda.