theorizing news literacy behaviors

ORIG INAL ARTICLE

Theorizing News Literacy Behaviors

Emily K Vraga 1 Melissa Tully2 Adam Maksl3 Stephanie Craft4 ampSeth Ashley5

1Hubbard School of Journalism and Mass Communication University of Minnesota Minneapolis MN 55416

USA2School of Journalism and Mass Communication University of Iowa Iowa City IA 52242 USA3School of Social Sciences Indiana University Southeast New Albany IN 47150 USA4Department of Journalism University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Urbana IL 61801 USA5Department of Communication and Media Boise State University Boise ID 83725 USA

Despite renewed interest in news literacy (NL) as a way to combat mis- and dis-information existing scholarship is plagued by insufficient theory building and inade-quate conceptualization of both ldquoNLrdquo and its application We address this concern byoffering a concise definition of NL and suggest five key knowledge and skill domainsthat comprise this literacy We distinguish NL from its application to behaviors thatcommunication scholars have been interested in including news exposure verificationand identifying misinformation We propose an adapted Theory of Planned Behavior(TPB) to include NL in addition to the existing components (attitudes towards the be-havior social norms perceived behavioral control) when modeling NL Behaviors Wediscuss how this model can unite scholars across subfields and propose a researchagenda for moving scholarship forward

Keywords News Literacy (NL) News Literacy Behaviors (NLB) Theory of PlannedBehavior (TPB) Misinformation Journalism

doi101093ctqtaa005

That news ldquocomes helter-skelter in inconceivable confusionrdquo is perhaps truer nowthan when Lippmann (1920 p 38) offered that description nearly 100 years agoNews is produced by more people and distributed across a greater number of ven-ues and technologies than ever creating a landscape of nearly unfettered participa-tion and accessibility This abundance has contributed to an expansion of ldquonewsrdquo toinclude far more than the products of (professional) journalism outlets and in do-ing so sparked concerns about the publicrsquos ability to locate and distinguish relevant

Corresponding author Emily Vraga e-mail ekvragaumnedu

Communication Theory 0 (2020) 1ndash21 VC The Author(s) 2020 Published by Oxford University Press on behalf ofInternational Communication Association All rights reserved For permissions please email journalspermissionsoupcom

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high-quality information in the sea of available content (eg Lazer et al 2018Lewandowsky Ecker amp Cook 2017 Vosoughi Roy amp Aral 2018)

The fact that it is no longer clear if it ever was who is a ldquojournalistrdquo what isldquonewsrdquo and where to place onersquos trust underscores the need to better understandwhat constitutes NL which we define as knowledge and skills regarding news con-tent systems and practices Long before the 2016 US presidential election cam-paign raised concerns about ldquofake newsrdquo to a fever pitch researchers educatorsfact-checkers and others have been working to define what it means to be news lit-erate and investigate how literacy is linked to civic engagement (Ashley Maksl ampCraft 2017 Mihailidis amp Thevenin 2013) This conversation is occurring in a num-ber of disciplinesmdashcommunication political science psychology information sci-ence sociology rhetoricmdashbut not enough across disciplinary boundaries whichslows progress in theory-building and creating evidence-based interventions thatempower people with the knowledge skills and motivation to navigate ever-changing media environments

We propose a theoretical approach to this interdisciplinary field that draws onexisting work in news literacy (NL) and related research addressing similar questionsand issues We argue that becoming news literate is not an end in itself but ratherthat it is the application of NL that explains individualsrsquo behaviors Our approachbuilds from existing research that finds that news knowledge plays a powerful role inpredicting behaviors including news consumption identification of misinformationrejection of conspiracy beliefs and civic engagement (Amazeen amp Bucy 2019 CraftAshley amp Maksl 2017 Kahne amp Bowyer 2017 Newman Fletcher Kalogeropolousamp Nielsen 2019) We argue that these behaviors represent the application of NLwhich is distinct from the knowledge and skills required to be news literate

We theoretically ground our investigation of the other components that predictbehavior by drawing from the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen 19851991) to suggest that NL works in conjunction with attitudes social norms andperceived behavioral control to predict News Literacy Behaviors (NLB)mdashfor exam-ple consuming news evaluating it fairly identifying misinformation and verifyingcontent By applying this model we can identify the gaps between knowledge andbehavior investigate whether the factors that predict NLB differ across individualsor countries and develop more precise ways to improve these practices In doingso we better position NL research to address current challenges including the crisisthat the misinformation and ldquofake newsrdquo conversation has underscored

News media and related literacies

Debate abounds regarding what news is and what it ought to be (ArmstrongMcAdams amp Cain 2015 Edgerly 2017 Schudson 1998) The rise of social mediahas encouraged a broadening and blurring of the definition People scroll throughtheir ldquoNews Feedrdquo on Facebook to see content from professional news outlets along-side news and updates shared by friends and family Some scholars embrace this

Theorizing News Literacy Behaviors E K Vraga et al

2 Communication Theory 0 (2020) 1ndash21

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broad definition defining news on social media as ldquoany asserted claimrdquo (Vosoughiet al 2018 p 1146 see also Edgerly 2017) Similarly Edgerly and Vraga (2019)propose that we expand beyond production-oriented definitions of news (egrooted in journalistic news values) to consider audiencesrsquo assessments of the ldquonews-nessrdquo of content which depend on content features source cues and audiencepredispositions

We adopt a similarly inclusive view of news when considering onersquos ability to de-velop and apply NL to behavior We define news as any accurate information thatfacilitates decision-making on both personal and social issues thus enabling people tomore effectively engage with society This definition also underscores one of themain goals of developing NL being able to differentiate news and quality informa-tion that can come from a variety of sources from the plethora of content that circu-lates online some of which is designed to mislead audiences about the source andthe standards upheld in creating it (Amazeen amp Bucy 2019 Jeong Cho amp Hwang2012 Kahne amp Bowyer 2017 Malik Cortesi amp Gasser 2013)

NL has typically been regarded as a subtype of media literacy defined as the abil-ity to access analyze evaluate and communicate messages in a variety of formsThis definition stems from a 1992 National Leadership Conference on MediaLiteracy in the US that highlighted widely shared precepts of media literacy includ-ing that media are constructed and construct reality and have commercial politi-cal and ideological implications The conference report went on to note that theldquofundamental objective of media literacy is critical autonomy in relationship to allmediardquo but that ldquoemphases in media literacy training range widely including in-formed citizenship aesthetic appreciation and expression social advocacy self-esteem and consumer competencerdquo (Aufderheide amp Firestone 1993 p 9)

Approaches to media literacy and related literacies (eg digital informationnews) are more fractured than cohesive which has led to definitional and measure-ment problems in research as well as curriculum and intervention development(Potter 2004) According to one review media literacy scholarship consists of apatchwork of conceptualizations and measures often lack content or face validitybecause researchers measure beliefs or attitudes about media literacy capabilitiesand not actual performance (Potter amp Thai 2019)

In both scholarly and popular discourse NL likewise lacks a broadly agreedupon definition or an obvious method of assessment In the popular press NL isfrequently offered as an antidote to ldquofake newsrdquo and characterized as the ability tospot hoaxes check facts and understand and appreciate the work of traditionaljournalists (Barron 2017 Miller 2019)mdashbehaviors that we argue follow from theapplication of NL rather than constituting NL itself Some researchers have workedto situate NL in a theoretically grounded context within the broader domain of me-dia literacy (Maksl Ashley amp Craft 2015 Vraga Tully Kotcher Smithson ampBroeckelman-Post 2015) but even these efforts sometimes conflate normativebeliefs and attitudes about journalism with the knowledge needed to judge the qual-ity or reliability of news content (Ashley Maksl amp Craft 2013)

E K Vraga et al Theorizing News Literacy Behaviors

Communication Theory 0 (2020) 1ndash21 3

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NL advocates and educators have largely taken an a-theoretical approach em-phasizing instruction about the important role of news in society and the normsand practices professional journalists employ in gathering it The influential Centerfor News Literacy at Stony Brook University places the journalistic process at thecenter of its approach suggesting that becoming news literate is akin to ldquoacquir[ing]the critical thinking skills of a journalistrdquo (Klurfeld amp Schneider 2014 p19) One as-sessment of the effectiveness of the Stony Brook curriculum found that studentswho took the class scored higher on an independent survey of news media knowl-edge structures had greater motivation to consume news and were more knowl-edgeable about current events than students who had not taken the class (MakslCraft Ashley amp Miller 2017)

While these findings might support the usefulness of NL in general there is anassumed connection between the knowledge students gain through NL educationand the behaviors educators hope or expect students to exhibit as a result This em-phasis on learning how journalists think and what they do or more generally de-veloping critical thinking skills ldquoto judge the reliability and credibility ofinformationrdquo (ldquoWhat is News Literacyrdquo 2016) does not distinguish between havingknowledge and skills and applying those knowledge and skills This approach alsodoes not address the role of motivation in either gaining knowledge or applying itFor example one could understand how journalists conduct their work but neveract upon that understanding with regard to onersquos own consumption of newsTherefore we argue definitions of NL need to move beyond newsroom practicesand norms to encompass how these practices develop and their implications thebroader system in which news is embedded the ways in which people engage withnews and how these processes differ across contexts and countries Additionallywe must recognize that NL is one component of a model that leads people to applythis knowledge in the performance of NLBs

Potter (2004) comes closest to offering a theoretical understanding of media lit-eracymdashincorporating skills and competencies as well as knowledge structures andinformation processing At the same time the broad stretch of this model and ab-sence of empirical grounding makes it difficult to operationalize or assess (Makslet al 2015) Existing measures do not capture the complexity of NL or keep upwith the changing news and information landscape (Jones-Jang Mortensen amp Liu2019 Tully Maksl Ashley Vraga amp Craft 2019) NL research needs to explorenews defined broadly to reflect audiencesrsquo perspectives and changing structures innews production and delivery (Edgerly amp Vraga 2019) and to expand beyond USand Western perspectives often favored in scholarship (Reese 2012)

Research in the related area of information literacy has also suffered from aplethora of conceptualizations and limited theorizing UNESCO (2013) for exam-ple which had previously differentiated media and information literacy ultimatelycombined themmdashalong with news television film computer Internet digital andsocial media literaciesmdashinto ldquomedia and information literacyrdquo UNESCO called thisa ldquocomposite conceptrdquo and declined to define it beyond saying it ldquoencompasses



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knowledge skills and attitudesrdquo (p 13) While a skills-oriented approach focusedon the ability to find control and evaluate information dominated the early litera-ture in information literacy (Bruce 1997 Webber amp Johnston 2000) scholarly dis-course fragmented to include definitions of information literacy as the cultivationof ldquohabits of mindrdquo and as ldquoengagement in information-rich social practicesrdquo(Addison amp Meyers 2013 para 1) making synthesis difficult Notably this array ofconceptualizations echoes the emphasis on skills attitudes and social norms thatwe propose explain the application of NL

The diversity of approaches to NL demonstrates the need for greater precision inits conceptualization and measurement and in generating hypotheses regarding itsrelationship to behaviors Before turning our attention to how NL must be placedin a broader theoretical framework to understand its application to NLBs we brieflyreview this conceptualization (see Tully et al 2019 for a complete review)

Conceptualizing news literacy the 5 Cs

Definitions of NL have become bloated comprising attitudes behaviors skills andknowledge that should remain distinct We urge scholars to return to a conceptuali-zation of literacy as fundamentally about knowledge and skills reflecting historicaland widely employed definitions of literacy centered on the ability to read and writewith understanding (UNESCO 2013) We therefore define NL as knowledge of thepersonal and social processes by which news is produced distributed and consumedand skills that allow users some control over these processes

We are not the first to argue that NL must involve knowledge and skillsResearch by Maksl et al (2015) built on Potterrsquos cognitive theory of media literacy(2004) to develop a scale to assess knowledge about news content (eg trends inelection coverage understanding objectivity proportionality of minority news cov-erage) industries (eg news media ownership financial structures aggregation)and effects (eg third-person effect mean world syndrome agenda-setting) Whilethe scale proved useful in distinguishing individuals by their relative levels of liter-acy (Campos amp Sardo 2018 Craft et al 2017) the need to update items to reflectcurrent conditions in the news landscape as well as the scalersquos specificity to theUnited States limit its generalizability and validity Future research should employ abroader range of theoretically founded measures validated through empirical evi-dence to develop approaches that are useful and accurate across different popula-tions contexts and time periods

We propose five domainsmdashcontext creation content circulation and consump-tionmdashthat make up NL These domains holistically address the role of news in soci-ety and build on existing work that argues to develop NL requires an understandingof both the content and contexts of news production and consumption (egAmazeen amp Bucy 2019 Ashley et al 2017 Potter 2019 Vraga amp Tully 2015)Importantly the knowledge and skills measures derived from these domains can be



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adapted to address contexts beyond the West which has tended to dominate the re-search We briefly describe each domain below

Context

We define context as the social legal and economic environment in which news isproduced We draw on news sociology scholarship such as gatekeeping theory andthe hierarchical influences model (Shoemaker amp Reese 2014 Shoemaker amp Vos2009) with particular focus on organizations institutions and social systems(Perloff 2017) We propose that knowledge about news contexts includes identify-ing dominant business structures of news organizations and how they vary aroundthe world the roles other institutions like public relations and government can playin influencing content and the legal protections and constraints in which journal-ism organizations and journalists operate in different contexts Skills related tonews contexts might assess how individuals interpret constraints to speech and ex-pressive behavior in different societies whether by evaluating terms of service forsocial media sites or deciding if laws would protect specific types of objectionableonline speech

Creation

We define news creation as the process in which journalists and others engage inconceiving reporting and ultimately creating news stories and other journalistic con-tent As with context we draw on gatekeeping theory and the hierarchical influen-ces model with particular focus on the individual and routine levels of influence(Shoemaker amp Reese 2014 Shoemaker amp Vos 2009) We propose that knowledgeabout news creation includes knowledge about characteristics of journalists identi-fying conceptions journalists have about their roles in society as well as how thoseroles differ among societies the norms that underlie their work and the routines inwhich journalists engage in reporting and content creation taking into accountcross-cultural similarities and differences (Hanitzsch Hanusch Ramaprasad amp deBeer 2019) Creation skills involve the ability to discern newsworthiness and to usethat information to create messages such as tweets or posts that share news(Kovach amp Rosenstiel 2011)

Content

We define content as the qualitative characteristics of a news story that distinguishesit from other types of media content We draw on research that has defined newsand differentiated it from other content and explores the effects of news attributeson audience behaviors and perceptions (Armstrong et al 2015 Gans 1979Mothes Knobloch-Westerwick amp Pearson 2019 Shoemaker amp Cohen 2006) Wepropose that knowledge of news content includes recognizing news values under-standing dominant ways in which news is often presented such as episodic or the-matic frames and recognizing key features of news such as use of sources and



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evidence of verification (Kovach amp Rosenstiel 2011) It also includes developingskills to identify various kinds of news content as opposed to opinion or advertis-ing and evaluate the quality and credibility of news

Circulation

We define circulation as the process through which news is distributed and spread topotential audiences We draw on gatekeeping intermedia agenda setting and newsnetworks research that explores the influence of these various actorsmdashorganiza-tions individuals and machinesmdashon how news is circulated (Ananny amp Crawford2015 Domingo Masip amp Costera Meijer 2015 McCombs amp Funk 2011 Nielsenamp Ganter 2018 Wallace 2018) We propose that knowledge about news circulationfirst requires that news consumers recognize that news circulation is a process influ-enced by a variety of actors in a social system Skills related to circulation includerecognizing the outcome of personalization in search and social feeds or customiz-ing social media settings These skills reflect that users understand circulation andare able to exercise some control over their exposure (Potter 2004)

Consumption

We define news consumption as the personal factors that contribute to news expo-sure attention and evaluation We draw on selective avoidance exposure and at-tention research as well as hostile media effects research to explore the influence ofour personal predispositions and biases on news consumption (Messing ampWestwood 2014 Stroud 2011 Vallone Ross amp Lepper 1985) We propose thatknowledge about news consumption involves understanding that our personalbiases and predispositions affect news exposure attention and evaluation Skills re-lated to consumption should focus on individualsrsquo ability to evaluate their ownnews exposure and consumption choices attention and evaluation and then to cu-rate a news diet with diverse sources that fits their information needs

Together these five domains comprise NL Focusing on this narrow definition ofNL while still holistically addressing context creation content circulation and con-sumption offers conceptual clarity and flexibility to develop and update NL meas-ures that keep up with the pace of change in the news information and technologysectors These domains are specific to news while remaining adaptable to changingmedia environments and diverse global contexts In other words the domains arelasting while the specific measures used to capture them may evolve over time andacross contexts

Acquiring the knowledge and skills that make up NL should enable a morethoughtful critique of news For example knowing norms about how sources aretypically identified and interviewed (creation) may facilitate challenges to thesecommon techniques that prompt consumers to diversify their news diets (curationand consumption) or challenge existing systems (context) Thus recognizing hownews is structured and its role in society does not mean passively accepting that



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role but actively considering how that role may need to be adapted in changing me-dia and political landscapes

News literacy behaviors

NL as we define it is the knowledge and skills one can use to critically engage withnews and other content but it does not ensure one will engage with it That is NLalone like previous conceptualizations of media literacy only measures capabilitiesto use knowledge and skills but not performance of literacy (Potter amp Thai 2019)This relationship is similar to health behaviors such as quitting smoking or exercis-ing that have been addressed by the TPB For example a person can have knowl-edge about the physical and mental benefits of exercising and might be able tooperate fitness equipment but that knowledge and those skills may not lead toexercise

We define NLB as the behaviors that occur when people engage with news contentin a critical and mindful manner (Potter 2004) Our definition of NLB aligns withother definitions of the core outcomes of news and media literacy programs suchas ldquocritical autonomyrdquo with regards to news content (Aufderheide amp Firestone1993 p 9) or ldquoconscious processing of informationrdquo (Potter 2004 p 68) whichdescribes active control of onersquos relationship with news and information Similarlywe think of critical engagement as conscious and thoughtful interrogation of newsmessages applying NL (eg knowledge and skills) to interpreting their meaningand integrating it into mental schemas

Not only is NLB distinct from NL but it extends beyond news consumption Ingiving a consistent name to the core NL outcomes we can empirically test theeffects of NL on a range of behaviors and offer a more consistent exploration ofwhich interventions and programs are successful under which circumstancesandmdashpotentiallymdashfor which specific behaviors

One such behavior is identification of misinformation Scholars have theorizedthat NL may enable people to identify misinformation and mitigate its impact(Amazeen amp Bucy 2019 Lewandowsky et al 2017 Mihailidis amp Viotty 2017Tully Vraga amp Bode 2020) but empirical evidence has been mixed Several studieshave found that NL knowledge or training can help people correctly identify misin-formation (Amazeen amp Bucy 2019 Kahne amp Bowyer 2017) but NL interventionson social media have had mixed or limited effects in helping people recognize mis-information (Clayton et al 2019 Tully et al 2020) While the diverse ways of mea-suring NL may explain these competing findings these studies suggest thatidentification of misinformation is a behavior that merits further investigationOther NLBs could include exposing oneself to diverse sources of news and politicalcontent (Maksl et al 2015 Vraga amp Tully 2019) participating in cross-cutting po-litical conversations (Tully amp Vraga 2017) verifying news content (EdgerlyMourao Thorson amp Tham 2020) or other emerging behaviors (eg recognizingldquodeep fakesrdquo)



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Research has not presented a clear picture of the effects of NLmdashparticularly de-fined as we do heremdashon these behaviors These disparate findings may result bothfrom widely differing definitions of news literacy as well as a failure to consider themultiple forces that will lead some people but not others to apply their NL Weturn to the TPB as a foundation to propose a model for explaining the relationshipbetween NL attitudes perceived norms perceived control and NLB

The Theory of Planned Behavior

The TPB is one of the most widely used theories in the field of communication(Ajzen 1985 1991 2011) The TPB suggests three factors influence behavioralintentions (a) attitudes towards the behavior (b) social norms regarding the behav-ior and (c) perceived behavioral control over performing the behavior (Ajzen ampFishbein 1980 Ajzen 1985) Behavioral intentions then predict actual behaviorMeta-analyses have confirmed the robust relationship between each of these factorsbehavioral intentions and behaviors (Ajzen 2011 Armitage amp Conner 2001McEachan Conner Taylor amp Lawton 2011 Rivis amp Sheeran 2003) The TPB isdesigned to be flexible for cases in which people do not have full control over theirbehaviors (Ajzen 1985) which seems appropriate to applying NL to behaviors in amedia environment in which algorithms and decisions by others influence the con-tent we consume (Domingo et al 2015 Thorson amp Wells 2016 Wallace 2018)

The TPB has rarely been examined in the context of news behaviors with a fewnotable exceptions Studies have examined the TPB as a predictor of engaging withdigital media for example predicting posting anonymous comments on a news ar-ticle (Soffer amp Gordoni 2018) engaging in privacy protections on Facebook (SaeriOgilvie Macchia Smith amp Louis 2014) or listening to podcasts (Mou amp Lin2015) but have not considered its application to NLBs We examine how attitudestowards the behavior social norms and perceived behavioral control must beadapted for NLB before arguing that ldquoNLrdquo needs to be added to the model to pre-dict NLB

Attitudes

Attitudes are defined as an individualrsquos evaluation of the behavior being considered(Ajzen 1985) and consistently demonstrate a positive relationship with intentionsto perform that behavior (Ajzen 2011 Armitage amp Conner 2001 McEachan et al2011 Rivis amp Sheeran 2003) Typically these measures combine an evaluative (egwhether the behavior is good or bad) and a strength component (eg how impor-tant the attitude is) toward the behavior (Ajzen 1991) but may also consider thebenefits costs or affect towards performing a behavior these must be carefully se-lected to elicit salient beliefs about a behavior (Ajzen 1991 2011 Ajzen amp Driver1991 Ajzen amp Sheikh 2013) In the context of NLB measures should focus nar-rowly on a specific behavior considering the direction strength and affective valueof those attitudes For example individuals might rate their evaluation of how



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beneficial it is to perform a behavior (like identifying misinformation or verifyingsources) how much enjoyment they would derive from it as well as how importantit is to engage in this behavior

In existing research attitudes toward NLB appear to have largely been over-looked or operationalized in ways that limit comparability and theorizingAttitudinal questions have largely served as proxies for knowledge questions (egAshley et al 2013 Vraga et al 2015) or incorporated as a range of attitudes aboutjournalism and democracy or the value of media literacy to society more broadly(eg Tully amp Vraga 2017) Therefore crafting measures that gauge attitudes towardspecific behaviors is essential

Social norms

Social norms broadly consider the social pressures individuals perceive with regardsto performing the behavior and include both injunctive norms about what an indi-vidual should do and descriptive norms regarding what onersquos peers are actually do-ing (Ajzen 1985 2011 Rivis amp Sheeran 2003 Saeri et al 2014) In applying theTPB to NLB measures of social norms should incorporate both whether they per-ceive people are expected to engage in the NLB examined as well as whether otherslike them are actually doing so For example if verification is being considered so-cial norms measures could ask whether individuals perceive that their peers believeit is important to verify news content and whether they believe their peers do so

However NLB represents a socially oriented behavior in a way that many behav-iors studied by the TPB do not NL curricula often emphasize the relationship be-tween NL and civic engagement (Kahne amp Bowyer 2017 Mihailidis amp Viotty2017) which might produce a third social norm the value of NL for society TheValue for Media Literacy scale proposed by Vraga et al (2015) which asks partici-pants about the perceived importance of media literacy in a democratic society hasbeen validated as distinct from other NL attitudes (Alam Cho and Kim 2018Vraga et al 2015) This measure would need to be revised to focus more narrowlyon NL (rather than media literacy) and to incorporate other civic social norms butmay represent a starting point for a third social norm (ldquoperceived civic normsrdquo)when modeling NLB

Perceived behavioral control

Perceived behavioral control which predicts behaviors both directly and indirectlythrough intentions examines whether individuals believe the behavior in questionis personally achievable For studying NLB scholars should incorporate both inter-nal and external barriers to performing the behavior For example individuals maybelieve they are capable of engaging critically with news (high self-efficacy) but faceexternal barriers like time or resource constraints that prohibit this engagement(low controllability) (Tully amp Vraga 2018a)



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Two existing NL measures hold promise for measuring perceived behavioralcontrol First Media Locus of Control describes the extent to which people feel ldquoincontrol of whether and how news media influencesrdquo them (Maksl et al 2015 p 33see also Potter 2004 p 97) Measures from this scalemdashfor example the statementldquoI am in control of the information I get from the news mediardquo (Maksl et al2015)mdashmay be used to measure perceived behavioral control in the context of NLbut other measures dealing with recognizing misinformation may work as measuresof NLB rather than perceived behavioral control toward those behaviors Self-Perceived Media Literacy which examines ldquoindividualsrsquo belief that they are in factmedia literate and thus able to access analyze and evaluate media contentrdquo (Vragaet al 2015 p 43) also holds promise Having positive perceptions about knowledgeand skills narrowly defined (eg ldquoI am confident in my ability to judge the qualityof newsrdquo) rather than broader perceptions of media literacy and its definition (egldquoI have a good understanding of the concept of media literacyrdquo) have been shownto relate to less skepticism of information on social media (Vraga amp Tully 2019)suggesting this concept has value in predicting at least some NLB However addi-tional measures that tap into both internal and external barriers for NLB need to bedeveloped

Adding news literacy to the TPB

The TPB provides an important theoretical framework that helps situate and incor-porate existing studies into NL and its application However the TPB offers a sec-ond advantage to other theories its amenability to adaptation The TPB itself hasbeen amended first to add perceived behavioral control (Ajzen 1985) and later todistinguish descriptive norms from injunctive social norms (Fishbein amp Ajzen2010) Ajzen outlines five steps for adapting the model noting proposed changesmust be (a) behavior-specific (b) a causal factor for intention and action (c) con-ceptually independent of the existing predictors (d) applicable to a wide range ofbehaviors and (e) consistently improve prediction of intentions or behavior (2011p 1119-1120) We argue that in the context of predicting NLBs adding NL (knowl-edge and skills) to the framework meets the first four criteria although empiricaltests are needed to confirm the last requirement is met

We are not the first to consider the role of knowledge as part of the TPB At sev-eral points during its development Ajzen (1991 2011) clarifies that the attitudes atthe heart of the model may not be factual Moreover Ajzen Joyce Sheikh andCote (2011) directly test whether adding knowledge about the behavior could serveas an independent predictor of intentions or behaviors but find little evidence thatinformation accuracy predicts intentions across four studies They suggest thatknowledge may serve as a proxy for attitudes on the topic (2011 p 115) whichaligns with theories of ldquoexpressive respondingrdquo to match existing beliefs as an expla-nation for many seemingly inaccurate attitudes (eg Bullock Gerber Hill ampHuber 2013 Prior Sood amp Khanna 2015 but see Berinsky 2018) Given their null



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findings Ajzen et al suggest that ldquofrom the perspective of the TPB information ac-curacy is neither necessary nor sufficient indeed it can be irrelevant to decisionmakingrdquo (2011 p 115)

While Ajzen et al explored these relationships across several issuesmdashincludingenvironmental behaviors alcohol consumption and outgroup prejudicemdashwe arguethat these may not be issues for which knowledge is a fundamental antecedent tobehavior That is while accurate knowledge about Islam or the dangers of alcohol(for example) may be valuable they are not required to attend a religious service orto drink less Ajzen et al recognize this possibility pointing out that knowledgeldquooften [has] no clear implication for behavioral performancerdquo (2011 p 115)

We argue that for NLB NL plays a necessary (but not sufficient) role An under-standing of how the news media function of content characteristics that distinguishnews from other content and of potential effects is a prerequisite to judiciously en-gage with content (Potter 2004) This proposition is supported by existing researchwhich has found positive relationships between news knowledge and current eventsknowledge political activity and self-efficacy (Ashley et al 2017 Maksl et al2015) and negative relationships to endorsement of conspiracy theories (Craftet al 2017) and acceptance of misinformation (Amazeen amp Bucy 2019 Kahne ampBowyer 2017) In a leading textbook on media literacy Potter (2019) argues thatknowledge skills and personal locus of control are the fundamental building blocksof media literacy Similarly in Potterrsquos (2004) cognitive model knowledge and skillsmust be developed and used regularly to act ldquoin a media literate mannerrdquo when en-gaging with media messages (p 61) Drawing from these roots and from the TPBwe propose a new theoretical model for NLB

A Model of News Literacy Behaviors

Uniting NL research with the constructs of the TPB represents a theoretically robustframework for understanding who engages in NLB In predicting NLB studiesshould include measures regarding attitudes towards NLB perceived injunctive de-scriptive and civic norms regarding NLB and perceived behavioral control regard-ing NLB as derived from the TPB as well as measures of NL conceptualized asknowledge and skills in five domains of context creation content circulation andconsumption (the 5 Cs)

Much like the TPB we expect that each of these domains will be related to oneanother Those who believe NL is beneficial would likely have higher NL likewisethose with greater NL should also perceive they have greater control over their abil-ity to apply those skills to behavior Existing research supports that these domainsare related but distinct (Vraga et al 2015) but has not incorporated all of theseconcepts into a single model to predict behaviors that should occur when an indi-vidual applies their NL

Adding NL as a domain in this model should produce both an indirect pathway(through intentions) as well as a direct relationship on NLB We expect NL to



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produce a direct effect because it may function either consciously or unconsciouslyto impact NLB For example we expect that highly news literate individuals wouldplan to apply those skills in future news behaviors (eg Maksl et al 2015)mdashbutalso that someone with higher NL may unconsciously apply it to their behaviorseven without having the intention to do so (Tully amp Vraga 2018a) We therefore of-fer this model for predicting NLB

An agenda for future research

The need for a greater understanding of NL and its application to behavior is criti-cal as we face a news environment that is constantly changing and increasingly dif-ficult to navigate Concerns with misinformation and fake news have focused publicattention on the potential role for NL to help the public respond (eg Bulger ampDavison 2018) offering a unique opportunity for scholars to respond with robusttheoretical and practical recommendations However the current state of the fieldis chaotic with scholars across disciplines applying different terms and drawingfrom discrete literatures to address these questions

We offer five recommendations for those interested in NL and its application(a) agreeing upon a clear definition for ldquoNLrdquo (b) distinguishing NL from its appli-cation to behaviors (c) proposing a new model for studying NLBs derived from theTPB (d) empirically testing this model across a range of individuals groups andcontexts and (e) utilizing the knowledge derived from this model to propose andtest interventions to improve the application of NL to promote civic outcomes

First we offer a definition of NL as knowledge and skills related to news produc-tion distribution and consumption that more closely aligns with public understand-ings of the term creating both constancy in its conceptualization and flexibility inits application We propose that NL measures should incorporate knowledge andskills across five clearly defined domainsmdashcontext creation content circulationand consumption Having NL measures that are conceptually defined but flexiblefacilitates comparison across a wide range of contexts opening the study of NL be-yond Western contexts and the journalistic systems they tend to produce that havedominated research The development and testing of specific measures are beyondthe scope of this article as we expect substantial variation by media system but areaddressed in our concurrent work (Tully et al 2019)

Second we argue that a clear line must be drawn between NL and its applicationor the behaviors that it produces Just as being able to read is a necessary but notsufficient condition for reading possessing knowledge and skills regarding newsprocesses does not mean they will be applied to behaviors Knowledge and skillsmdashwhich we argue are in fact NLmdashfacilitate the application of NL without demandingit We must consider other factors that encourage people to apply NL to theirbehaviors which our model offers

Third drawing upon the TPB provides a concrete validated and interdisciplin-ary model to consider the concurrent forces that should contribute to the



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application of NL Adding NL to this model alongside attitudes social norms andperceived behavioral control is essential to explaining NLB Using an amended TPBas a theoretical model to explain NLB may also facilitate conversation among schol-ars across disciplinesmdashincluding communication psychology sociology and politi-cal sciencemdashinterested in NL and the behaviors it promotes

Fourth empirical research is needed to test our proposed model across contextsConfirming that NL improves the prediction of intentions or behaviors is an essen-tial step of theory amendment (Ajzen 2011) and is especially important in light ofexisting research that found no meaningful contribution of knowledge across fourbehaviors (Ajzen et al 2011) We contend that previous research found no role forknowledge because it was not a prerequisite to performing the behavior studied of-fering a testable hypothesis for future NLB research Moreover our model of NLBshould be tested with a range of audiences and contexts to offer insights on overallfit the relative weight of the components in the model and to consider which com-ponents of the model are particularly powerful in diverse applications For examplesocial norms may be particularly important in predicting who consumes news con-tent whereas NL may predict who is able to identify misinformation (Amazeen ampBucy 2019)

We highlight two avenues for future research that seem particularly importantFirst current research into NL is largely limited to Western contexts (Newmanet al 2019) but using this model of NLB opens the doors to inquiry in a wide rangeof societies with different media and political systems (Hanitzsch et al 2019) Wedo not claim that the model will perform equally in each spacemdashfor example moreweight may be given to perceived behavioral control in more open media systemsmdashbut that is an empirical question enabled by adopting our model and testing rele-vant outcomes Second empirical tests of the model should investigate both overallmodel fit and the relative weight of each component of the model depending on in-dividual characteristics For example social norms may prove more powerful foryoung adults in predicting NLBs compared to older adults

Fifth if validated this model provides guidance for those developing interven-tions to encourage the application of NL to a wide range of behaviors The modelwill help identify those components where intervention is most needed for particu-lar groups or particular behaviors For example if empirical tests find that socialnorms regarding NLB matter more to young adults effective interventions foryoung adults may do more to incorporate these norms than interventions for olderadults We suggest that interventions will likely need to tap into multiple compo-nents of the modelmdashfor example both conveying knowledge and encouraging per-ceived behavioral controlmdashto be successful a proposition that future research cantest

Likewise using this more robust theoretical model may help resolve existingdebates about the effects of NL on behaviors The debate over the role of NL inidentifying misinformation is particularly notablemdashdifferences in how NL has beendefined and what other attitudes and behaviors are considered may explain why



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some studies find NL has a powerful impact on distinguishing high- and low-quality information (eg Amazeen amp Bucy 2019 Craft et al 2017 Kahne ampBowyer 2017) but produces no relationship or a negative relationship for others(eg Jones-Jang Mortensen amp Liu 2019) Additionally because existing studieshave not conceptually distinguished between NL (knowledge and skills) and NLB(their application) studies demonstrating that knowledge helps people identify andreject misinformation and conspiracy theories for example (Amazeen amp Bucy

Table 1 Key Terms

Term Definition

News LiteracyNews Accurate information that facilitates decision-making on both

personal and social issues that enables people to more effec-tively engage with society

News literacy Knowledge of the personal and social processes by which news isproduced distributed and consumed and skills that allowusers some control over these processes

News LiteracyBehaviors

Behaviors that occur when people engage with news content in acritical and mindful manner These behaviors may include

bull Consuming newsbull Distinguishing news from other contentbull Evaluating news fairly and without bias (eg limiting Hostile

Media Perceptions)bull Verification of contentbull Identifying misinformation

5 Cs News Literacy DomainsContext Social legal and economic environment in which news is

producedCreation Process in which journalists and others engage in conceiving

reporting and creating news stories and other journalisticcontent

Content Characteristics of a news story or piece of news that distinguishesit from other types of media content

Circulation Process through which news is distributed and spread to potentialaudiences

Consumption Personal factors that contribute to news exposure attention andevaluation

Theory of Planned BehaviorAttitudes An individualrsquos favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the behav-

ior being consideredSocial norms The social pressures individuals perceive with regards to perform-

ing the behaviorPerceived behavioralcontrol

Whether individuals believe the behavior in question is withintheir control captures both internal and external factors



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2019 Craft et al 2017 Kahne amp Bowyer 2017) cannot speak as to whether this ap-plication is a result of conscious or unconscious processing Separating these con-structsmdashknowledge and skills from applicationmdashoffers a conceptual advantage andprovides insight into the mechanisms that explain behaviors

We deliberately offer a conceptual definition of NLB as the theoretical outcomeof this model We draw from existing research to propose several potential applica-tions of NL identification of misinformation verification and news exposure toname a few However these represent exemplars rather than an exhaustive listIndeed NLB of interest may differ by discipline society or context and maychange with evolving news and media systems We hope future research will buildon the NLB suggested here

Moreover while we suggest that these behaviors are the most proximate out-comes of NLB other research has considered the relationship between NL and po-litical orientations such as efficacy conversation and participation (Ashley et al2017 Kahne Lee amp Feezell 2012 Tully amp Vraga 2018a) We suggest these out-comes follow from NLB but could be explored as co-existing alongside NLBFuture research is needed to disentangle these complicated relationships and con-sider the broader impact of NL for civic engagement an area of concern to NLresearchers (Ashley et al 2013 Mihailidis amp Thevenin 2013 Kahne et al 2012)

Ultimately situating the study of NL within the broader theoretical domain ofthe TPB offers a number of advantages Most notably such a framework allows forbetter communication among scholars across subfields who are interested in howpeople engage judiciously with news and media content We also align our defini-tions of NL with popular understandings of key terms allowing conversations not

Figure 1 Model for News Literacy Behaviors



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just among academics but also with journalists advocates and the public interestedin this topic By adopting and adapting this model we can provide a more theoreti-cally robust understanding of NL and its application on which to base theoreticaland practical recommendations

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge Morten Kristensen for his assistance

References

Addison C amp Meyers E (2013) Perspectives on information literacy A framework for con-ceptual understanding Information Research 18(3) paper C27 httpsericedgovidfrac14EJ1044643

Ajzen I (1985) From intentions to actions A theory of planned behavior In J Kuhl amp JBeckmann (Eds) Action Control From Cognition to Behavior (pp 11ndash39) BerlinGermany Springer

Ajzen I (1991) The theory of planned behavior Organizational Behavior and HumanDecision Processes 50 179ndash211 doi1010160749-5978(91)90020-T

Ajzen I (2011) The theory of planned behavior Reactions and reflections Psychology ampHealth 26 1113ndash1127 doi101080088704462011613995

Ajzen I amp Driver B L (1991) Prediction of leisure participation from behavioral norma-tive and control beliefs An application of the theory of planned behavior LeisureSciences 13 185ndash204 doi10108001490409109513137

Ajzen I amp Fishbein M (1980) Understanding attitudes and predicting social behaviorEnglewood-Cliffs NJ Prentice-Hall

Ajzen I Joyce N Sheikh S amp Cote N G (2011) Knowledge and the prediction of behav-ior The role of information accuracy in the theory of planned behavior Basic andApplied Social Psychology 33 101ndash117 doi101080019735332011568834

Ajzen I amp Sheikh S (2013) Action versus inaction Anticipated affect in the theory ofplanned behavior Journal of Applied Social Psychology 43 155ndash162 doi101111j1559-1816201200989x

Alam A Cho N amp Kim K S (2018) The role of news media literacy in predicting newspersonalization and news engagement EWHA Journal of Social Science Research 3473ndash109 Available at SSRN httpsssrncomabstractfrac143171590

Amazeen M A amp Bucy E P (2019) Conferring resistance to digital disinformation Theinoculating influence of procedural news knowledge Journal of Broadcasting amp ElectronicMedia 63(3) 415ndash432 doi1010800883815120191653101

Ananny M amp Crawford K (2015) A liminal press Digital Journalism 3 192ndash208 doi101080216708112014922322

Armitage C J amp Conner M (2001) Efficacy of the theory of planned behaviour Ameta-analytic review British Journal of Social Psychology 40 471ndash499 doi101348014466601164939

Armstrong C L McAdams M J amp Cain J (2015) What is news Audiences may havetheir own idea Atlantic Journal of Communication 23(2) 81ndash98 doi1010801545687020151013102



Dow




Ashley S Maksl A amp Craft S (2013) Developing a news media literacy scale Journalismamp Mass Communication Educator 68 7ndash21 doi1011771077695812469802

Ashley S Maksl A amp Craft S (2017) News media literacy and political engagementWhatrsquos the connection Journal of Media Literacy Education 9(1) 79ndash98 doi1023860JMLE-2017-9-1-6

Aufderheide P amp Firestone C (1993) Media Literacy A Report of the National LeadershipConference on Media Literacy Queenstown MD Aspen Institute Retrieved from httpsfilesericedgovfulltextED365294pdf

Barron J (2017 March 20) In an era of fake news teaching students to parse fact from fic-tion The New York Times Retrieved from httpswwwnytimescom20170320nyregionfake-news-brooklyn-middle-schoolhtml

Berinsky A J (2018) Telling the truth about believing the lies Evidence for the limitedprevalence of expressive survey responding The Journal of Politics 80 211ndash224 doi101086694258

Bruce CS (1997) Seven Faces of Information Literacy Adelaide Australia AUSLIB PressBulger M amp Davison P (2018) The promises challenges and futures of media literacy

Data amp Society Research Institute Retrieved from datasocietynetBullock J G Gerber A Hill S amp Huber G (2013) Partisan bias in factual beliefs about

politics Quarterly Journal of Political Science 10 519ndash578 doi10156110000014074Campos I amp Sardo A (2018) Teaching news literacy to children with digital games

Proceedings of the 17th ACM Conference on Interaction Design and Children-IDC lsquo18doi10114532021853210783

Clayton K Blair S Busam J A Forstner S Glance J Green G amp Sandhu M (2019)Real solutions for fake news Measuring the effectiveness of general warnings and fact-ch-eck tags in reducing belief in false stories on social media Political Behavior 1ndash23 doi101007s11109-019-09533-0

Craft S Ashley S amp Maksl A (2017) News media literacy and conspiracy theory endorse-ment Communication and the Public 2 388ndash401 doi1011772057047317725539

Domingo D Masip P amp Costera Meijer I (2015) Tracing digital news networks DigitalJournalism 3 53ndash67 doi101080216708112014927996

Edgerly S (2017) Seeking out and avoiding the news media Young adultsrsquo proposed strate-gies for obtaining current events information Mass Communication and Society 20358ndash377 doi1010801520543620161262424

Edgerly S Mour~ao R R Thorson E amp Tham S M (2020) When do audiences verifyHow perceptions about message and source influence audience verification of news head-lines Journalism amp Mass Communication Quarterly 97 52ndash71 doi1011771077699019864680

Edgerly S amp Vraga E K (2019) News entertainment or both Exploring audience percep-tions of media genre in a hybrid media environment Journalism 20 807ndash826 doi1011771464884917730709

Fishbein M amp Ajzen I (2010) Predicting and changing behavior The reasoned action ap-proach New York Psychology Press

Gans H J (1979) Deciding whatrsquos news A study of CBS evening news NBC Nightly NewsNewsweek and Time New York Pantheon

Hanitzsch T Hanusch F Ramaprasad J amp de Beer A S (Eds) (2019) Worlds of journal-ism Journalistic cultures around the globe New York Columbia University Press



Dow




Jeong S-H Cho H amp Hwang Y (2012) Media literacy interventions A meta-analytic re-view Journal of Communication 62 454ndash472 doi101111j1460-2466201201643x

Jones-Jang S M Mortensen T amp Liu J (2019) Does media literacy help identification offake news Information literacy helps but other literacies donrsquot American BehavioralScientist 000276421986940 doi1011770002764219869406

Kahne J amp Bowyer B (2017) Educating for democracy in a partisan age Confronting thechallenges of motivated reasoning and misinformation American Educational ResearchJournal 54(1) 3ndash34 doi1031020002831216679817

Kahne J Lee N amp Feezell J T (2012) Digital media literacy education and online civicand political participation International Journal of Communication 6 1ndash24 Available athttpsijocorgindexphpijocarticleview999gt

Klurfeld J amp Schneider H (2014) News literacy Teaching the Internet generation to makereliable information choices Washington DC Brookings Institute

Kovach B amp Rosenstiel T (2011) Blur How to know whatlsquos true in the age of informationoverload New York Bloomsbury

Lazer D M J Baum M A Benkler Y Berinsky A J Greenhill K M Menczer F

Zittrain J L (2018) The science of fake news Science 359(6380) 1094ndash1096 doi101126scienceaao2998

Lewandowsky S Ecker U K H amp Cook J (2017) Beyond misinformation Understandingand coping with the ldquoPost-Truthrdquo era Journal of Applied Research in Memory andCognition 6 353ndash369 doi101016jjarmac201707008

Lippmann W (1920) Liberty and the news New York Harcourt Brace and HoweMaksl A Ashley S amp Craft S (2015) Measuring news media literacy Journal of Media

Literacy Education 6(3) 29ndash45 Retrieved from httpsdigitalcommonsuriedujmlevol6iss33

Maksl A Craft S Ashley S amp Miller D (2017) The usefulness of a news media literacymeasure in evaluating a news literacy curriculum Journalism amp Mass CommunicationEducator 72(2) 228ndash241 doi1011771077695816651970

Malik M M Cortesi S amp Gasser U (2013) The challenges of defining ldquonews literacyrdquoCambridge England Berkman Center Research Publication

McCombs M amp Funk M (2011) Shaping the agenda of local daily newspapers A method-ology merging the agenda setting and community structure perspectives MassCommunication and Society 14(6) 905ndash919 doi101080152054362011615447

McEachan R R C Conner M Taylor N J amp Lawton R J (2011) Prospective predictionof health-related behaviours with the Theory of Planned Behaviour A meta-analysisHealth Psychology Review 5 97ndash144 doi101080174371992010521684

Messing S amp Westwood S J (2014) Selective exposure in the age of social mediaEndorsements trump partisan source affiliation when selecting new onlineCommunication Research 41 1042ndash1063 doi1011770093650212466406

Mihailidis P amp Thevenin B (2013) Media literacy as a core competency for engaged citi-zenship in participatory democracy American Behavioral Scientist 57 1611ndash1622doi1011770002764213489015

Mihailidis P amp Viotty S (2017) Spreadable spectacle in digital culture Civic expressionfake news and the role of media literacies in ldquoPost-Factrdquo society American BehavioralScientist 61 441ndash454 doi1011770002764217701217



Dow




Miller A C (2019 May 3) Viral misinformation Rise of ldquoanti-vaxxerrdquo movement requiresnews literacy inoculation USA TODAY Retrieved from httpswwwusatodaycomstoryopinion20190503measles-spread-viral-anti-vaxxer-misinformation-internet-literacy-news-column3650914002

Mothes C Knobloch-Westerwick S amp Pearson G D H (2019) The PFAD-HEC modelImpacts of news attributes and use motivations on selective news exposureCommunication Theory 29 339ndash359 doi101093ctqty033

Mou Y amp Lin C A (2015) Exploring podcast adoption intention via perceived socialnorms interpersonal communication and theory of planned behavior Journal ofBroadcasting amp Electronic Media 59 475ndash493 doi1010800883815120151054997

Newman N Fletcher R Kalogeropolous A amp Nielsen R K (2019) Reuters InstituteDigital News Report Oxford England Reuters Institute Retrieved from httpwwwdigitalnewsreportorg

Nielsen R K amp Ganter S A (2018) Dealing with digital intermediaries A case study of therelations between publishers and platforms New Media amp Society 20 1600ndash1617 doi1011771461444817701318

Perloff R M (2017) Political communication Politics press and public in America (2nded) New York Routledge

Potter W J (2004) Theory of media literacy A cognitive approach Thousand Oaks CASage

Potter W J (2019) Media literacy (9th ed) Thousand Oaks CA SagePotter W J amp Thai C L (2019) Reviewing media literacy intervention studies for validity

Review of Communication Research 7 38ndash66 doi1012840ISSN2255-4165018Prior M Sood G amp Khanna K (2015) You cannot be serious The impact of accuracy

incentives on partisan bias in reports of economic perceptions Quarterly Journal ofPolitical Science 10 489ndash518 doi10156110000014127

Reese S D (2012) Global news literacy The educator In P Mihailidis (Ed) News literacyGlobal perspectives for the newsroom and classroom (pp 63ndash80) New York Peter Lang

Rivis A amp Sheeran P (2003) Descriptive norms as an additional predictor in the theory ofplanned behaviour A meta-analysis Current Psychology 22(3) 218ndash233 doi101007s12144-003-1018-2

Saeri A K Ogilvie C Macchia S T L Smith J R amp Louis W R (2014) PredictingFacebook usersrsquo online privacy protection Risk trust norm focus theory and the theoryof planned behavior The Journal of Social Psychology 154 352ndash369 doi101080002245452014914881

Schudson M (1998) The good citizen A history of American public life New York The FreePress

Shoemaker P J amp Cohen A A (2006) News round the world Content practitioners andthe public New York Routledge

Shoemaker P J amp Reese S D (2014) Mediating the message in the 21st century A media so-ciology perspective New York Routledge

Shoemaker P J amp Vos T P (2009) Gatekeeping theory New York RoutledgeSoffer O amp Gordoni G (2018) Opinion expression via user comments on news websites

Analysis through the perspective of the spiral of silence Information Communication ampSociety 21(3) 388ndash403 doi1010801369118X20171281991



Dow




Stroud N J (2011) Niche news The politics of news choice Oxford England OxfordUniversity Press

Thorson K amp Wells C (2016) Curated flows A framework for mapping media exposure inthe digital age Communication Theory 26 309ndash328 doi101111comt12087

Tully M Vraga E K amp Bode L (2020) Designing and testing news literacy messages forsocial media Mass Communication and Society 23 22ndash46 doi1010801520543620191604970

Tully M Maksl A Ashley S Vraga E K amp Craft S (2019 September) Defining andmeasuring news literacy Future of Journalism Conference Cardiff UK

Tully M amp Vraga E K (2017) Effectiveness of a news media literacy advertisement in par-tisan versus nonpartisan online media contexts Journal of Broadcasting amp ElectronicMedia 61 144ndash162 doi1010800883815120161273923

Tully M amp Vraga E K (2018a) A mixed-methods approach to examining the relationshipbetween news media literacy and political efficacy International Journal ofCommunication 12 766ndash787 Available at httpsijocorgindexphpijocarticleview7467

UNESCO Communication and Information Sector amp UNESCO Institute for Statistics(2013) Global media and information literacy (MIL) Assessment framework Countryreadiness and competencies Geneva UNESCO

Vallone R P Ross L amp Lepper M R (1985) The hostile media phenomenon biased per-ception and perceptions of media bias in coverage of the Beirut massacre Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology 49 577ndash585 doi1010370022-3514493577

Vosoughi S Roy D amp Aral S (2018) The spread of true and false news online Science359(6380) 1146ndash1151 doi101126scienceaap9559

Vraga E K amp Tully M (2015) Media literacy messages and hostile media perceptionsProcessing of nonpartisan versus partisan political information Mass Communicationand Society 14 442ndash448 doi1010801520543620141001910

Vraga E K amp Tully M (2019) News literacy social media behaviors and skepticism to-ward information on social media Information Communication amp Society 1ndash17 doi1010801369118X20191637445

Vraga E Tully M Kotcher J Smithson A-B amp Broeckelman-Post M (2015) Amulti-dimensional approach to measuring news media literacy Journal of Media LiteracyEducation 7(3) 41ndash53 Retrieved from httpsdigitalcommonsuriedujmlevol7iss34

Wallace J (2018) Modelling contemporary gatekeeping Digital Journalism 6 274ndash293doi1010802167081120171343648

Webber S amp Johnston B (2000) Conceptions of information literacy New perspectivesand implications Journal of Information Science 26 381ndash397 doi101177016555150002600602

What is News Literacy (2016) Stony Brook University Center for News Literacy Retrievedfrom httpswwwcenterfornewsliteracyorgwhat-is-news-literacy



Dow




high-quality information in the sea of available content (eg Lazer et al 2018Lewandowsky Ecker amp Cook 2017 Vosoughi Roy amp Aral 2018)

The fact that it is no longer clear if it ever was who is a ldquojournalistrdquo what isldquonewsrdquo and where to place onersquos trust underscores the need to better understandwhat constitutes NL which we define as knowledge and skills regarding news con-tent systems and practices Long before the 2016 US presidential election cam-paign raised concerns about ldquofake newsrdquo to a fever pitch researchers educatorsfact-checkers and others have been working to define what it means to be news lit-erate and investigate how literacy is linked to civic engagement (Ashley Maksl ampCraft 2017 Mihailidis amp Thevenin 2013) This conversation is occurring in a num-ber of disciplinesmdashcommunication political science psychology information sci-ence sociology rhetoricmdashbut not enough across disciplinary boundaries whichslows progress in theory-building and creating evidence-based interventions thatempower people with the knowledge skills and motivation to navigate ever-changing media environments

We propose a theoretical approach to this interdisciplinary field that draws onexisting work in news literacy (NL) and related research addressing similar questionsand issues We argue that becoming news literate is not an end in itself but ratherthat it is the application of NL that explains individualsrsquo behaviors Our approachbuilds from existing research that finds that news knowledge plays a powerful role inpredicting behaviors including news consumption identification of misinformationrejection of conspiracy beliefs and civic engagement (Amazeen amp Bucy 2019 CraftAshley amp Maksl 2017 Kahne amp Bowyer 2017 Newman Fletcher Kalogeropolousamp Nielsen 2019) We argue that these behaviors represent the application of NLwhich is distinct from the knowledge and skills required to be news literate

We theoretically ground our investigation of the other components that predictbehavior by drawing from the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen 19851991) to suggest that NL works in conjunction with attitudes social norms andperceived behavioral control to predict News Literacy Behaviors (NLB)mdashfor exam-ple consuming news evaluating it fairly identifying misinformation and verifyingcontent By applying this model we can identify the gaps between knowledge andbehavior investigate whether the factors that predict NLB differ across individualsor countries and develop more precise ways to improve these practices In doingso we better position NL research to address current challenges including the crisisthat the misinformation and ldquofake newsrdquo conversation has underscored

News media and related literacies

Debate abounds regarding what news is and what it ought to be (ArmstrongMcAdams amp Cain 2015 Edgerly 2017 Schudson 1998) The rise of social mediahas encouraged a broadening and blurring of the definition People scroll throughtheir ldquoNews Feedrdquo on Facebook to see content from professional news outlets along-side news and updates shared by friends and family Some scholars embrace this



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Context


Creation


Content




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Circulation


Consumption






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Attitudes




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Social norms







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Table 1 Key Terms

Term Definition




















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Acknowledgements


References
















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Context


Creation


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Consumption






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Attitudes




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Social norms







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Acknowledgements


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Circulation


Consumption






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Attitudes




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Social norms







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Acknowledgements


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Context


Creation


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Circulation


Consumption






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Attitudes




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Social norms







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Acknowledgements


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Context


Creation


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Circulation


Consumption






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Attitudes




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Social norms







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Acknowledgements


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Circulation


Consumption






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Attitudes




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Social norms







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Table 1 Key Terms

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Acknowledgements


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Attitudes




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Social norms







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Acknowledgements


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Attitudes




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Social norms







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Acknowledgements


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Social norms







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Acknowledgements


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Acknowledgements


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Acknowledgements


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Acknowledgements


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Acknowledgements


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Acknowledgements


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Acknowledgements


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Acknowledgements


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theorizing news literacy behaviors

Documents