theories of social work -sr

Compiled by

S.Rengasamy Madurai Institute of Social Sciences

S.Rengasamy - Theories of Social Work

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Contents INTRODUCTION TO THEORIES OF SOCIAL WORK .......................................................................................... 3 Box: Why social work /Why help people to help themselves ............................................................................. 4 Diagram: Two Feet of Social Work ................................................................................................................. 5 Diagram: Two Feet of Social Work ................................................................................................................. 5 Box: What is theory ..................................................................................................................................... 6 What is theory? ............................................................................................................................................ 7 Box: Is social work a teachable? .................................................................................................................... 7 What is theory? ............................................................................................................................................ 8 Models ........................................................................................................................................................ 8 Box: Why do we need theories in social work? ................................................................................................ 9 Perspectives ................................................................................................................................................ 9 Explanatory theory ....................................................................................................................................... 9

Table: Types of theory ............................................................................................................................... 10 Different kinds of theory: ............................................................................................................................ 10 What do we mean by theory in social work? ................................................................................................. 10 Why should Social Workers be concerned about theory? ................................................................................ 11 Conceptual Framework of Social Work Theories ............................................................................................ 11 Theories of social work ............................................................................................................................... 11 Theories for social work .............................................................................................................................. 12 Box: Framework for Social Work Practice ..................................................................................................... 12 Practice frameworks ................................................................................................................................... 12

Framework for Social Work Practice ................................................................................................................. 12 The Ecosystem Perspective ......................................................................................................................... 12 The Strengths Perspective .......................................................................................................................... 12 The Cultural Competence Perspective .......................................................................................................... 12 1. Practice Perspective: ........................................................................................................................... 13 2. Practice Theory: ................................................................................................................................. 13 3. Practice Model:................................................................................................................................... 13 Box: Social Disorganization Theory .............................................................................................................. 14

Social Disorganization Theory .......................................................................................................................... 14 Table: Theories used by Social Workers ....................................................................................................... 21

Systems Theory of Social Work ........................................................................................................................ 23 Box: Crisis Theory and Crisis Intervention ................................................................................................... 24

Crisis Theory and Crisis Intervention ................................................................................................................ 24 Box: Social Work Critical Theory & Practice ................................................................................................... 25

Social Work Critical Theory & Practice .............................................................................................................. 25 Box: Theory of social Darwinism and General Systems Theory in Social Work .................................................. 26

Theory of social Darwinism .............................................................................................................................. 26 General Systems Theory in Social Work ............................................................................................................ 26

Box: Modern Social Work Theory ................................................................................................................. 27 Modern Social Work Theory ............................................................................................................................. 27

Box: Limitations of theory ........................................................................................................................... 28 Dia: Need to apply social work theory in practice .......................................................................................... 28 Box: Personality Psychology ....................................................................................................................... 29 Tab: Levels & Definitions of Social Economic Development Practice in Social Work ........................................... 30 Dia: Models of Social Work Practice ............................................................................................................. 31 Tab: Models of (International) Social Work Practice ....................................................................................... 32 Tab: Ecological Systems /Strengths /Empowerment Perspective ..................................................................... 34 Dia: Undestanding Social Work Theories in general ....................................................................................... 35 Dia: Theories of Human Behaviour .............................................................................................................. 36 Table: Theories of Human Behaviour ........................................................................................................... 37 Box: Empowerment Theory ......................................................................................................................... 38 Box: Conflict Theory ................................................................................................................................... 39


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In social work there are actually more perspectives than models and theories. Some

of these perspectives include - Conflict,

functional, ecological, systems and empowerment, strengths-based.

INTRODUCTION TO THEORIES OF SOCIAL WORK

Students of social work can be intimidated by the word 'theory'. This immediately inhibits

effective learning about theory. Theory in

social work is about how we relate to others

and how we make sure that we are providing

effective services. It is important that theory is

not seen as the preserve of academics or senior

social workers. Through understanding and

applying theory to social work practice our work with service users can become far more

effective and person centered.

Social Work is a practical job. It is about protecting people and changing their lives, not about being able to give fluent and theoretical explanations of why they got into difficulties …

Social work is about social change at the individual as well as at community level. Change is complex, diversified and risk prone. To understand it, social worker need knowledge and imagination,

comprehension & creativity….in short, a radical shift in understanding “Knowledge as process” as

opposed to “Knowledge as product” is needed. But our understanding of social work (especially with the faculty and students of social work colleges

in non metropolitan cities of India and students with low level mastery of English language) is frozen with the simple definition of social work ...it is the art and science of helping the people to help

themselves. Compilation and interpretation of social work definition accessible to the students (PD Mishra 1994)

conveys a meaning that social work is a “helping” “assisting” „enabling” activity, which in turn

suggests social work is seen as a benign and uncontentious activity, willingly accepted. This understanding fails to reflect the major transformations social work discipline has undergone as well

as its global outlook. There is nothing wrong in simplifying a concept, but if it ignores the complexities associated with the concept, that will end our further seeking.

Whatever may be a definition of social work, it is normally based on certain perspectives and

understanding of that perspective / theory will help us to appreciate that definition. It is this clarity that normally make one to commit in his/ her professional responsibilities.

Definition of social work generally convey

What is the need of social work or Why Social work?

How social work is carried out?

To whom social work is going to serve? or characteristics of its cliens

To answer these questions one need to know why people are suffering. What is our responsibility towards fellow human beings? How we gain knowledge about the human problems? What makes us perceive the human problems in a particular way? Why we subscribe to certain methods of solving problems? …. Social workers need to answer these questions before addressing others problems. Theories & perspectives of social work may provide some answers to these questions


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Box: Why social work / Why help people to help themselves

Why social work

Life means to face the demands of day to day life and realize the self. By life tasks we mean the

responses people make as they face the demands made upon them in various life situations, such is growing up in a family, entering school or work, raising a family, earning their daily bread, working in

the industry, adjusting themselves to work environment, establishing relationship with co workers, problems relating to job or earning, facing illness, accidents and death.

People are dependent on social systems for help in obtaining the material, emotional or spiritual resources and the service and opportunities they need to realize their aspirations and help them to

cope with their life tasks.

In order to realize their life tasks people have to interact with three kinds of resource systems in the social environment

1. Informal or natural resource system consists of family, friends, neighbors, co workers, etc 2. Formal resource system consists of membership in organizations, trade union organizations or any

other socio cultural organizations

3. Social resource system such as schools, hospitals, housing societies, police, banks etc Why people are unable to obtain the resources, services or opportunities in the resource systems,

they need to cope with their life tasks and realize their aspirations? 1. A needed resource or service may be scarce or may not exist or may not provide appropriate help

to people who need it. 2. People may not know the existence of a resource system or may be hesitant to turn it for help for

several reasons like distance, corruption, delay or poor quality etc

3. The polices and procedures of the resource system may inhibit / prevent it access (eg. eligibility criteria, gender, etc)

4. Several resource system may be working at cross purposes The purpose of social work is to enable the people to use the social resources to meet their life tasks

What do we mean by helping people to help themselves? 1. Increased understanding of oneself or a situation. 2. Being able to make a

decision 3. Being able to confirm a decision. 4. Being able to get a support for a decision. 5. Being able to change a situation 6. Adjusting to a situation that

is not going to change 7. Being able to examine options and choosing one 8. Being able to discharge feelings


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Charity

Direct Social

Services / Personal

Social Services

Model

Help individuals meet their present needs:

-provision of a range of services that restore & as possible, enhance the capacity of people to meet their social obligations.

- Mentor and tutor relationship

- Donate food,

clothing, money

Justice Social Change

/ Social

Development

Correct long-term problems in communities:

-Access to a basic standard of social and economic well being viewed as a basic "right" of citizenship or residency.

- Participate in community self-help projects

- Advocate for just public policies

- Develop local community enterprises

Diagram: Two Feet of Social Work


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Box: What is theory

Lots of people think that theory is

something purely academic, with no link

to "real life". Many social work students

cover theory at university, but begin their

practice learning experience intimidated

by the idea of how to apply theory to their

practice and especially concerned about

how to demonstrate the links they have

made in their assignments and reflective

accounts.

Practice learning is about relating the ideas

learned in University to the practice

setting. However, in order to link

theoretical knowledge to practice,

student’s need a firm grasp of the fact that

theory is something everybody uses every

day in social work and that theory has a

clear link to common sense/what

works/real life or whatever the phrase of

choice is. Without this, theory can become

something which seems abstract and this

develops the idea that theory is something

you learn at University and then forget

when you enter the "real world" of work.

The Requirements for Social Work

Training state that all social work

programs must:

"Ensure that the teaching of theoretical

knowledge, skills and values is based on

their application to practice." (Department

of Health 2002)

Whilst the basic aspects of social work theory will be

taught in the University setting, practice learning is about you transferring your knowledge and

applying theory to your practice, and you will need to demonstrate that you can make the links in

your written work.

Theory is an “attempt to retrospectively

explain and to prospectively predict”

What is theory? It is important first to be clear what the term theory means in an academic sense. Cottrell provides a useful general definition: A theory is a set of ideas that helps to explain why something happens or happened in a particular way, and to predict likely outcomes in the future. Theories are based on evidence and reasoning, but have not yet been conclusively proved. Thompson‟s definition includes similar ideas: An attempt to explain…a framework for understanding…a set of ideas linked together to help us make sense of a particular issue. Writing about social work theory, Beckett makes a

connection with practice: …a set of ideas or principles used to guide practice which are sufficiently coherent that they could if necessary be made explicit in a form which was open to challenge. We can see then that theories are a grouping of interrelated ideas which have been systematically developed to explain not just how things happen and are connected but also why. They are used to illuminate, or throw light on, our understanding of issues and help us to make sense of the world. They must explain the matter logically and clearly enough for the ideas in the theory to be discussed, criticised or challenged. Thompson explains that there are different levels of theories. These are: grand, macro-level or global theories (sometimes known as meta-narratives), such as marxism or psychoanalysis, which claim to be able to explain everything in society, or all human behaviour; middle-range theories which focus on a limited range of issues – for instance, labelling theory, which from a social interactionist perspective aims to explain deviance; micro theories developed to explain very small-scale situations – for instance, relationships between staff and patients on a hospital ward.


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What aspects of social work might theory be used to explain? Social workers might use theory to understand and explain three main aspects of social work the task and purpose of social work – the role of social work in society; practice theories: sometimes called social work approaches or methods – how to go about doing social work; the world of service users, including the internal (psychological) world and the external (social) world

How might theory be of use to social workers? Social work, like all professions, uses theory to guide practice. Observation: theory provides guidance on what a social worker might need to look out for when meeting people who use services or carers and their families. Description: theory provides a generally understood and shared language in which these observations can be organised and recorded. Explanation: theory can suggest how different observations might be linked in a framework that explains them. Prediction: theory can indicate what might happen in the future. Intervention: theory can provide ideas

about what might bring about a change in the situation. The importance of theory Theory is important, in social work and social work education, for a number of reasons because it: is the mark of a profession; can ensure accountability; can help avoid discrimination; provides a way of making sense of complexity and

uncertainty

What is theory? It is our view that social workers in the field and social work students on placement are applying

theory every day. However, they may not realize it, and they may not be able to describe the

theory or name it.

Theories in social work are nothing more than

an attempt to explain situations and social

relationships. Theories have been developed

since it became clear that there were similar

patterns or repeating cycles of behavior both

in an individual's life and in the lives of lots of

different people. Since theories have been

expressed by academics and social scientists,

they often use an academic language. Don't let

that put you off. Theories are life dressed up!

Many theories actually have a very

straightforward, accessible message even if

you sometimes have to look beyond the

jargon.

There has been some debate about what

actually constitutes a theory. Generally, a

theory helps to explain a situation and perhaps

how it came about. In science, a theory is seen

as helping to:

** describe (e.g.: what is happening?)

** explain (e.g.: why is it happening?)

** predict (e.g.: what is likely to happen

next?)

Sometimes theories are also seen as

helping to control a situation and bring about

changes. Box: Is social work a teachable?

Is social work a teachable practice? Or does it come from experience and creativity?

Some argue that Social work is less technical, more creative and intuitive. Both client and social worker are important when dealing with issues as the client is the expert of his own personal life. The

ideal theory for social work would therefore be one that encourages deep thinking and questioning, one that respects the inherent dignity of the client and complexity of social problems... not one that

categorizes

People believe that science can furnish means, but not ends. Methods but not goals. So, Social workers must achieve something other than technical proficiency, i.e. Understanding the human

condition, not science. Social workers use contextual knowledge. Synthesis of knowledge from many sources, including

personal experience. Common sense and wisdom on the job


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Knowledge about

Different

Theories regard to

Different

Social Work Fields

Research Methodology

Raising Awareness about Life Long Learning (Professional /Personal Development)

Skills to Work with Clients Learning about Different Theoretical Approaches

Recognition & Analyze of Social Processes

Knowledge from other Disciplines

Professional Values

Knowledge & Understanding of Legal & administration Procedures & Social Care Institutions Functioning

What is theory?

A theory is an organized statement of ideas about the world. Fook (2002) argues that even

putting names to things helps to provide explanation and understanding in practice.

In social work, the term ‘theory’ covers three different possibilities:

Provable explanations why something happens (Explanatory Theory)

Organized description of activity in a structured form (Models)

Ways of conceptualizing the world or a particular subject (Perspective)

Models

Models describe what happens during practice in a general way, in a wide range of situations and

in a structured form, so that they extract certain principles and patterns of activity which give

practice consistency. Models help you to structure and organize how you approach a complicated

situation. A good example is task-centered practice.

Social Work Practice

Encounters pressing need

Needs personally left

Requires immediate action

Focuses on interpersonal practice

Social Policy as theory

Seeks cultural Change

Requires social action

Calla for long term strategy

Stress on strategic planning/analysis


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Why do we need theories in social work?

The use of theories makes Social

Workers feel more safe & competent

in their practice, reduces feelings of

helplessness & fear of unknown

For social workers theory is important

because it teaches social workers how to

perceive people through their resources, not

to classify them according to their

problems...it’s a shift from control to help.

In order to see the beauty of one theory,

it’s important to learn about many

theories. This is how we can prevent

making an ideology out of one theory

The more social workers use theories,

less they use intuition, and it makes

social work practice more professional

and efficient

Theory, together with intuition is a way to develop

personal style of professional practice...without

theory, just with intuition, social workers would feel

like a puppet on strings.

Box: Why do we need theories in social work?

Perspectives

Perspectives express values or views of the world which allow participants to order their minds

sufficiently to be able to manage themselves while

participating. Perspectives help you to think about what is

happening in an organized way. Applying different

perspectives can help you see situations from different

points of view. Examples of perspectives are feminist or

systems theories.

Explanatory theory

Explanatory theory accounts for why an action results in or

causes particular consequences and identifies the

circumstances in which it does so. Some writers reserve the

word ‘theory’ to ideas that offer this causal explanation. To

them, theories have to tell you ‘what works’. Cognitive-

behavioral theory is an example of explanatory theory.

Perspective, theory and model are all necessary in a theory

that is to be useful in practice. Because social work is

practical action in a complex world, a theory or perspective

must offer a model of explicit guidance.

Sibeon (1990) distinguishes between formal and informal theory, as shown in the table below.

Formal theory is written down and debated within the profession and academic work. Informal

From Unfaithful Angels- How Social Work Has Abandoned Its Mission Social work, having adopted values of individualism and having been socialized to organizational norms, along with mainstream society has abandoned in large part its understanding of the social and communal. They come to the people of the slums not to help them rebel and fight their way out of the muck..most social work does not even reach the submerged masses. Social work is largely a middle class activity and guided by a middle class psychology. Saul Alinsky


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theory consists of wider theories and values that exist in society and constructions from practical

experience; those everyday practices that I mentioned at the outset of this chapter. This may

include ideas from formal theory.

You may need an explanation of the mention of informal theories ‘inductively derived’.

Induction means generalizing from particular examples, deduction means arriving at conclusions

about the particular instance from a general theory Table: Types of theory

Types of theory Theories of what social work is

Formal written accounts defining the nature and purposes of welfare (e.g. upon by practitioners for defining personal pathology, liberal reform, Marxist, feminist)

Moral, political, cultural values drawn upon by practitioners for defining ‘functions’ of social work

Theories of how to do social work

Formal written theories of practice (e.g. casework, family therapy, group work); applied deductively; general ideas may be applied to particular situations

Theories inductively derived from particular situations; can be tested to see if they apply to particular situations; also unwritten practice theories constructed from experience

Theories of the client world

Formal written social science theories and empirical data (e.g. on personality, (e.g. the marriage, the family, race, class, gender)

Practitioners’ use of experience and general cultural meanings (e.g. the family as an institution, normal behavior, good parenting)

Practice theories may, therefore, be seen as a device for transferring knowledge from other

purposes to the purpose of assisting social work practice

Different kinds of theory:

Grand theory - comprehensive conceptual scheme (e.g. Marxist theories of class conflict)

example: Grand theory - Postmodernism

Theories of Practice – for undertaking practice (e.g. anti-oppressive practice, crisis intervention)

example: Practice theory - Narrative

Practice Wisdom or Working Concepts – to guide understanding and practice

(E.g. generally help belief that you should not challenge who are under alcohol intoxication)

example: Working concepts -dominant and alternative stories deconstruction

What do we mean by theory in social work?

Payne (1991: 52) helps us by distinguishing four types of theory:

1. theories about social work explain the nature and role of social work in society

2. theories of social work describe which activities constitute social work, set aims for social

work activities and explain why those activities are relevant and effective in meeting the aims

3. theories contributing to social work are the psychological, sociological and other theories

which explain or describe personal and social behaviour and are used to make theories of

social work systematic, related to general social science explanations and to give supporting

evidence for the social work theory’s prescriptions

4. theories of social work practice and method prescribe in detail how the other theories so far

outlined may be applied in the interaction between workers and clients


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Why should Social Workers be concerned about theory?

Social work theories are concerned with understanding the person in their context and promoting

change with the individual and/or their context.

- the purpose of social work: what social workers do and what they should do

- the methods of social work practice

- the principles of social work practice

Conceptual Framework of Social Work Theories

Perspectives, theories and models are often referred to as theory. However, it is useful to make some distinctions. Howe (1987) differentiates between theories of social work and theories for social work.

Theories of social work Focus on the profession and explain its purpose, domain, and character within the society. They describe

what the profession is all about and why it functions as it does.

A clear theoretical

perspective guides and

influences social work

practice in five key areas

Observation: it tells us what to see, what to look out for

Description: it provides a conceptual vocabulary

and framework within which observations can be

arranged and organized.

Explanation: it suggests how different observations

might be linked and connected; it offers possible

causal relationships between one event and another

Prediction: it indicates what might happen next

Intervention: it suggests things to do to bring about

change

Of course, different theories lead to different

observations and explanations.

Conceptual Frameworks

Theories OF Social Work Theories FOR Social Work

Orienting Theories Practice Frameworks

Practice Perspectives Practice Theories Practice Models


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Framework for Social Work Practice Social work draws from many frameworks for practice, but some of these frameworks have had more

influence on the profession of social work than others. We would like to highlight three that we think have been particularly influential:

The Ecosystem Perspective

This perspective focuses on the interplay between the person and his or her environment. To understand the functioning of the individual, we must understand his or her environmental context:

Individuals exist within families

Families exist within communities and neighborhoods

Individuals, families, and neighborhoods exist in a political, economic, and cultural environment

The environment impacts the actions, beliefs, and choices of the individual

The Strengths Perspective This perspective is built on the assumption that every individual, family, group and community has

strengths and focusing on these strengths leads to growth and overcoming difficulties. Under this perspective, clients are generally the best experts about what types of helping strategies

will be effective or ineffective.

The Cultural Competence Perspective This perspective is the understanding and approval of cultural distinctions, taking into account the

beliefs, values, activities, and customs of distinctive population groups. Many cultures have prescribed ways of talking about health and the human body and these factors

impact a person's reaction and acceptance of health services.

These perspectives are consistent with a Family-Centered or Client-Centered approach, which is central to the standards of best practice with persons with disabilities and consistent with social work's

central values and framework.

Theories for social work Focus on clients and helping activities. They explain human behaviours, the social environment, how

change occurs and how change can be facilitated by the social worker in order to benefit clients.

Orienting theories

Orienting theories describe and explain behaviour and how and why certain problems develop. They

provide important background knowledge and are usually borrowed from other disciplines such as biology, psychology, sociology, economics, cultural anthropology, and the like. Examples include the

various theories related to human development, personality, family systems, socialization, organizational functioning, and political power, as well as theories related to specific types of problems such as poverty,

family violence, mental illness, teen pregnancy, crime and racial discrimination. Box: Framework for Social Work Practice

Practice frameworks Orienting theories, by themselves, provide little guidance on how to bring about change. For such guidance one must look to practice frameworks. There are three types:

What Is A Theoretical/ Practice Framework? One’s theoretical/practice framework is grounded in a PERSPECTIVE (may be narrow, broad, or multidimensional)

based on a THEORY OR GROUP OF INTEGRATED THEORIES (set of assumptions or beliefs or explanations

about human behaviour and which may include guidelines for interventions which guides the selection of a MODEL (a way of acting, treating or intervening in order to enable a resolution of a problem and/or enhancement of social functioning)


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1. Practice Perspective: This is a particular way of viewing and thinking about practice. It is a conceptual lens through which one

views social functioning and it offers very broad guidance on what may be important considerations in a practice situation. Like a camera lens, a perspective serves to focus on or magnify a particular feature.

Two perspectives, the general systems perspective and the ecosystems perspective, are commonly used in assessing relationships between

people and their environment. The generalist perspective focuses a

worker‟s attention on the importance of considering several practice roles and various levels of intervention. Others, such as the feminist and the

ethnic-sensitive perspectives, remind the worker of special challenges faced by certain groups in society.

2. Practice Theory: It offers both an explanation of certain behaviours or situations and guidance on how they can be

changed. A practice theory serves as a road map for bringing about a certain type of change. Most

practice theories are rooted in one or more orienting theories. An example is psychosocial therapy, which is based primarily on psychodynamic theory and ego psychology. Another is behaviour

therapy, which is derived from the psychology of learning.

3. Practice Model: Practice Model is a set of concepts and principles used to guide intervention activities. However, in

contrast to practice theory, a model is not tied to a particular explanation of behaviour. For example, crisis intervention is viewed as a practice model rather than a practice theory because it does not rest on

a single explanation of crisis situations. For the same reason, task-centered practice is termed a model. Most often, a model develops out of experience and experimentation rather than as a derivation from a theory of human behaviour. The term model is also used when referring to a conceptual framework that is borrowed from one field and applied in another, for example, the medical model (study, diagnose,

treat) and the legal model (an approach to social action and client advocacy, involving competition and

conflict among adversaries). It is rare for a social worker to use a single orienting theory or a single practice framework. Most social workers utilize a variety of orienting theories and a set of compatible and complementary perspectives,

theories and models. Such a combination can be termed one‟s theoretical frame of reference or

theoretical orientation to practice. Social workers use many of the same techniques and skills and guidelines regardless of practice perspective, theory, or model.


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Social Disorganization Theory

History Social disorganization was put forth in the 1920s by professors at the University of Chicago. At

the time, Chicago was racked by violent mobs, Prohibition and the rule of gangster Al Capone. The theory remained popular through the 1940s, but it fell out of favor, until it was rejuvenated

in the late 1970s. The original concepts have been expanded upon by Harvard professor Robert

Sampson and others. Theories

Individuals personalize public conflict between social classes, groups and institutions. One assumption of the Chicago School is that lower classes are the most volatile because. having less,

any loss of their possessions is painful. This vulnerability pushes some poor people toward crime

as a way of protecting what they have left. While crime occurs in the upper and middle classes, it is frequently, though not always, categorized as white collar or nonviolent crime. A basic premise

of social disorganization is that people are basically good, but are vulnerable to temptation. Sampson argues that friends, family and strong community ties are the best way for a society to

maintain public order. People invested in a community are less likely to disrupt it. Place Instead of People

Sociologists at the University of Chicago noticed that violent crime tends to occur more in certain

neighborhoods than others. For instance, less violent crime occurs in business districts or residential areas, while more is likely to happen in what they term transient areas. Transient

areas are neighborhoods marked by large populations of renters living among dilapidated buildings, abandoned vehicles, graffiti, litter and other signs of social unrest. These sociologists

did not see the residents as inherently criminal, but rather that criminals were drawn to these

area by the breakdown of social organization. Effects

Gangs substitute for family and community. They offer members support, identity, discipline, shared experiences and money. This gang mentality often becomes popular in certain regions or

subcultures, often along ethnic or racial lines. This was the case in Chicago in the 1920s when Italian-Americans dominated organized crime, and has remained popular in inner cities, prisons,

and parts of the South.

Solutions The greatest successes in improving neighborhoods and turning individuals away from violent

activities have come from community-based organizations like athletic leagues, youth centers, citizen watch groups, tenant committees and sanitation programs. Many of the programs that

have failed often had initial success, but collapsed after interest and participation waned.

Box: Social Disorganization Theory


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Theories used in Social Work

Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud

Ego Psychology Post Freudians -Anna Freud, Heinz Hartman, Erik Erikson

Psycho Social Therapy Began with Mary Richmond’s recognition of social factors & later given a thrust by Gordon Hamilton, Annette Garrett, Austin & Hollis

Problem Solving Theory Helen Harris Perlman, Barbara Betz

Functional Theories Widely influenced by the philosophy of Herbert Mead, John Dewey & Otto Rank

The Client Centered Therapy (Also referred as Relationship Therapy, Group centered therapy, Person centered therapy Carl Rogers, Virginia Axlines (Play therapy)

Cognitive theory Also known as Rational psychotherapy, cognitive case work -Use in social work by Harold Weiner, Alfred Adler

Gestalt Theory Fritz and Laura Pearls, Paul Goodman

Role Theory Ruth Benedict, Kingsly Davis In Social Work Pearlman, H.S. Stream etc

Behaviour Modification Therapy ( Action Therapy) BF Skinner etc

Family Therapy (Structural Family Therapy – Strategic Family Therapy or Systems Therapy)

Task Centered Treatment

Crisis Theory Harvard School of Psychiatry & Public Health

General Systems Theory L. von Bertalanffy and others

Existential Social Work (Compared with the book of Ecclesiasts in Old Testament – Zen Buddhism in the East) Jean Paul Satre and others

Transactional Analysis (social Treatment Model) Eric Berne

Meditation and Social Work Treatment Arose from psycho philosophical systems of American Indians, Central Asian Sufi Tradition, Chinese Taoism, Hindu Yoga, Zen Buddhism, Catholic Christian Tradition and Jewish Mysticism

The Life Model of Social Work Practice

Communication Concepts and Practice

Concepts/ Theories / Philosophies (Lesser Used)

Theories with social / Sociological thrust in Social Work

Theories widely used in Diagnostic & Clinical Social Work

Meaning of Social 1. Pertaining to, devoted to, or characterized by friendly companionship or relations: a social club. 2. Seeking or enjoying the companionship of others; friendly; sociable; gregarious. 3. Living or disposed to live in companionship with others or in a community, rather than in isolation: People are social beings. 4. Pertaining to human society, esp. as a body divided into classes according to status: social rank. 5. involved in many activities: We're so busy working; we have to be a little less social now. 6. Pertaining to the life, welfare, and relations of human beings in a community: social problems. 7. Pertaining to activities designed to remedy or alleviate certain unfavorable conditions of life in a community, esp. among the poor. 8. Pertaining to non economic/ non commercial activities 9. Pertaining to or advocating socialism. 10. In biology it means living habitually together in communities, as bees or ants. Compare solitary .

Meaning of Work 1. Physical or mental effort or activity directed toward the production or accomplishment of something. 2. A job; employment: looking for work- A trade, profession, or other means of livelihood. 3. Something that one is doing, making, or performing, especially as an occupation or undertaking; a duty or task: 4. One's place of employment: Should I call you at home or at work? 5. Something that has been produced or accomplished through the effort, activity, or agency of a person or thing: 6. Full action or effect of an agency: An act; a deed:


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Table: Theories used in Social Work

Theories widely used in Diagnostic & Clinical Social Work

No Theory & Theorist Nature &Discipline Usage in Social Work Other usage

1 Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud

Interpretative & Therapeutic Diagnosis &Therapy Psychiatry

Widely used in case work Individual Therapy

No application for group & community problems

2 Ego Psychology Post Freudians Anna Freud Heinz Hartman Erik Erikson

Theory of Personality Recognizes ego’s autonomous roots, development & functions -Therapeutic Psychiatry

Used in case work Individual Therapy oriented

No application in group malfunctioning & community conflicts

3 Psycho Social Therapy Began with Mary Richmond’s recognition of social factors & later given a thrust by Gordon Hamilton, Annette Garrett, Austin & Hollis

More an approach & a thought system than a theory - Influenced by Psychoanalytic theory, ego psychology, sociological theories of Robert Merton, Talcott Parsons, & Anthropological theories of Clyde Kluckholn -Therapeutic Psychology

Largely individual oriented Used in case work

Limited application for family & other problems No use for community work

4 Problem Solving Theory Helen Harris Perlman Barbara Betz

Not a theory –rather it is derived from many theoretical constructs - Concerned with individual’s discrete problems - Such problems are consciously brought by the client & affirmed by the case worker - It is a conscious focussed & goal directed activity -Leans on social psychological concepts

Individual oriented intervention - Focus on problem diagnosis, crisis intervention, correction of disparities, assertive counselling -Specific problem solving - Used in case work

Focus on family Not applied on other groups and community problems

5 Functional theories Widely influenced by the philosophy of Herbert Mead, John Dewey & Otto Rank

Therapeutic – opposed to diagnostic school & ego psychology - Treatment is replaced by the concept of service. Client / individual is perceived as an active agent rather merely reactive in his own development Use of agency & agency function in service rendering being important It is not theory in strict scientific sense, but a plan of action Psychology & Sociology

Individual oriented intervention Diagnosis is inextricably woven in the therapeutic process but the conceptualization of practice is seen in the broader perspective taking 1. Psychological factors 2. Social bases of the client 3. Functions of the social agency under whose aegis the services are rendered Used again case work

Not of any consequential application to the myriad problems of group malfunctioning & community disorders

6 The client centered therapy (Also referred as Relationship Therapy, Group centered therapy, Person centered therapy Carl Rogers Virginia Axlines (Play therapy)

Personal counseling & Psychotherapy as basic components Influence of psychiatry Non directive, client centered - Reference to present situation with no refernce to past reactions Clinical psychology

Psychiatric social workers use it It takes holistic & humanitarian view of man - Individual based but helps individuals in groups Marital maladjustments also included

May be applied in teaching, training & education in non therapy situations


17

7 Cognitive theory Also known as Rational psychotherapy, cognitive case work Use in social work by Harold Weiner Alfred Adler

Approaches included “rational” “reality” or “phenomenological”- It is socially oriented - Believes in emotions, motives, behaviour and thinking is influenced by society, immediate social environment, Human relations & experience Discards elemnts of unconscious Psychology

Individual therapy Used in case work

It is argued that cognitive theory is reality oriented, it can serve as a guide to all forms of treatments, individual, group & community No evidence of its use in group/ community mal adjustments and conflicts

Theories with social / Sociological thrust in Social Work

8 Gestalt Theory Fritz and Laura Pearls Paul Goodman

Inflienced by psycho analysis, Existenial Philosohy, Reichan Character Analysis, Gestalt Psychology and traces of Eastern Religions Central to Gestalt therapy is the use of the flow of conscious contat with the environment Gestalt therapy orients the worker toward encouraging the the fullest expression of the client as a person Psychiatry & Social Psychology

With philosophical roots in phenomenology and existentialism, Gestalt therapy has offered a great deal to Social Work Individual, Therapeutic, steeped in case work

It is argued that due to organismic nature of Gestalt theory there is a close connection with systems theory and hence it can be of use for macro or micro systems May be used in Group Work and community Work but there is no evidence of such use

9 Role Theory Ruth Benedict Knigsly Davis In Social Work Pearlman, H.S. Stream etc

Role signifies Cultural Pattern- Social Norm. Basic factor in the process of socilization – synonym as behaviour- participation in a specific group – carrying a status. Derived from sociology & Social Psychology. It is largely used in conjuction with social systems theory & also Behaviour Modification Therapy. Socilogy & Social Psychology

The notion of role prescription has been used in case work treatment It is individual oriented. It helps the worker also to delineate his role as catalyst, neutralizer, advicate, stimulator etc

Role theory emphasis on social interaction hence the client is not seen as a diseased entity- he is seen as a stimulator. It is gainfully used in work with deprived groups & ethnnic minorities. Inter personal problems in small groups & communities are examined. Problem resolution is viewed as group & community task

10 Behaviour Modification Therapy ( Action Therapy) BF Skinner etc

An approach rather than a theory – promotes changes in client’s behaviour directly. Identify the target behaviour and control the antecedent conditions. Consequences of behaviour are assessed and interventions to avoid harm may be planned. Psychology ( Behaviourist School) & Psychiatry

Intervention with individuals. Dyadic (Therapist-Client) Triadic (Therapist-Mediator- Client) Work for modification

Environmental engineering as secondary objective


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11 Family Therapy (Structural Family Therapy – Strategic Family Therapy or Systems Therapy)

Not a theory Widely accepted in mental health & social service arena for practice. It is shift from atomized level of individual to the level of family. Focuses on family- centers attention on the social psychological linkage between individual and larger social organization. Embedded in sociological theories and psychiatric approaches. Sociology & Social Psychiatric

Family Case Work Using sub groups in family diads & triads. Ultimately it aims atr improving social functioning, restore equilibrium, strengthen adaptation of individual persons

Although family is seen as a “ whole” but the individual person goes beyond the family in the interdependent sub system e.g. neighborhood, community, ethnic sub culture . Other sub systems are not taken care of.

12 Task Centered Treatment

Evolved from a model of brief time limited Case Work Psycho social case work for helping individuals & families with problems in family relations. Client define their psycho social problems and have hope to solve these problems. Reliance on tasks as a means of problem resolution.

Help individuals Used in case work

The strategy may not be applied to work with clients in families and ‘ Formed Groups’ assembled to help individual members to solve their problems

13 Crisis Theory Harvard School of Psychiatry & Public Health

Derived from case work practice of social work. Crisis situations put persons in vulnerable situations heightening anxiety, depression and deprivation call for crisis intervention. Psychological models, sociological theories & Social Work practice influenced use of this approach. Roots in psychodynamic personality theory, stress theory, learning theory & ego psychology. Psychology, Sociology & Social Work

Medical situation, disasters, conflict lead to crisis where social workers take work on the front line may apply this approach. Immediate emotional first aid and strengthening individual coping capacity are its strategies

Applied to correct family role net works Applied also to friendship and common interest groups in crisis

14 General Systems Theory L. von Bertalanffy and others

It is more a way of thinking, a way of viewing the world than a theory. Instead of focussing on a system at one level, such a a group, it may take several levels, including the individual, the group, the organizationand the community sociology. Physical Sciences

Used in practice methods – improvement in human behaviour and the social environment. The “core” (micro, mezzo, macro) is important in this theory

Social welfare policies and services/ social work as a social institution, marital and family therapy, administration, organizational theory, field work

Concepts/ Theories / Philosophies (Lesser Used)

15 Existential Social Work (Compared with the book of Ecclesiasts in Old Testament – Zen Buddhism in the East) Jean Paul Satre and others

More philosophical perspective rather than specific technique or theory. Impact on social work is unclear. A philosophy of despair and disillusionment Philosophy/ Religion/ Theology

Used for lessening categorization of people. Cuts the paternalistic attitudes of therapists. More present focused, experiential, task oriented, short term work with people

More effective treatment of the poor & minorities


19

16 Transactional Analysis (social Treatment Model) Eric Berne

People are OK/ I am OK. You are OK. People in social/ emotional stress are capable of understanding their stress. They want to be part of healing process and must be so involved. All social/ emotional difficulties are curable. Modeled in Social Psychiatry ( Alternative Psychiatry)

It fits with ethics, goals of social work for advocacy, policy and systems change towards social justice. In social work TA offers an approach to client advocacy, policy planning and change. TA encourages self management and responsibility for the enhancement of quality of life.

Ta can be taught to administrators, legislators and executives so that they make the clients/ beneficiaries the participants in achieving healthy state of mind /action

17 Meditation and Social Work Treatment Arose from psycho philosophical systems of American Indians, Central Asian Sufi Tradition, Chinese Taoism, Hindu Yoga, Zen Buddhism, Catholic Christian Tradition and Jewish Mysticism

Borrowed from Theology/ Philosophy. It is by and large development of consciousness independent of visual & verbal symbols. Deliberate effort to cultivate mental state conducive to intuition. It may be used for stress release. It is also used as a therapeutic aid in psychiatry and social work

In social work (also in psychotherapy) it is a method adjunctive to treatment. For those involved in social work treatment, the learnings transferred from meditation practice into psycho social functioning of the meditator.

Meditation may be used for release of stress and relaxation of group of people

18 The Life Model of Social Work Practice

Based on ecological theories Since these are not found having a place in the syllabi of Indian Social Work Schools, these are not dealt with here

19 Communication Concepts and Practice

Based on communication theories


20

Box: Systems Theory –Dia Theories used by Social Workers

Systems Theory The term "systems theory" refers to a host of theoretical and methodological practices ranging across

different disciplines. Those who study systems theory tend to view any system as the result of a dynamic interrelationship between its component parts and its whole. They view the parts as mutually

determinate with the whole. Social workers utilizing systems theory view societies and social groups as dynamic systems. They are concerned with bettering the conditions of the individuals who make up

such systems.

Research Methodology 1. As a research methodology, systems theory can help social workers understand How systems both

determine and are determined by those who make up the system. Once the dynamics of a system are understood, social workers try to figure out how best to create positive change in that system in order

to bring about better standards of living.

Mental Health 2. Mental health professionals tend to use systems theory as a way of understanding how individuals

are both products of and complicit in their personal situations, as well as how these situations tend to affect the people in them. They seek to help individuals understand their situation, and work to help

those individuals find healthy ways both to cope with their environments and to help instigate change within their own lives.

Policymaking

3. Systems theory can be used to understand social dynamics on a large scale. Social workers who are concerned with policymaking use systems theory to understand how public policy can be used to

improve living conditions and help bring about social equality for those living within large social systems such as cities, nations, or even the world.

Advocacy

4. Advocates tend to focus on particular issues within a society and use systems theory as a means of understanding the complex dynamics surrounding those particular issues. For instance, those working to

promote racial equality will use systems theory to understand how racism functions on a structural level throughout a given system and determine ways to end racism.

Family 5. Family social workers and child advocates tend to use systems theory tounderstand family

dynamics, and try to use its insights to educate and promote healthy family structures. They try to

understand how hierarchies and parental responsibility in family structures work, and determine when those hierarchies or responsibilities are not functioning properly, as well as when physical intervention

may be necessary to protect members of the family Read more: General Systems Theory in Social Work | eHow.com

Social Work Theories

Behavioral Theories B.F. Skinner Ivan Pavlov

Cognitive Theories Alfred Adler Jean Piaget

Crisis Theory Kathleen Ell

B. Gilliland & R. James L.G. & H. J. Parad

Ecological System Theory Urie Bronfenbrenner

Empowerment Theory E. Cox & L. Gutierrez

J. Lee, E. Canada, P. Chatterjee & S.P. Robbins

Family Life Cycle Theory

Family Systems Strategic Therapy (Model)

Humanistic (Existential/ Transpersonal)

Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers Carl Jung

Object Relations Theory

Margaret Mahlen, Otto Kernberg

Psychodynamic Theory Sigmund Freud, Eric Erickson

Social-Cultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky: Thomas Scheff:

Solution Focused Therapy (Model) Structural Family Therapy Murray Bowen, Virginia Satir

1

2

3 4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11 12 13

http://www.ehow.com/about_5422804_general-systems-theory-social-work.html#ixzz0tpm0EtHC


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Table: Theories used by Social Workers

The

ory

Proponents Origin of Distress Major Assumptions/Change Concepts

Major Techniques/ Role of Help

1. B

EHA

VIO

RA

L

B.F. Skinner: Ivan Pavlov:

Maladaptive Behavior

Behavior is learned through observing and modeling.

Ideas are formed on how new behavior will be developed.

Problems can be changed by addressing the antecedents and consequences that surround the behavior.

Use reinforcement (positive and negative), systematic desensitization, flooding, skill building, token system contingencies, modeling and role playing.

Be empathetic towards clients

2. C

OG

NIT

IVE

Alfred Adler: Jean Piaget:

Distorted and painful thought processes

Error in thinking, irrational thinking and beliefs and unconscious cognitive schema which impact how we view the world and ourselves.

Think things through according to developmental stages.

Thoughts behind something drive behavior to it.

Change in feelings and behavior is a result in change in thinking or cognitive restructuring.

Identifies error in cognition.

Helps client reframe thoughts.

Clarify internal communication and give homework to clarify thinking.

Thought blocking

3. C

RIS

IS

Kathleen Ell B. Gilliland & R. James L.G. & H. J. Parad

Unexpected traumatic events that disrupts the balance of normal psychosocial functioning.

A crisis lowers defenses and provides opportunity for change.

Traumatic stress overwhelms capacity to cope.

The more unresolved earlier crises the more vulnerable individuals are to being unable to resolve new crisis.

Take action

Rely on past coping.

Reduce individual’s feelings or distress, helplessness and isolation; activate social resources and support effective coping through listening, validation, acceptance, education and resource linkage.

4. E

CO

LOG

ICA

L SY

STEM

S Urie Bronfenbrenner

Disruption or disconnection between a person and their environment

Functioning improves when person is connected to supportive networks

Functioning improves when person has access to resources.

Functioning improves when external systems are engaged with the person.

Link

Broker

Resources

Transport

Advocate

5. E

MP

OW

ERM

ENT

E. Cox and L. Gutierrez J. Lee E. Canada, P. Chatterjee & S.P. Robbins

Forces of discrimination and oppression that impact individuals and groups

Problems arise as a result of society’s failure to adequately and equally meet the needs of all of its members.

Refers to individual and group’s ability to access and control resources and people.

Requires developing a critical awareness of forces of discrimination and oppression and engaging in effective action.

Encouragement

Help provide sense of power and self efficacy


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6. F

AM

ILY

LIFE

CY

CLE

?

?

The family is an organism that develops through stages that have specific tasks to be completed.

?

7. F

AM

ILY

SYST

EMS

STR

ATE

GIC

THER

AP

Y

(MO

DEL

)

?

Absence of individual systems that ultimately affects family function

Error with the system of communication

Functioning improves when change in patterns of functioning changes.

Functioning changes when view of interactions do.

Reframing

Paradox

Prescribing relapse

8. H

UM

AN

IST

IC

(Exi

ste

nti

al/

Tran

spe

rso

nal

)

Abraham Maslow: Carl Rogers: Carl Jung

Lack of basic needs

Unclear about life purpose

Fear as a result of a defensively contracted state and an ego identified self that blocks development

Focuses on strengths and how humans are adaptable

People are unique therefore treatment must be unique

Humans are responsible for finding meaning in life.

Individuals develop through pre-egoic, mental egoic and transegoic stages.

Clinician acts as a guide, helps client develop resources/solutions for problems

Encouragement

Introspection

Meditation

Guided Imagery

9. O

BJE

CT

REL

ATI

ON

S

Margaret Mahlen: Otto Kernberg:

Problems with childhood relationship between the child and his/her primary caretaker (in most cases, a female)

Emphasizes interpersonal relations where focus is on the family.

Focuses on early stages of development where initial relationship with mother is paramount.

Clinician identifies patterns with other relationships

Helps client develop healthy relationships

10

. PSY

CH

OD

YN

AM

IC

Sigmund Freud: Eric Erickson:

Stage fixation or being stuck in a stage due to one’s environment

Environment is not supportive of individuals development

Behavior is an end product of a long contentious internal discussion about one’s behavior.

Change comes through a corrective emotional relationship and insight into patterns

Strong emphasis on self

Individuals develop through stages with specific tasks to be completed, crisis to manage

Analyze impact of behavior on others.

Refers to the client’s childhood, where their story becomes important.

Use of transference

Awareness of countertransference

Interpretation

11

. SO

CIA

L-C

ULT

UR

AL

Lev Vygotsky: Thomas Scheff:

Social injustices

Behavior is influenced by the social environment

Culture shapes a pattern of symptoms where disorders develop

Clinician acts as a risk agent and lobbies for change to occur


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Major Theories – Used in Social Work Practice

Systems Theory Psychodynamic Theory Social Learning Theory Conflict Theory

Developmental Theories

Theories of moral reasoning (Kohlberg, Gilligan)

Theories of cognition (Piaget)

Transpersonal theories of human development (Transpersonal – means beyond or through the

persona or mask. Going beyond identity rooted in the individual body or ego to include spiritual

experience or higher levels of consciousness.)

Stage theories – Erikson

Primary Perspectives

Strengths Feminist Eco-Systems

Current Social Work Practice Models

Problem Solving Task-Centered Solution – Focused Narrative Cognitive-Behavioral Crisis

In brief, social work practice models are like recipes. They are step-by-step guides for client sessions.

Perspectives represent what aspects of the session are emphasized or highlighted in a session (i.e. questions asked or time spent). Theories are overall explanations of the person-in-environment

configuration. Theories help explain why the problem is occurring and where the most efficient intervention should take place.

12

. SO

LUTI

ON

FOC

USE

D T

HER

AP

Y

(MO

DEL

)

?

?

There are exceptions for all problems.

Emphasizes positive envisioning.

“It is easier to do more of what one can already do than to learn new adaptive behaviors or unlearn maladaptive ones.”

Help client identify exceptions

Use miracle questions and scaling questions

13

. STR

UC

TUR

AL

FAM

ILY

THER

AP

Y (

MO

DEL

)

Murray Bowen: Virginia Satir:

Family Dysfunction

Disengagement

Enmeshment

Families are systems with individual structures that impact their functioning.

Functioning changes when structure changes and boundaries are realigned.

Focuses on individuals in the context of their multigenerational families, encompassing 7 concepts (Differential of self; emotional triangles, nuclear family emotional system, family projection process, multigenerational transmission, emotional cutoff and sibling position.

Boundary making

Realigning

Enactments

Spontaneous interactions

Goal is to improve communication

Role playing and hand holding with client


24

Box: Crisis Theory and Crisis Intervention

Crisis Theory and Crisis Intervention

What do we mean by crisis? Crisis is not stress – often these terms are used interchangeably

Crisis contains a growth-promoting possibility – it can be a catalyst

„Crisis disturbs old established patterns of responding‟ (Wright, 1991) Crisis can be seen as:

a hazardous event

decision making (Greek word „krisis‟)

danger and opportunity (Chinese symbols)

Thus, crisis is a time for decision-making in a situation presenting danger and opportunity. Developmental vs Situational Crises

What happens in a crisis? - habitual strengths and ways of coping do not work because the situation is new to us, or it has not been

anticipated, or a series of events become too overwhelming

Crisis theory is: Based in psychodynamic ego psychology Looks at mental health implications of life crises

Assumptions: how one copes with current problems reflects how one coped with previous problems and how one will

cope with future problems

everyone experiences hazardous (difficult or dangerous) life events

vulnerable states exist when hazardous events cause people to lose their equilibrium (their capacity to

deal with things) all crises reach resolution in 6 to 8 weeks

intervention during crisis can be more successful than at other times as people are more open to be

helped during this period than at other times

new ways of solving concerns may lead to improved coping capacity in the future

in the „reintegration‟ after the active crisis, people become set in newly learned ways of solving

problems, so learning effective problem-solving during the crisis improves their capacity in the future

Social worker role: Supportive, listening, empowering Key authors:

Caplan, Golan, O‟Hagan, Parad, Rapoport, Tyhurst Aspects of crisis work similar to other time-limited, brief or focused social work approaches:

brief intervention

structured

„contracts‟ or other explicit agreements between worker and client are used

Crisis intervention

Strengths help is time-limited – and therefore effective in terms of effort and resources

crisis intervention relates internal crisis to external changes (i.e. links people‟s internal and external

worlds)

where people can develop new adaptive ways of coping, they can achieve better social functioning

it is relevant and useful for a number of short-term crisis situations e.g. loss and bereavement,

depression, traumatic experiences such as accidents and other situations of sudden change Limitations

it can involve workers being highly intrusive and directive, which can raise a number of issues e.g.

ethical dilemmas and rights re: decision-making process term „crisis intervention‟ is often used to describe „stress‟ or people living in a chronic state of crisis.

This makes it difficult to differentiate between crisis intervention as a specific approach rather than as

an intervention used in crisis situations

it may not be possible, given limited resources or time, to assemble all the elements necessary for

positive change to occur – consequently, this approach may not be viable in some social work settings


25

Box: Social Work Critical Theory & Practice

Social Work Critical Theory & Practice

Social Work

Social workers attempt to use the insights of social theories such as Critical Theory to promote equality and general improvements in the living conditions of underprivileged individuals and

communities. The demographics of these communities include minorities, socioeconomic groups and people living in particular regions.

Critical Theory

Critical Theorists are concerned with the critique and alteration of industrial and post-industrial social structures. Critical Theorists study societal influences, from cultural products to commercial structures.

Critical Theorists believe that by analyzing everything from literary works to social institutions they can better understand how power is situated in society and work to systematically destabilize it.

The Frankfurt School The term Critical Theory emerged from the work of a group of mostly German philosophers known as

the Frankfurt School. Important figures included Walter Benjamin, Theodor Adorno and Max

Horkheimer. The Frankfurt School philosophers were heavily influenced by the events of the first half of the 20th century--particularly the first and second world wars, the failure of working-class Marxist

revolution, and the rise of Nazism. They sought, primarily through criticism, to undermine social orthodoxy, whether it was communist or capitalist, in order to help bring about radical social change.

Theoretical Analysis and Application

Critical Theory is about contrasting the ideals of a society with its actual conditions. Social workers can apply Critical Theory by carrying out such an analysis and then attempting to improve the actual

conditions of groups of people. They need not attempt to do this through revolutionary action; indeed, they can affect a lot of change just by bringing to light that the actual conditions of a society do not

live up to its ideals, and then working to move those conditions to meet the society's ideals more closely.

Practical Application

In practice, Critical Theory is perhaps best applied to policy initiatives and advocacy. By analyzing the real conditions of underprivileged or marginalized groups, social workers can pinpoint things that need

to change in order to improve those conditions. They can then work through public action to endorse and advocate change, through both democratic processes and grass-roots community involvement.


26

Box: Theory of social Darwinism and General Systems Theory in Social Work

Theory of social Darwinism

Social Darwinism is in practice a political theory. It opposes welfare and generally favours

lassez faire. It sees the main role of government as the defence of property and the

provision of a legal system. However, there were many varieties of Social Darwinism with differing emphases and views. It is less monolithic than is often thought.

General Systems Theory in Social Work Research Methodology

As a research methodology, systems theory can help social workers understand how systems both

determine and are determined by those who make up the system. Once the dynamics of a system are understood, social workers try to figure out how best to create positive change in that system in order

to bring about better standards of living. Mental Health

Mental health professionals tend to use systems theory as a way of understanding how individuals are

both products of and complicit in their personal situations, as well as how these situations tend to affect the people in them. They seek to help individuals understand their situation, and work to help

those individuals find healthy ways both to cope with their environments and to help instigate change within their own lives.

Policymaking Systems theory can be used to understand social dynamics on a large scale. Social workers who are

concerned with policymaking use systems theory to understand how public policy can be used to

improve living conditions and help bring about social equality for those living within large social systems such as cities, nations, or even the world.

Advocacy Advocates tend to focus on particular issues within a society and use systems theory as a means of

understanding the complex dynamics surrounding those particular issues. For instance, those working

to promote racial equality will use systems theory to understand how racism functions on a structural level throughout a given system and determine ways to end racism.

Family Family social workers and child advocates tend to use systems theory to understand family dynamics,

and try to use its insights to educate and promote healthy family structures. They try to understand how hierarchies and parental responsibility in family structures work, and determine when those

hierarchies or responsibilities are not functioning properly, as well as when physical intervention may

be necessary to protect


27

Box: Modern Social Work Theory

Modern Social Work Theory The Importance of Theory

Theory refers to the structured set of assumptions, observations and statements that direct our understanding of the world. In social work, theories help illuminate social structures, human

behavior, crisis and conflict, and provides insights into how to alleviate social and personal hardships.

Theories are used to guide the practice of social work. Feminist Theory

One example of a theory used in social work is feminist theory. Feminist theory seeks to understand how oppressed groups, and in particular women living in male-dominated societies, are affected by

their social position. When social workers use this theory, they might look at how power has been

exercised over women and how women have achieved greater equality and liberation over time. Social Constructivist Theory

Social constructivist theory looks at how people's beliefs and actions shape and re-create their social context, and how in turn that social context reflects upon people, re-creating itself or gradually

changing through their practices. From social constructivist theory, social workers can gain insights into how societies reinforce themselves and change through the actions of individuals. They can then

go about using insights from social constructivist theory when they try to instigate social change in

their own societies. Conflict Theory

Conflict theory is like feminist theory in that it observes hierarchical relations of people within society. However, conflict theory posits a society in which groups compete over their collective interests.

Eventually, one or more of these groups are dominated by a particular group and marginalized.

Conflict theory attempts to emphasize solidarity among marginalized groups as they attempt to resist the status quo created by the dominant social group. As such, it stresses people's ability to work

together to better their conditions. It is largely influenced by the works of Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels and other prominent Marxist theorists, such as Louis Althusser.

Social Cognitive Theory Social cognitive theory is a psychological theory that describes the individual as a complex being

molded by personal factors, environment and learned behavior. It emphasizes a technique called self-

efficacy, whereby one can come to self-regulate antisocial behavior through an understanding of one's environment and by developing certain expectations about the outcomes of certain behavior.

Social workers can use these insights in order to help counsel people suffering from antisocial behavior.


28

While considering a theory or theories, social workers also understand its limitations too:

L

imit

ati

on

s of

Th

eori

es

Recognise that no single theory can explain everything: When a person

engages in an action (or inaction) the reason for their behaviour can be rooted in a range of causes or motives.

Related to the first point, recognise that some theoretical approaches just

don't work with some people. Applying Brief Solution Focused Therapy can be really effective with some people. For other people, it leaves them cold.

Always apply the value base to theory - much of the theory used in social

care practice and social work is drawn from outside of the profession. Theory may have its roots in education, psychology or management. As such, it may

not incorporate social work values and you should take responsibility for applying these

Never be intimidated by theory. You use it every day.

Box: Limitations of theory

Dia: Need to apply social work theory in practice

Why do we need to apply social work theory to practice?

Theories can help us to

make sense of a situation. Using theory, we can

generate ideas about what is going on, why things are

as they are etc. For example the information obtained as

part of an assessment can

seem like a jumble of information - applying

theory can help "make sense" of the information.

In work with individuals, making

use of the theories which may relate to their specific situation

will give us more direction in our

work with them.

Using theory can give an explanation about why an action resulted

in a particular consequence. This can help us review and possibly change our practice in an attempt to make the consequences

more effective.

It is clear then, that

theory is important in practice - both for work

with service users and for social work to be more

valued in society.

Using theory can help to

justify actions and explain practice to service users,

carers and society in general. The aim is that

this will lead to social work becoming more

widely accountable and

ultimately more respected.

Whilst individual social work

theories have different purposes, using all kinds of theory in our

work offers us, as social workers, some important things.

1 2

4

5 6


29

Box: Personality Psychology

Complexities associated with Personality Personality Psychology

Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that

uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations Why study personality?

* Constructing a coherent picture of a person and his or her major psychological processes * Investigating individual differences, that is, how people can differ from one another.

* Investigating human nature, that is, how all people's behaviour is similar? Philosophical assumptions about personality

1. Freedom versus Determinism

This is the debate over whether we have control over our own behavior and understand the motives behind it (Freedom), or if our behavior is causally determined by forces beyond our control (Determinism).

2. Heredity versus Environment Personality is thought to be determined largely by genetics and biology, by environment and experiences,

or by some combination resulting thereof.

3. Uniqueness versus Universality The argument over whether we are all unique individuals (Uniqueness) or if humans are basically similar

in their nature (Universality). Humanist psychologists were all advocates of the uniqueness of individuals. Behaviorists and cognitive theorists, in contrast, emphasized the importance of universal principles such as

reinforcement and self-efficacy. 4. Active versus Reactive

Do we primarily act through our own initiative (Active), or react to outside stimuli (Reactive)? Behavioral

theorists typically believe that humans are passively shaped by their environments, whereas humanistic and cognitive theorists believe that humans are more active.

5. Optimistic versus Pessimistic Personality theories differ on whether people can change their personalities (Optimism), or if they are

doomed to remain the same throughout their lives (Pessimism). Theories that place a great deal of

emphasis on learning are often, but not always, more optimistic than theories that do not emphasize learning.

Trait theories Traits are "enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself

that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts

Type theories Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of people.

Psychoanalytic theories Psychoanalytic theories explain human behaviour in terms of the interaction of various components of

personality. Behaviorist theories

Behaviorists explain personality in terms of the effects external stimuli have on behavior.

Classical (Classical conditioning (also Pavlovian or respondent conditioning)ian reinforcement) is a form of associative learning) as well as operant conditioning (Operant conditioning (sometimes

referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.)

Social cognitive theories

In cognitivism, behavior is explained as guided by cognitions (e.g. expectations) about the world, especially those about other people. Cognitive theories are theories of personality that emphasize

cognitive processes such as thinking and judging. Humanistic theories

In humanistic psychology it is emphasized people have free will and they play an active role in determining how they behave.


30

Tab: Levels & Definitions of Social Economic Development Practice in Social Work

Levels of

Practice

Major Purposes, Outcomes, or Processes

Associated with Levels of Social Work Practice

Individual & Group

Empowerment

Through "self help," "mutual aid," and "conscientization" strategies individuals and groups learn how to perceive and act upon the contradictions that exist in the social,

political, and economic structures intrinsic to all societies.

Conflict Resolution

Efforts directed at reducing: (1) grievances between persons or groups; or, (2) asymmetric power relationships between members of more powerful and less powerful

groups.

Institution-Building

Refers both to the process of "humanizing" existing social institutions and that of establishing new institutions that respond more effectively to new or emerg-ing social

needs.

Community-Building

Through increased participation and "social animation" of the populace, the process through which community's realize the fullness of their social, political, and economic

potential; the process through which communities respond more equitably to the social and material needs of their populations.

Nation-Building The process of working toward the integration of a nation's social, political, economic,

and cultural institutions at all levels of political organization.

Region-

Building

The process of working toward the integration of a geo-political region's social, political,

economic, and cultural institutions at all levels of social organization.

World-Building The process of working toward the establishment of a new system of interna-tional relationships guided by the quest for world peace, increased social jus-tice, the

universal satisfaction of basic human needs, and for the protection of the planet's fragile eco-system.

Theory A general statement about the real world whose essential truth can be supported by evidence obtained

through the scientific method. – Must explain in a provable way why something happens. Ex: Learning theory explains behavior on the basis of what organisms have learned from the environment.

Model

Is a blueprint for action. It describes what happens in practice in a general way. Ex: The behavioral model (based on learning theory) gives specific guidelines to for how to effect change. If a parent complains that

his child is having difficulty staying in his own bed at night and the parent has been allowing the child to sleep in his/her bed( thereby reinforcing the child‟s difficulty) the practitioner would help the parent to

extinguish the behavior by removing the reinforcement. Perspective

A way of perceiving the world flows from a value position. Note: The perspective will influence choice of

theory and model. Note: Payne (1997) argues that social work theory succeeds best when it contains all three elements of perspective, theory and model. Example: Men who batter their partners Theory: Social learning theory – men learn their violent behavior in their family of origin, and from a culture that rewards anger and violence in men; cognitive theory – what men say to themselves in situations of stress increases their anger and their propensity to be violent. Model: Cognitive-behavioral Perspective: Feminist


31

Dia: Models of Social Work Practice

MODELS OF SOC I AL

WORK PRACT I

CE

The vast majority of Social Workers function within one of four basic models of practice: the Personal Social Services Model (PSSM); the Social Welfare Model (SWM), the Social Development Model (SDM), and the New World Order Model (NWOM).

The Personal Social Services Model

The Personal Social Services Model (PSSM) of social development practice seeks to extend to people everywhere a range of basic social services that are needed to either restore or

enhance their capacity for social functioning. The model's primary goals are: 1) to provide remedial and preventive services to individuals, families, and groups whose optimal social

functioning is either temporarily impaired or inter-rupted; and 2) to extend social protection to

population groups that are threatened by exploitation or degradation. The PSSM also seeks to ensure increased sensitivity and responsiveness on the part of human service providers to the

special service needs of culturally diverse population groups.

The Social Welfare Model

The Social Welfare Model (SWM) of social work (development) practice is rooted in

comparative social policy and comparative social research. The goals associated with the SWM include: 1) self help; 2) mutual aid; 3) humanitarianism; and 4) the establishment of effective,

preferably universal, systems of formal social provision. The SWM also views developmental social welfare practice as part of the worldwide movement that seek to promote social security

and social justice for people everywhere (Elliott et al., 1990; Evers & Wintersberger, 1988;

USDHHS, 1997). .

The Social Development Model

The Social Development Model (SDM) has its origins in community organization and community devel-opment practice and does, therefore, promote the fullest possible

participation of people in determining both the means and goals of social development. In

doing so, the model seeks to provide a framework for understanding the underlying causes of human degradation, powerlessness, and social inequality every-where in the world. The

ultimate goal of the SDM, however, is to guide collective action toward the elimination of all forms of violence and social oppression.

.

The New World Order Model The New World Order Model (NWOM) of social development practice is closely associated with

the writings of "visionary" economists, political scientists, legal scholars, and environmentalists

(Brandt Commission, 1981). Major components of the NWOM are reflected in the fundamental social, political, and economic reforms in the existing international "order" that are being

sought by the United Nations (UN, 1990; UN/ESCAP, 1992b), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 1997), World Bank 1997) and other leading international development

assistance organizations. Elements of the NWOM also have been described by social work theoreticians.

The NWOM asserts that the most serious problems confronting humanity are rooted in the

fundamental inequalities that exist in the present world "order," i.e., in the system of international social, political, and economic institutions that govern relationships between

nations and, within nations, be-tween groups of people. In promoting its social change objectives, the NWOM calls for the creation of a "new world order" based on: 1) recognition of

and respect for the unity of life on earth; 2) the minimi-zation of violence; 3) the satisfaction

of basic human needs; 4) the primacy of human dignity; 5) the re-tention of diversity and pluralism; and 6) the need for universal participation in the process of attaining worldwide

social transformation. .


32

Tab: Models of (International) Social Work Practice

PERSONAL SOCIAL

SERVICES MODEL SOCIAL WELFARE

MODEL SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

MODEL NEW WORLD

ORDER MODEL

BA

SIC

AS

SU

MP

TIO

NS

R

EG

AR

DIN

G

TH

E

HU

MA

N

CO

ND

ITIO

N

At various times in their

lives people require

limited assistance in coping with problems of

daily living (e.g., serious illness, disability, family

dysfunction, income insecurity, etc.).

Others, owing to more

serious problems, are unable to function

independently and require more intensive

assistance over the long-

term. The personal social

services seek to restore or enhance the social

functioning of people to

an optimal level of self-sufficiency.

Owing to the

interdependent nature

of contemporary society, all people

confront predictable social "risks" for which

formally organized programs of social

protection are needed

(e.g., loss of income, serious illness, old age,

solitary survivor-ship, etc.).

Other groups of people

owing to factors that are largely beyond their

control are disadvantaged by

stratification norms that

reward some, but penalize many.

Social welfare is viewed as the primary

mechanism through which societies respond

to the legitimate needs

of dependent population groups.

Dominant national &

international systems

frustrate the efforts of disenfranchised people

(and countries) in their efforts to achieve parity

with "social haves." Persistent social,

political, and economic

inequalities in developing countries

result from: 1) a legacy of colonialism; 2)

"victimization" by in-

ternational systems that better serve the

interests of rich and powerful countries; 3)

internal corruption; and

4) "accidents" of geography that trap

resource poor countries in conditions of

perpetual deprivation. Within rich countries,

persistent inequalities

mirror patterns that exist in the global

system

Existing social,

political, and economic

"world order systems" are controlled by a

minority of rich and powerful countries

that have a vested interest in maintaining

the economic and

political dependency of poorer, less powerful,

countries. Persistent inequalities

between rich and poor

nations contribute directly to recurrent

wars, civil strife, and increasingly to more

serious problems of

global poverty and social injustice.

SO

CIA

L

CH

AN

GE

G

OA

LS

The protection of socially

vulnerable population

groups from exploitation and human degradation.

The provision of a range of services that restore &

as possible, enhance the capacity of people to

meet their social

obligations.

The establishment of

effective and cost

efficient sys-tems of social provision that

benefit the largest possible number of

people. Access to a basic

standard of social and

economic well being viewed as a basic

"right" of citizenship or residency.

The redistribution of

power and material

resources to historically disadvantaged

population groups, but especially to the poor,

landless persons, women, minorities, and

others.

Fuller participation of people at all levels of

social organization in the dominant political

and economic systems

of their countries.

Transformation of

existing world order

systems to systems that reflect: active

participation of all people and all relevant

sectors in the transformation pro-

cess; the alleviation of

human suffering everywhere;

Increased social and distributive justice;

and the attainment of

world peace and war prevention.


33

PERSONAL SOCIAL

SERVICES MODEL

SOCIAL WELFARE

MODEL

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

MODEL

NEW WORLD

ORDER MODEL

CH

AN

GE

TA

RG

ET

S

Individuals, families, and

small groups

The broader society

with special emphasis

on the social and economic well-being of

individuals and family groups

Groups, formal and

informal organizations,

communities, national sub-regions and nations

People at all levels of

social organization

including people's movements, nations,

world sub regions and regions, and

international co-operative movements.

SP

EC

IAL

INT

ER

NA

TIO

NA

L

EM

PH

AS

IS

Increased sensitivity and

responsiveness to the special service needs of

culturally diverse

population groups.

Social work and so-cial

welfare are viewed as world-wide social

movements that seek

to promote peace, social justice, and social

security for people everywhere.

Through a sense of

identification with oppressed people

everywhere, local

groups are assisted in undertaking change

efforts that benefit themselves and others.

The model emphasizes

the need for new international systems

based on: global

sharing rather than squandering; global

cooperation rather than competition; and

global conservation

rather than exploitation.

BA

SIC

C

HA

NG

E

ST

RA

TE

GIE

S

The provision of various

forms of psycho-social treatment and

rehabilitation. Limited financial

assistance and other

economic services to the poor based on eligibility

and established need.

The extension of basic

social guarantees and protections to people

everywhere, i.e., to minimal standards of

living and assured

access to at least basic health, education, and

other essential social services.

A broad range of group

and community building methods are employed:

conscientization (i.-e., social animation), self-

help, mutual aid,

conflict resolution, institution building, etc.

Change activities are

multifaceted and draw from the full spectrum

of governmental and non-governmental

actors, practice

methods, and organizational skills.

PR

IMA

RY

AG

EN

TS

OF S

OC

IAL

HA

NG

E Professionals &

Non professionals employed by public or

private human service organizations.

Interdisciplinary

teams of human service professionals working in

various welfare related sectors (e.g., housing,

health care, education,

income security, etc.).

Teams of trained

professionals & development experts in

cooperation with governmental entities,

people's organizations,

& other collectivities.

People and

governments working cooperatively in

creating new social systems that reflect

dramatically altered

international realities.

PR

ES

SU

RE

S

FO

R S

OC

IA

L

CH

AN

GE

Increasing numbers of

"dysfunctional" or socially dependent people.

Deteriorating social conditions that threaten

the life style or economic

security of more advantaged population

groups.

Recognition of new or

emerging social needs coupled with a

willingness to respond to those needs.

Social conflicts arising

from a growing "under class" of people who

are unable to participate meaningfully

in existing social order.

The social "animation"

of previously oppressed peoples.

International pressures to respond more

equitably to the

legitimate needs and rights of

disenfranchised populations.

Recurrent crises

stemming from: 1) the inability of existing

world systems to cope with mounting

pressures for change;

or 2) the occurrence of serious global

catastrophes such that fundamental changes

to existing world systems cannot be

avoided.


34

Tab: Ecological Systems /Strengths /Empowerment Perspective

Ecological Systems Perspective

Understands human behavior within environmental contexts

Explores the transactional nature of human behavior

Assumes an evolutionary nature of human development

Seeks to achieve a ‘goodness of fit’ between individuals and their environments

Dimensions of human systems

The Strengths Perspective Practice Assumptions

Clients bring strengths to the helping process in the forms of resources and competencies

Clients have a capacity for growth and change

Client problems reside in the transaction between client systems and the environment

A collaborative approach and practice to augment strengths and resources

Clients are experts on their own lives

Interventionist holds a positive vision for future possibilities for the client

Practice Theories that Inform Social Work Practice

Psychosocial theory Casework

Psychodynamic theory Case management

Behavioral theory Crisis intervention

Cognitive behavioral theory Family preservation

Social learning theory Family therapies

Symbolic interactionism Organizational change

Moral development theory Community change

Problem solving

Empowerment Based Practice

Provides a relationship, climate and resources through which people can enrich their lives

Requires a collaborative relationship with clients

Personal power Develop critical consciousness

Interpersonal power Reflect and act

Sociopolitical power Take social action

Use group modalities


35

Dia: Undestanding Social Work Theories in general

Basic Assumptions of Social Work

The centrality of the human being

Personal familial & communal problems are the result of human interactions with others

Problems can facilitated & enrich human life

Purpose of Social Work Practice

Enhance the problem - solving and coping capacity of people

Link people with systems - resources, services & opportunities

Promote the system’s effective and human operations

Development & improvement of social policy

The System Theory in Social Work (General System Theory)

Each system is compounded of:

Sub - systems

Boundaries - open & close

Feedback loops - input output

Homeostasis - change - preservation

Non - summativity - the whole is more than the sum of its parts

Reciprocity - change in one component affects the whole system

The Ecological Systems Theory (Germain&Gitterman,1980)

People constantly adapting in an interchange with different aspects of the environment

Reciprocal adaptation - developing through change and support by the environment

Social problems pollute the social environment reducing the possibility of reciprocal adaptation

Living systems must maintain a good fit with the environment

Appropriate inputs (information, food, resources etc.) are needed to maintain and develop ourselves

Problems - arise from maladaptive life space of people

Problems in the fit between needs and capacities

Life Transitions (Developmental changes, status and role changes)

Environmental pressures (Unequal opportunities, harsh organizations)

Interpersonal processes (Inconsistent expectations, exploitation)

Informal resource systems Family friends, neighbors etc.

Formal resource systems Organizations, union committee, associations etc.

Societal resource systems Hospitals, schools, police, occupational services etc.

Social Work Aims System & Ecological Theory

To strengthen the adaptive capacity of people - Problem solving capacities, establishing linkages to resource systems

To influence people environment towards more adaptive transactions

Facilitating interactions with resource systems, influencing social policy

Social Work’s Hierarchy of Solutions (Rosenfeld, 1985) 1. Help people to use their inner resources 2. Help people to use their informal social resources (family,

friends etc.) 3. Activate formal and general social sources (Legislation, social & organizational policy)

Social Work Ideology Basic Values (NASW) 1. The individual is the primary concern of society 2. There is interdependence between individuals in

society 3. Individuals have social responsibility for one another 4. There are human needs common to each person, yet

each person is essentially unique and different from each other

5. An essential attitude of democratic society is the realization of the full potential of each individual, and the assumption of his social responsibility through active participation in society

6. Society has the responsibility to provide ways in which obstacles to the self realization can be overcome or prevented.

The Primary Values of Social Work 1. Society has an obligation to ensure that people have access

to the resources, services and opportunities they need to meet various life tasks, alleviate distress and realize their aspirations and values.

2. In providing social resources, the dignity and individuality of people should be respected.

Specific Values in Social Work Practice Respect the client * Maximize clients’ self determination *Non judgmental attitude *Observe the confidenentiality of the client *Honesty in dealing with the client *Partnership in client – social worker relations *Respect cultural differences

Social Work Primary Roles Rehabilitation * Resources provision *Prevention of inadequate social functioning *Broker *Enabler *Empowerment *Educator *Mediator *Advocator

1 2

3 4

5

6

8

7

9

10


36

Dia: Theories of Human Behaviour

Theories of

Human Behavior

SYSTEMS HEORY Includes:

Ecological Systems [Systems Perspective]

Includes:

Family Systems [Systems Perspective]

BEHAVIORISM & SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Includes: Cognitive theory,

Behavioral theory,

Social Learning theory [Social Behavioral perspective]

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY Includes:

Classical psychodynamic theory, Ego-psychology, Object-

relations theory, Self-

psychology [Psychodynamic Perspective]

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY [Developmental Perspective]

TRANSPERSONAL THEORY [Developmental Perspective; built

upon Humanistic Perspective]

SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY [Rational Choice Perspective]

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM [Social Constructionist Perspective]

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM [Social Constructionist Perspective]

CONFLICT THEORY [Conflict Perspective]

CONTINGENCY THEORY [Systems Perspective]


37

Table: Theories of Human Behaviour

Theory of Human Behavior

Focus of Theory Main Concepts Regarding Human Behavior

SYSTEMS THEORY Includes: Ecological Systems [Systems Perspective] Includes: Family Systems [Systems Perspective]

How persons interact with their environment. How the family system affects the individual and family functioning across the life-span

*Persons are in continual transaction with their environment *Systems are interrelated parts or subsystems constituting an ordered whole *Each subsystem impacts all other parts and whole system *Systems can have closed or open boundaries *Systems tend toward equilibrium *Individual functioning shapes family functioning and family systems can create pathology within the individual *Boundaries, roles, communication, family structure influence family functioning

BEHAVIORISM & SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Includes: Cognitive theory, Behavioral theory, Social Learning theory [Social Behavioral perspective]

How individuals develop cognitive functioning and learn through acting on their environment

*Imitation & reaction to stimulation shape behavioral learning *Knowledge is constructed through children physically and mentally acting on objects *Intelligence is an evolutionary, biological adaptation to environment *Cognitive structures enable adaptation & organization

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY Includes: Classical psychodynamic theory, Ego-psychology, Object-relations theory, Self-psychology [Psychodynamic Perspective]

How inner energies and external forces interact to impact emotional development

*Unconscious and conscious mental activity motivate human behavior *Ego functions mediate between individual and environment *Ego defense mechanisms protect individuals from becoming overwhelmed by unacceptable impulses and threats *Internalized experiences shape personality development and functioning *Healing occurs through attention to transferences and the treatment relationship

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY [Developmental Perspective]

How internal & external forces shape life development, generally by life stages

*Human development occurs in defined & qualitatively different stages that are sequential & may be universal *Individual stages of development include specific tasks to be completed & crises to be managed *Time & social context shape & individualize the meaning of life stages

TRANSPERSONAL THEORY [Developmental Perspective; built upon Humanistic Perspective]

How the spiritual and religious aspects of human existence can be understood How spiritual development builds upon and goes beyond bio-psychosocial development

*Focuses on meaning, connection, and purpose *Some people achieve developmental level beyond the personal (ego-based) level into transpersonal (beyond self or ego) levels of consciousness and functioning. *There is an inherent tendency to express innate potentials for love, creativity, and spirituality *There is a difference between psychopathological phenomena and spiritual growth experiences

SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY [Rational Choice Perspective]

How persons minimize costs and maximize rewards through social exchange

*Antecedents, consequences, personal expectations, and interpretation shape and maintain behavior in the present *Self-interest determines social exchange *Unequal resources determine power inequities and reciprocity is essential *Six propositions: --Success proposition --Stimulus proposition --Value proposition --Deprivation-satiation -- proposition --Aggression-approval proposition --Rationality proposition

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM [Social Constructionist Perspective]

How socio cultural and historical contexts shape individuals and the creation of knowledge How individuals create themselves

*All experience is subjective and human beings recreate themselves through an on-going, never static process *Knowledge is created through an interplay of multiple social and historical forces *Social interaction is grounded in language, customs, cultural and historical contexts *All phenomenon, including the sciences, must be approached with doubt in order to understand how people construct reality *Humans are self-interpreting beings


38

Box: Empowerment Theory

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM [Social Constructionist Perspective]

How the “self” is influenced and shaped by social processes and the capacity to symbolize

*Human action is caused by complex interaction between and within individuals *Dynamic social activities take place among persons and we act according to how we define our situation *We act in the present, not the past *Individuals are actors on the stage and take on roles, interacting with the environment

CONFLICT THEORY [Conflict Perspective]

How power structures & power disparities impact people‟s lives

*All societies perpetuate some forms of oppression & injustice and structural inequity *Power is unequally divided & some groups dominate others *Social order is based on manipulation and control by dominant groups *Social change is driven by conflict, with periods of change interrupting periods of stability *Life is characterized by conflict not consensus

CONTINGENCY THEORY [Systems Perspective]

How individuals & groups gain power, access to resources, & control over their lives, often through collective action

*Groups are open, dynamic systems with both change and conflict present *Groups are stratified, with different and unequal levels of power and control *High discrimination and low privilege equals low opportunity *Oppression occurs when upward mobility is systematically denied *The social context must be critiqued and deconstructed *Assumptions for analyzing organizations: --there is no best way to manage organizations --there must be a match between the environment and internal resources --the design of the organization must fit with the environment

Empowerment refers to increasing the spiritual, political, social, or economic strength of individuals

and communities. It often involves the empowered developing confidence in their own capacities. The process of empowerment

The process which enables individuals/groups to fully access personal/collective power, authority and

influence, and to employ that strength when engaging with other people, institutions or society. In other words, “Empowerment is not giving people power, people already have plenty of power, in

the wealth of their knowledge and motivation, to do their jobs magnificently We define empowerment as letting this power out (Blanchard, K)." It encourages people to gain the skills and knowledge that

will allow them to overcome obstacles in life or work environment and ultimately, help them develop within themselves or in the society.

Empowerment includes the following, or similar, capabilities:-

The ability to make decisions about personal/collective circumstances

The ability to access information and resources for decision-making

Ability to consider a range of options from which to choose (not just yes/no, either/or.)

Ability to exercise assertiveness in collective decision making

Having positive-thinking about the ability to make change

Ability to learn and access skills for improving personal/collective circumstance.

Ability to inform others‟ perceptions though exchange, education and engagement.

Involving in the growth process and changes that is never ending and self-initiated

Increasing one's positive self-image and overcoming stigma Increasing one's ability in discreet thinking to sort out right and wrong


39

Box: Conflict Theory

Conflict theory Conflict theory states that the society or organization functions so that each individual and its groups struggle to maximize their benefits, which inevitably contributes to social change such as changes in politics and revolutions. The theory is mostly applied to explain conflict between social classes, proletarian versus bourgeoisie; and in ideologies such as capitalism versus socialism. It is the theory that a continual struggle exists between all different aspects of a particular society. The struggle that occurs does not always have to involve physical violence. It can pertain to an underlying struggle for each group or individual within a society to maximize its own benefits. The theory was founded by Karl Marx, and later developed by theorists such as Max Weber, etc. The theory attempts to refute functionalism, which considers that societies and organizations function so that each individual and group plays a specific role, like organs in the body. There are radical basic assumptions (society is eternally in conflict, which might explain social change), or moderate ones (custom and conflict are always mixed). The moderate version allows for functionalism to as an equally acceptable theory since it would accept that even negative social institutions play a part in society's self-perpetuation. Types of conflict theory Conflict theory is most commonly associated with Marxism, but as a reaction to functionalism and the positivist method may also be associated with number of other perspectives, including: •Critical theory •Feminist theory •Postmodern theory •Post-structural theory

•Postcolonial theory •Queer theory •World systems theory In sociology and biology, conflict theory states that the society or organization functions so that each individual participant and its groups struggle to maximize their benefits, which inevitably contributes to social change such as changes in politics and revolutions. The theory is mostly applied to explain conflict between social classes in ideologies such as socialism and communism. The theory refutes functionalism, which considers that societies and organization function so that each individual and group plays a specific role, like organs in the body. There are radical basic assumptions (it is only conflict, which might explain social change), or moderate ones (custom and conflict are always mixed). In understanding conflict theory, competition plays a key part. The following are four primary assumptions of modern conflict theory: 1. Competition. Competition over scarce

resources (money, leisure, sexual partners, and so on) is at the heart of all social relationships. Competition rather than consensus is characteristic of human relationships.

2. Structural inequality. Inequalities in power and reward are built into all social structures. Individuals and groups that benefit from any particular structure strive to see it maintained.

3. Revolution. Change occurs as a result of conflict between competing interests rather than through adaptation. It is often abrupt and revolutionary rather than evolutionary.

4. War. Even war is a unifier of the societies involved, as well as war may set an end to whole societies.

theories of social work -sr

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