Egyptian Society for the Producers, Manufacturers and Exportersof Medicinal and Aromatic Plants(ESMAP)

Conference and Exhibition

Proceedings

12th International

Recent Trends in Medicinal & Aromatic Plants

Production, Manufacture & Marketing

Giza – Egypt , 21 - 23 November , 2006

(Current and Prospective Status)

Editorial Team :

Prof. Dr. Mohamed Said Ali Safwat

Eng. Mohamed Abd El-Gelil El Kholy

We also wish to thank the other members of the

Editorial Team for their efforts in editing and producing

these proceeding

Acknowledgement

The Egyptian Society for the Producers, Manufacturers and

Exporters of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ESAMP)

wishes to thank the Food and Agriculture Organization of

the United Nations (FAO), Regional Office for the Near

East, for providing a financial contribution for the printing

of the proceedings.

لمنتجي ومصنعي ومصدري الجمعية المصرية

)إسماب (النباتات الطبية والعطرية

كتــاب

ةالنباتات الطبية والعطري في إنتاج وتصنيع وتسويق

والمستقبلة الواقع ــ الحديثاتـاالتجاه

الثانـي عشـرالـــدولى

المؤتمر والمعرض

محمد سعيد علي صفوت. د.أ

د الجليل الخوليالمهندس محمد عب

كما نود أن نوجه الشكر ألسرة المراجعة للمجهود الواضح

الذي بذل إلصدار هذا الكتاب

تتقدم الجمعية المصرية لمنتجي ومصنعي ومصدري النباتات الطبية والعطرية

ألقليمي بالشكر لمنظمة األغذية والزراعة لألمم المتحدة، المكتب ا) إسماب(

للشرق األدنى على تقديم المساهمة المادية إلصدار هذا الكتاب

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SCIENTIFIC PAPERS

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First Session 1- Development of an International Standard for Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP) Josef A. Brinckmann Member of ISSC-MAP Decision Board VP of Res. & Dev, Traditional Medicinals, Sebastopol, California, USA. Abstract

The process to develop a standard for the sustainable wild collection of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAP) is a joint initiative by the German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (BfN), World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) & TRAFFIC Germany, World Conservation Union (IUCN) Canada and the IUCN Medicinal Plant Specialist Group (MPSG). The objective of this standard is to provide a framework of principles and criteria that can be applied to the management of MAP species and their ecosystems. It provides guidance for sustainable wild collection of MAP, and a basis for audit and certification. INTRODUCTION

This First Working Version of the International Standard for Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP) has been prepared by the Medicinal Plant Specialist Group (MPSG) of the Species Survival Commission (SSC), IUCN “The International Conservation Union, on behalf of a Steering Group consisting of the MPSG, Bundesamt fuer Naturschutz (BfN), WWF Germany, and TRAFFIC. An international Advisory Group of more than 150 experts from diverse backgrounds has provided guidance in drafting the ISSC-MAP.

The ISSC-MAP is designed to help those involved in the harvest, management,

trade, manufacture, and sale of wild-collected medicinal and aromatic plant (MAP) resources to understand and comply with the conditions under which sustainable collection of these resources can take place. This First Working Version of the Standard is currently being applied in field implementation projects to develop models that address a range of collection and management scenarios for wild-collected MAP resources.

The ISSC-MAP builds on recent efforts to define a framework for the sustainable

use of biological diversity. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) provides both global and national contexts for these efforts. Under the CBD, specific guidance for the ecological, socio-economic, and equity basis for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity has been articulated in the Ecosystem Approach (CBD, 2000), the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (CBD, 2002a), the Bonn Guidelines on Access to Genetic Resources and Fair and Equitable Sharing of the Benefits Arising out of their Utilization (CBD, 2002b), and the Addis Ababa Principles and Guidelines for the Sustainable Use of Biodiversity (CBD, 2004).

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The ISSC-MAP responds to the need to use biodiversity resources to improve human well-being by contributing to the objectives and targets defined by the Millennium Development Goals (UN, 2005), and to the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation adopted by the World Summit on Sustainable Development (CBD, 2002c).

More specifically focusing on medicinal plants, the ISSC-MAP is designed to

follow and, more importantly, to elaborate the recommendations of the 1993 WHO/IUCN/WWF Guidelines on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants (WHO, IUCN & WWF, 1993) and the WHO Guidelines on Good Agricultural and Collection Practices (GACP) for Medicinal Plants (WHO, 2003). These guidelines provide general recommendations for the development of a global framework of practice standards for MAP. Of these documents, only the 1993 Guidelines directly address ecological and socio-economic/equity issues related to sustainable wild harvest, and these are now out of date. WHO, IUCN, WWF and TRAFFIC are currently working together to revise these Guidelines through an international consultation process and with the intent to incorporate broader guidance and principles related to sustainable use of biological diversity, access and benefit sharing, and fair business practices. Publication of these revised and updated Guidelines is anticipated in 2007.

The ISSC-MAP bridges the gap between existing broad conservation guidelines and management plans developed for specific local conditions. Adopting the principles and applying the criteria that make up the ISSC-MAP will help private companies, government agencies, research centers, and communities to identify and follow good practices for the following six key elements of sustainable wild collection of MAP:

1. Maintaining wild MAP resources 2. Preventing negative environmental impacts 3. Complying with laws, regulations, and agreements 4. Respecting customary rights 5. Applying responsible management practices 6. Applying responsible business practices

The process to elaborate this Standard thus far has been funded by the German

Federal Agency for Nature Conservation / Bundesamt fuer Naturschutz (BfN) in association with The World Conservation Union (IUCN), WWF Germany, and TRAFFIC, with substantial contributions of time and expertise from members of an international Advisory Group. Field consultations and implementation projects have been, and continue to be supported by numerous other agencies, organizations, and businesses.

The ISSC-MAP is an evolving document. This First Working Version will be

revised based on experience gained in field implementation projects, in partnership with interested organizations, during 2007 - 2008, as well as through continuing consultation with an Advisory Group broadly representative of potential users of the ISSC-MAP.

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This document and other documents related to this project are available on the

project download website: http://www.floraweb.de/map-pro/.

BACKGROUND: WHY IS THE ISSC-MAP NEEDED? Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAP)1 have been an important resource for

human health care from prehistoric times to the present day. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the majority of the world's human population, especially in developing countries, depends on traditional medicine based on MAP (WHO, 2002). Between 50,000 and 70,000 plant species are known to be used in traditional and modern medicinal systems throughout the world (Schippmann et al., 2006). About 3,000 MAP species are traded internationally (Lange and Schippmann, 1997), while an even larger number of MAP species are found in local, national, and regional trade.

Relatively few MAP species are cultivated, however. The great majority of MAP

species in trade are wild-collected (Lange and Schippmann, 1997; Srivastava et al., 1996; Xiao Pen-gen, 1991). This trend is likely to continue over the long term due to numerous factors, including:

• Little is known about the growth and reproduction requirements of most MAP species, which are derived from many taxonomic groups for which there is little or no experience of cultivation.

• The time, research, and experience leading to domestication and cultivation are costly, and relatively few MAP species have the large and reliable markets required to support these inputs.

• In many communities where wild collection of MAP is an important source of income, land for cultivation of non-food crops is limited.

Moreover, cultivation may provide fewer environmental, social, and economic

benefits than wild collection of some MAP species. Wild collection of MAP secures valuable income for many rural households, especially in developing countries, and is an important factor in the source countries' local economies (Schippmann et al., 2006). Wild collection also can provide incentives for conservation and sustainable use of forests and other important plant areas.

However, over-harvesting, land conversion, and habitat loss increasingly threaten

a considerable portion (approximately 15,000 species, or 21 per cent) of the world's MAP species and populations (Schippmann et al., 2006). For these reasons, approaches to wild MAP collection that engage local, regional, and international collection enterprises and markets, along with governments and healthcare providers, in the work of conservation and sustainable use of MAP resources are urgently needed.

There are many challenges to meet in developing and applying a standard set of

principles and good practices leading to support of sustainable wild collection of MAP resources. These challenges include:

• Circumstances of ecology, habitat, and pressures on resources are unique for

each species, requiring management plans that are specific to each MAP collection operation and area.

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• The dependence of local communities on MAP resources for health and livelihood security is largely un assessed and unrecorded.

• Little research on harvesting techniques has been directed toward understanding how to collect wild MAP species sustainable.

• Maximum quotas for wild-collection of MAP species are often based on overly simple and untested assumptions about the relationship between available supply and regeneration of MAP resources.

• Products, uses, and markets based on MAP species are numerous and diverse, with similarly numerous and diverse entry points for practices supporting sustainable use.

• There is a wide proliferation of labels and claims, such as organic and fair trade, which imply but do not provide a means of verifying sustainable wild collection.

• Long and complex source-to-market supply chains make tracing a product back to its source extremely difficult.

Existing principles and guidelines for conservation and sustainable use of

medicinal plants address primarily the national and international political level, but only indirectly provide governments, the medicinal plant industry and other stakeholders, including collectors, with specific guidance on sustainable sourcing practices. For example, the revised Guidelines on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants (WHO/IUCN/WWF/TRAFFIC forthcoming) and the WHO Guidelines on Good Agricultural and Collection Practices (GACP) for Medicinal Plants (WHO, 2003) provide general recommendations addressed primarily to governments and other political stakeholders, NGOs, IGOs and businesses world-wide. These guidelines call for, but do not provide, concrete principles and criteria for the conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants. The ISSC-MAP provides a practical interface between the general recommendations set out in these Guidelines, and management plans that must be developed for particular species and specific situations.

Other existing or proposed standards for the sustainable collection of non-timber

forest products (NTFP) provide useful models for MAP. Models for sustainable harvest of NTFP that may be particularly useful for MAP include the certification systems of the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), the International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movements (IFOAM), and Fair-trade Labeling Organizations International (FLO).2 Other important models include natural resource co-management agreements with indigenous communities, and access and benefit sharing arrangements between genetic resource users and providers.

The ISSC-MAP builds on existing principles, guidelines, and standards, but

expands and extends these to provide principles and criteria more relevant to the sustainable wild collection of MAP resources. Implementing the ISSC-MAP will benefit ecological resources or area managers, industry, and local collectors by providing a reputable standard of good practice for sustainable wild collection against which local performance can be designed and monitored with criteria and verified with indicators relevant to MAP resources. Harmonization with appropriate ecosystem, fair trade, production, product quality, and other relevant standards is considered an important avenue for developing and implementing the ISSC-MAP.

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The ISSC-MAP is designed to be applicable to the wide array of geographic, ecological, cultural, economic, and trade conditions in which wild-collection of MAP resources occurs. It primarily addresses wild collection of medicinal and aromatic plant materials for commercial purposes, rather than for subsistence or local use. The Standard focuses on best ecological practices but also aims to support responsible social standards and business practices that affect collectors and collection operations, because these elements in turn affect the management of collected species and collection areas. PROCESS: HOW IS THE ISSC-MAP BEING DEVELOPED AND IMPLEMENTED?

The process to elaborate this International Standard for the Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic plants (ISSC-MAP) is a joint initiative of the German Bundesamt fuer Naturschutz (BfN), WWF Germany, TRAFFIC, IUCN Canada, and the IUCN/SSC Medicinal Plant Specialist Group (MPSG). Together, these organizations formed a steering group to oversee the development of the Standard. An international, interdisciplinary Advisory Group was formed to involve relevant stakeholders from ecologically sustainable production, organic production, ethical business, and fair-trade sectors in the process of developing and testing the ISSC-MAP.3 The Advisory Group brings together the medicinal plant / herbal products industry, small-scale collection enterprises, non-government organizations, conservation and certification organizations. The member's specific expertise and advice on the content of the Standard, the development of practical guidance, and the opportunities to harmonize the development of this Standard with other relevant frameworks supports both the design and the implementation of the ISSC-MAP.

A first draft of this Standard was completed in November 2004 for discussion

with members of the Advisory Group (Leaman, 2004). The first draft consisted of four separate practice standards4: I. Ecosystem and MAP resource management; II. Wild collection of MAP resources; III Domestication, cultivation, and enhanced in situ production of MAP resources; and IV. Rights, responsibilities, and equitable relations of stakeholders. The first draft was presented to the World Conservation Forum of the 3rd IUCN World Conservation Congress in Bangkok in November 2004. A first expert workshop, convened on the Isle of Vilm in December 2004, provided a discussion forum for the members of the Advisory Group on the first draft document and other process related issues.

A second draft, distributed to the Advisory Group in April 2005, condensed the

original four practice standards into a single standard with ten principles, related criteria, and proposed indicators (Leaman and Salvador, 2005). The relevance and practicality of the second draft Standard was tested August & October 2005 in five existing MAP field projects. The projects were selected from different geographical regions, and offering a range of socio-economic and resource management circumstances:

• A private company, AnÄ‘elic d.o.o. in Bosnia-Herzegovina (financed by BfN/ INA, and SIPPO)

• A non-profit initiative, Iracambi Medicinal Plants Project in Brazil (financed by Manfred-Hermsen-Stiftung)

• A state-owned and managed protected area of Wanglang National Nature Reserve & Baima State Forest in China (financed by WWF Germany)

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• A community-based agro-artesanal producers’ association (AAPPSME) in Ecuador (financed by UNCTAD, with additional support from Manfred-Hermsen-Stiftung)

• A non-profit Sustainable Harvested Devil’s Claw project in Namibia (financed by Salus Haus, Germany).

Results from the field consultations were summarized by Salvador (2005), and evaluated during a second expert workshop on the Isle of Vilm in December 20055. This First Working Version of the ISSC-MAP incorporates comments from the Advisory Group, results of the field consultation phase, and discussions during the 2nd Vilm workshop.

Participants in the 2nd Vilm workshop identified a range of potential

implementation scenarios for the ISSC-MAP. A study of implementation scenarios and opportunities for the ISSC-MAP was commissioned by WWF Germany early in 2006 (Kathe and Gallia 2006). Principal scenarios examined include:

• Integration with existing standards and mechanisms (e.g., CITES non-detriment

findings for species listed on Appendix II). • Partnership / harmonization with existing or developing standards and

mechanisms (e.g., organic and fair-trade certification schemes, Bio Trade principles and criteria).

• Stand-alone mechanism (e.g., verification / certification by one or more members of the ISSC-MAP Steering Group).

The ISSC-MAP has been presented and discussed in a variety of other venues, including: the inaugural meeting of the Global Partnership for Plant Conservation (Dublin, October 2005), the National Conference of the Canadian Herb, Spice, and Natural Health Product Coalition (St John, Newfoundland, Canada, November 2005), a workshop on development of a participatory adaptive management methodology for sustainable harvest of medicinal plants (Bangalore, January 2006), Biofach (Nuremberg, February 2006), the NIMH Conference National Institute of Medicinal Herbalists (Durham, UK, April 2006), the Supply Side East (New Jersey USA, May 2006), the Latin American Botanical Congress (Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, June 2006), the 16th meeting of the CITES Plants Committee and a linked Bio Trade Workshop (Lima, Peru, July 2006), German Tropentag (Bonn, October 2006) and the 12th International Conference and Exhibition of the Egyptian Society for Producers, Manufacturers & Exporters of MAP (Cairo, November 2006).

Opportunities for implementation of the ISSC-MAP in South-eastern Europe were

discussed during an international workshop convened in Bosnia and Herzegovina in May 2006. A preliminary implementation trial, focusing on community-managed collection areas for medicinal plants in India, will be undertaken early in 2007 by the Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT) with support from Plant life International. An initial implementation phase is planned for 2007-2008, focusing on four priority strategies that will provide a broad range of models and practical experience in applying the ISSC-MAP: certification (by an independent body or industry association), resource management, legal adoption and policy, and voluntary codes of practice (Figure 1).

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During this phase, implementation of the ISSC-MAP will seek to address a number of additional challenges, including:

• Increasing awareness by potential ISSC-MAP users of the impacts of wild

collection on MAP resources, and recognition of the need for a standard; • Encouraging participation of potential ISSC-MAP users in the process of further

developing and implementing the Standard; • Ensuring the credibility of the overseers of the Standard; • Establishing mechanisms to ensure the accountability of the users of the

Standard; and • Assessing the willingness of industry and consumers to support additional costs

associated with applying the Standard. During the implementation phase, additional definition and guidance will be

developed for some elements of the ISSC-MAP. For example, tools and processes for assessing sustainable yield are essential to the effective implementation of the ISSC-MAP. In September 2006, a workshop hosted by BfN and the University of Koblenz-Landau on the Isle of Vilm, brought together approximately 40 individuals working on field assessment of sustainable yield of medicinal and aromatic plants, or of other wild-harvested non-timber resources, to discuss tools and processes available, and their relevance to medicinal and aromatic plants. Results from this workshop will be incorporated in future guidance materials for applying the ISSC-MAP. GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE ISSC-MAP

As the ISSC-MAP moves from development to implementation, new structures are required for governance and management of both the Standard and the process of its implementation. The Steering Group and several members of the Advisory Group met on 18-19 September 2006 to plan this transition. This workshop was hosted by Manfred-Hermsen-Stiftung in Bremen, Germany.

The original Steering Group and Advisory Group will be expanded and

differentiated into four new structures: • a secretariat, housed within the offices of WWF and Traffic in Germany; • a more formal decision-making body, adding to the original Steering Group

individuals with certification and business expertise, and expanding regional expertise;

• a technical committee, draw from members of the Advisory Group, which will advise the decision-making body on specific issues related to implementation and further development of the Standard; and

• ad hoc task groups to provide expertise on specific issues, such as those related to particular species of MAP.

Further consideration of the most appropriate governance structures for the ISSC-MAP is an important component of the initial implementation phase. STRUCTURE AND CONTENT OF THE ISSC-MAP

The purpose of the ISSC-MAP is to ensure the continued use and long-term survival of MAP species and populations in their habitats, while respecting the traditions, cultures and livelihoods of all stakeholders.

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The objectives of this Standard are: • To provide a framework of principles and criteria that can be applied to the

management of MAP species and their ecosystems; • To provide guidance for management planning; • To serve as a basis for monitoring and reporting; and • To recommend requirements for certification of sustainable wild collection of

MAP resources. This First Working Version of the ISSC-MAP follows a functional hierarchy of

components according to the division outlined in Table 1. These definitions are based on a general framework recommended for the formulation of sustainable forest management standards (Lammerts van Bueren and Blom, 1997). Literature Cited Brown, L., Robinson, D. and Karmann, M. 2000. The Forest Stewardship Council and

non-timber forest product certification: a discussion paper. Appendix A. Draft Principle 11. FSC NTFP Working Group, 1997.

CBD. 2000. Ecosystem approach. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal, Canada. COP5 Decision V/6.

http://www.biodiv.org/decisions/default.aspx?m=COP-05&id=7148&lg=0 CBD. 2002a. Global Strategy for Plant Conservation. Secretariat of the Convention on

Biological Diversity, Montreal, Canada. COP6 Decision VI/9. http://www.biodiv.org/decisions/default.aspx?m=COP-06&id=7183&lg=0 CBD. 2002b. Access and benefit sharing as related to genetic resources. Secretariat of

the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal, Canada. COP6 Decision VI/24.

http://www.biodiv.org/decisions/default.aspx?m=COP-06&id=7198&lg=0 CBD. 2002c. Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development. Johannesburg,

South Africa, 26 August 4 September. UN, New York, USA. CBD. 2004. Sustainable use (Article 10). Secretariat of the Convention on Biological

Diversity, Montreal, Canada. COP7 Decision VII/12. http://www.biodiv.org/decisions/default.aspx?m=COP-07&id=7749&lg=0 Cooney, R. 2004. The Precautionary principle in biodiversity conservation and natural

resource management: An issues paper for policy-makers, researchers and practitioners. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.

Encyclopedia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopedia Britannica Online (www.eb.com).

FSC. 2000. Principles and Criteria. Forest Stewardship Council FSC. 2006. Chain of Custody Certification. Forest Stewardship Council.

http://www.fsccanada.org/SiteCM/U/D/179CE55BBA7277F0.pdf Holling, C.S. 1978. Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management. John Wiley

and Sons, NY. ISEAL. 2004. ISEAL Code of Good Practice for Setting Social and Environmental

Standards. International Social and Environmental Accreditation and Labeling Alliance. P005 Final Public Draft, version 3, January 2004. www.isealalliance.org

Kathe, W. and Gallia, E. 2006. International Standard for Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Study on Implementation Strategies and

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Opportunities for Pilot Implementation. Excerpt from final draft, April 2006.

Lammerts van Bueren, E.M. and Blom, E.A. 1997. Hierarchical Framework for the Formulation of Sustainable Forest Management Standards. The Tropenbos Foundation, Leiden, The Netherlands.

Lange, D. and Schippmann, U. 1997. Trade Survey of Medicinal Plants in Germany: A Contribution to International Plant Species Conservation. Bundesamt fuer Naturschutz, Bonn

Leaman, D.J. 2004. Standards for Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Discussion Draft 1, November 2004.

Leaman, D.J., Fassil, H. and Thormann, I. 1999. Conserving Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Species: Identifying the Contribution of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), Rome, Italy.

Leaman, D.J. and Salvador, S. 2005. An International Standard for the Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP): Principles, Criteria, Indicators, and Means of Verification. Draft 2, April 2005.

Muldoon, G.J. and Scott, P.G. 2004. Creating the International Standard for the Trade in Live Reef Food Fish. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, Fisheries Working Group.

Peters, C.M. 1994. Sustainable Harvest of Non-Timber Plant Resources in Tropical Moist Forest: An Ecological Primer. Biodiversity Support Programme and World Wildlife Fund, Washington, DC

Pierce, A.R. and Laird S.A. 2003. In search of comprehensive standards for non-timber forest products in the botanicals trade. Intl. For. Rev. 5:138-147.

Salvador, S. 2005. Compilation of Results from Field Consultations on the International Standard for Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plan (ISSC-MAP). Draft 2.

Schippmann, U, Leaman, D. and Cunningham A.B. 2006. Cultivation and wild collection of medicinal and aromatic plants under sustainability aspects. In: Bogers, R.J., Craker, L.E. and Lange, D. (eds). Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Springer, Dordrecht. Wageningen UR Frontis Series no. 17.

SECO. 2005. A Guide to Using the Working Draft ABS Management Tool. State Secretariat for Economic Affairs. Bern, Switzerland.

Shanley, P., Pierce, A.R., Laird, S.A. and Guillen A. 2002. Tapping the Green Market: Certification and Management of Non-timber Forest Products. Earthscan.

Srivastava, J., Lambert, J. and Vietmeyer, N. 1996. Medicinal Plants: An Expanding Role in Development. World Bank Technical Paper 320. World Bank, Washington, DC.

UN. 2005. The Millennium Development Goals Report. United Nations Department of Public Information, New York, USA.

UNEP. 2001. Convention on Biological Diversity: Text and Annexes. United Nations Environment Programme. UNEP/CBD/94/1. http://www.biodiv.org

Walters, C.J. 1986. Adaptive Management of Renewable Resources. McMillan, New York.

WHO. 2002. WHO Traditional Medicine Strategy 2002-2005. WHO, Geneva. WHO. 2003. WHO Guidelines on Good Agricultural and Collection Practices (GACP)

for Medicinal Plants. WHO, Geneva. WHO, IUCN and WWF. 1993. Guidelines on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants.

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WHO, IUCN, WWF, and TRAFFIC. Forthcoming. Revised Guidelines on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants.

Wikipedia,2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traceabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traceability

Xiao Pen-gen. 1991. The Chinese Approach to Medicinal Plants Their Utilization and Conservation. In: Akerle, O., Heywood, V. and Synge, H. (eds.). Conservation of Medicinal Plants. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Annexes and Tables

Table 1. Functional differentiation of standard components

Element Description Standard Set of rules developed for conceptualization, implementation, and/or

evaluation of good management practices. Principle A fundamental law or rule, serving as a basis for reasoning and

action. Principles are explicit elements of a goal. Criterion A state or aspect of a process or system, which should be in place as

a result of adherence to a principle. The way criteria are formulated should give rise to a verdict on the degree of compliance in an actual situation.

Indicator A quantitative or qualitative parameter that can be assessed in relation to a criterion. It describes in an objectively verifiable and unambiguous way features of the system, or elements of prevailing policy and management conditions and human driven processes indicative of the state of the eco- and social system.

Method of control (verifier)

The source of information for the indicator or for the reference value for the indicator.

Adapted from Lammerts van Bueren and Blom (1997). The ISSC-MAP has six principles and 18 criteria, addressing ecological, social, and economic requirements for sustainable wild collection of MAP. These are listed in Table 2. The proposed indicators are elaborated in Annex 1.

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Table 2. ISSC-MAP Principles and Criteria

SECTION 1: WILD COLLECTION AND CONSERVATION REQUIREMENTS

Principle 1. Maintaining Wild MAP Resources Wild collection of MAP resources shall be conducted at a scale and rate and in a manner that maintains populations and species over the long term.

1. Conservation status of target MAP species The conservation status of target MAP species and populations is assessed and regularly reviewed.

1.2 Knowledge-based collection practices MAP collection and management practices are based on adequate identification, inventory, assessment, and monitoring of the target species and collection impacts.

1. Collection intensity and species regeneration The rate (intensity and frequency) of MAP collection does not exceed the target species' ability to regenerate over the long term.

Principle 2. Preventing Negative Environmental Impacts Negative impacts caused by MAP collection activities on other wild species, the collection area, and neighboring areas shall be prevented.

2.1 Sensitive taxa and habitats Rare, threatened, and endangered species and habitats that are likely to be affected by MAP collection and management are identified and protected.

2.2 Habitat (landscape level) management Management activities supporting wild MAP collection do not adversely affect ecosystem diversity, processes, and functions.

SECTION II: LEGAL AND ETHICAL REQUIREMENTS Principle 3. Complying with Laws, Regulations, and Agreements MAP collection and management activities shall be carried out under legitimate tenurearrangements, and comply with relevant laws, regulations, and agreements.

3.1 Tenure, management authority, and use rights Collectors and managers have a clear and recognized right and authority to use andmanage the target MAP resources.

3.2 Laws, regulations, and administrative requirements

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Collection and management of MAP resources complies with all internationalagreements and with national and local laws, regulations, and administrativerequirements, including those related to protected species and areas.

Principle 4. Respecting Customary Rights Local communities and indigenous peoples' customary rights to use and manage collection areas and wild collected MAP resources shall be re cognized and respected.

4.1 Traditional use, access rights, and cultural heritage Local communities' and indigenous people with legal or customary tenure or userights maintain control, to the extent necessary to protect their rights or resources,over MAP collection operations.

4.2 Benefit sharing Agreements with local communities and indigenous people are based on appropriateand adequate knowledge of MAP resource tenure, management requirements, andresource value.

SECTION III: MANAGEMENT AND BUSINESS REQUIREMENTS Principle 5. Applying Responsible Management Practices Wild collection of MAP species shall be based on adaptive, practical, participatory, andtransparent management practices.

5.1 Species / area management plan A species / area management plan defines adaptive, practical management processes and good collection practices.

1. Inventory, assessment, and monitoring Management of MAP wild collection is supported by adequate and practical resourceinventory, assessment, and monitoring of collection impacts.

1. Transparency and participation MAP collection activities are carried out in a transparent manner with respect tomanagement planning and implementation, recording and sharing information, andinvolving stakeholders.

5.4 Documentation Procedures for collecting, managing, and sharing information required for effective collection management are established and carried out.

Principle 6. Applying Responsible Business Practices Wild collection of wild MAP resources shall be undertaken to support quality, financial, andlabor requirements of the market without sacrificing sustainability of the resource.

6.1 Market / buyer specifications The sustainable collection and handling of MAP resources is managed and plannedaccording to market requirements in order to prevent or minimise the collection of

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products unlikely to be sold.

6.2 Traceability Storage and handling of MAP resources is managed to support traceability to collectionarea.

6.3 Financial viability Mechanisms are encouraged to ensure the financial viability of systems of sustainable wild collection of MAP resources.

6.4 Training and capacity building Resource managers and collectors have adequate skills (training, supervision, experience)to implement the provisions of the management plan, and to comply with the requirements of this standard.

6.5 Worker safety and compensation MAP collection management provides adequate work-related health, safety, and financial compensation to collectors and other workers

Figure 1. Priority implementation scenarios for the ISSC-MAP

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2- Sharing National GR Inventories Using Web Services

Dr. Kheder Durah, Regional Network Manager, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Aleppo, Syria

The challenge of linking and integrating information component and analysis tool into a coherent information gateway plays a central role within regional networks in CWANA. Substantial amount of information are being generated at National Programs level and the value of this information remains largely dependent on the way it is managed, analyzed and made accessible by that National Program.

Information exchange and efficient communication is a daily need. Information

and Communication Technology (ICT) has grown by leaps and bounds, and sustained, not because it seems popular, but because businesses can function more efficiently with less cost. This need for information exchange brings in another need to make this information selectively visible, and its visibility to be changed on the fly.

For example, with the introduction of the telephone came the need to have a

directory service. This gave rise to the ever-popular "Yellow Pages," which brought the consumer and the provider closer to each other.

The revolution of computerizing services of organizations gave rise to isolated

computer systems. Each organization had software developed and customized to its specific needs. However, mergers, acquisitions, and business growths saw the need to share information stored in these isolated computer systems. The Internet partially solved this problem, but the Internet also opened many loop-holes in security, making the owners of this information uneasy about the scope of their information's availability.

Hence, it became imperative that, for better B2B (Business-to-Business)

communication, these systems must have the ability to link up to each other, grant permissions through a system other than the Internet, and which would make all the systems network with each other like an Intranet. (by Lakshmi Ananthamurthy, Accepture, 2005).

Web services provide a standard means of interoperating between different

software applications, running on a variety of platforms and/or frameworks using HTTP protocol and XML as the base language. This makes it a very developer-friendly service system. It is also based on a set of standardized rules and specifications, making it more portable. Programs providing simple services can interact with each other in order to deliver sophisticated added-value services and share their data amongst National Programs.

The structure of Web service describing its activities is SOAP (Simple Object

Access Protocol) is the method by which you can send messages across different modules. It is similar to a search engine interface.

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UDDI (Universal Description, Discovery and Integration) is the global look up base for locating the service. This is similar to index service of a search engine or Yellow Pages!

WSDL (Web Services Definition Language) is the method through which different

services are described in the UDDI. This actually maps to the actual search engine. (by Pravin Tiwari, Developer, 2005)

Figure 1.1 - illustrates Web Services model.

Web Services in the business world provides a mechanism of communication

between two remote systems, connected through the network of the Web Services. For Example, in case of a merger or an acquisition, organizations don’t have to invest large funds for developing software to bring the systems of different organizations together. By extending the business applications as Web Services, the information systems of different organizations can be linked. This business information can be accessed using simple SOAP messages over normal HTTP Web protocol. (by Lakshmi Ananthamurthy, Accepture, 2005).

Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) has built a portal using Web Services technology namely BioCase, which is a software server that uses XML based data Schemas to link to existing genetic resources databases at various CGIAR centers and National Gene Banks and makes it available for public search as illustrated above.

The BioCASE utilizes open source, system-independent software and open data standards and protocols. Authorized members can query the portal and find data and information resources at National and International inventories, thus bridging the technology gap and facilitating the dissemination and collaboration of information between unconventional partners.

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During BioCase EU-funded project phase 2001-2004, partners from 31 countries established the network, starting with meta-information on thousands of biological collections and followed by a unit-level access network which is individual specimen or observation records. In contrast, “collection-level metadata” consists of records describing entire collections of such units. This information comes in formats ranging from XML and text data to high-resolution images and even media files (audio/video).

The continuous development of BioCase is supported by the European Union projects ENBI and SYNTHESYS, as well as by other initiatives such as GBIF mirror and replication project. More details are available at http://www.biocase.org.

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Second Session Current and prospective Status of the Export of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 1. Guidelines for Exporters of Herbs and Spices Mohamad Said A. Safwat, Dept. Agric. Microbiology, Fac. Agric., Minia University. Egypt. (in Arabic) 2-The Desert Research Center and Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAP) in the Egyptian Deserts Abd El-Monem Henawy and Yasser Adel Hanafy Osman, Desert Research Center, Cairo, Egypt INTRODUCTION

The ancient historian Herodotus wrote that Egypt is a gift of the Nile. But this is not completely true because the Nile is located in many other countries, too, and Egypt is only one among them. The area in Egypt which is covered by deserts is about 96% of the entire country. One of the greatest treasures that can be found in those deserts is their medicinal and aromatic plants. In this presentation, we will talk about Egyptian desert vegetation and take a close up view on medicinal plants (wild and cultivated) as well as their production, marketing and export.

Historical Facts

Since a long time ago ancient Egyptians have known and used medicinal and aromatic plants. We can find this registered in their medical papyri such as Edwin Smith, Berlin, Ebers, Kahon and many others and also on the walls of both, their temples and tombs. Ancient Egyptian medicinal plants: Some medicinal and aromatic plants and examples of their uses in ancient Egypt:

1 Acacia, Acacia nilotica Desf 2 Egyptian, Sycamore Ficus sycomorus L. 3 Licorice, Glycyrrhiza glabra L. 4 Henna, Lawsonia inermis L

Acacia Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Anti diarrhea - Anti fever - Sore gums - Loose teeth - Skin diseases - Irritated parts between toes. Henna Lawsonia inermis L. Perfumes Pigments - Skin diseases – Embalmment of dead bodies (mummies).

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Nowadays medicinal and aromatic plants can be divided into two main groups.

Medicinal flora plants (grown wild in both, low numbers and scattered areas of deserts and other parts of Egypt, and cultivated medicinal plants cultivated for economic and commercial production on wide range) (Table 1). Techniques for cultivation of MP in deserts Irrigation: Drip irrigation “Water harvesting" Fertilization: Organic and bio fertilizers “Slow release fertilizers. Special chemicals: Soil conditioners. Agriculture systems: Intercropping “Protected agriculture" Suitable plants. Table 1, Water efficiency in some medicinal and aromatic plants

Crop W.Cons Yield W. Cons

Aver. Kg Price Income 1m Income

m/f kg/f m/kg LE per kg LE per Feddan LE per m Trad. Bio Org. Trad. Bio Org. Trad. Bio Org. Anise 1317.5 600 2.20 6 7.5 9 3600 4500 5400 2.7 3.4 4.1 Caraway 1317.5 800 1.65 5 6.25 7.5 4000 5000 6000 3.0 3.8 4.6 Cumin 1170 400 2.93 9 11.3 13.5 3600 4500 5400 3.1 3.8 4.6 Coriander 1170 850 1.38 3 3.75 4.5 2550 3188 3825 2.2 2.7 3.3 Black Cumin

1170 500 2.34 6 7.5 9 3000 3750 4500 2.6 3.2 3.8

Fennel 1317.5 1200 1.10 4 5.00 6 4800 6000 7200 3.6 4.6 5.5 Castor 1500 1500 1.00 2 2.50 3 3000 3750 4500 2.0 2.5 3.0 Castor (oil) 1500 750 2.00 15 18.75 22.5 11250 14063 16875 7.5 9.4 11.3 Production possibility of some medicinal plants under Sinai conditions:

One of the examples was carried out at Maghara research station which belongs to the Desert Research Center in Middle Sinai, Egypt. A field trial resulted in the following:

• Target crops were some aromatic fruits, Coriander, Cumin, Black cumin and Fennel. • The best results were obtained by using (drip irrigation 4L per plant per day) “47 m3

sheep manure “23 kg per hectare Fertilized Hydragell (Polymer contains NPK). Clean production of medicinal plants Production stages: o On the field:

Fertilization (Organic "safe" chemical) Pest control (Animals ,Insects ,Fungus ,Bacteria). o Post harvest

Drying ,Garbling ,Grading , Storage ,Packaging , Handling. Following the international regulations (GAP EGAP Asta).

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Wild MA plants (Medical and aromatic Flora) The Egyptian medicinal flora consists of about 342 species distributed in 13 places and can be divided to 4 groups:

• 91 very common species • 86 common species • 95 rare species • 70 very rare species

Alhagi maurorum Uses

• Diuretic • Anti Rheumatic • Kidney stones

Arundo donax Uses:

• Diuretic • Milk Secretion

Citrullus colocynthis Uses

• Purgative • Anti Rheumatic

Desert Research Center and MAP Many departments in DRC deal with medicinal and aromatic plants.

• Medicinal and Aromatic plants Department • Production of MAP unit • Phyto-chemistry unit • Natural products unit

• Ecology department • Genetic Resources department • Biotechnology department

MAP Department: Targets:

• To reach the highest yields by using modern agriculture practices. • To survey and evaluate wild plants and extract the active constituents. • To study the ecological aspects of wild plants and domesticate them in new

lands. • To test the healing effect of isolated compounds and evaluate the toxic effect to

reach the right dosages. • To evaluate the folkloric methods of using herbs. • Extension programs and public awareness by importance of MAP and the best

production techniques.

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Methodology: Survey - Screening and evaluation of active constituents “Domestication -

Agriculture treatments - Isolation of active constituents - Evaluate the pharmaco- gnostical effects. Targets of Ecology Department:

• Το study the ecological aspects of wild plants. • To survey and evaluate wild plants. • To study biodiversity of wild plants in different habitats. • To study the impacts of different factors on environment. • Identification of wild plants.

Medicinal and Aromatic Flora Habitats: • Coastal sandy dunes plants (Urgina maritima) • Sandy dune plants (Retama reatam) • Clay or Nile valley plants (Ambrosia maritima) • Calcareous plants (Pituranthos triradiatus) • Saline or marches plants (Cressa cretica) • Mountains plants (Juniperus phoenicea) • Gravely rockery plants (Capparis spinosa) • Oasis plants (Adiantum capillus-veneris)

Targets of Genetic Resources Department:

• Making finger print for wild plants on molecule and biochemical levels. • Identification of genes related to active ingredients. • Study of bioactive effects of active constituents on microorganisms • Study of the genetically aspects dealing with wild plants.

Targets of Biotechnology Department

• In vitro conservation of plant genetic resources. • Propagation of rare or endangered plants. • Multi propagation for economic crops. • Production of plants free from pathogen resources.

Regional research stations of DRC: There are many research stations belonging to DRC in different parts of the Egyptian deserts:

• In North Sinai: 3 stations( North Sinai “Maghara “Ras Sudr). • In the Eastern Desert: 1 station (Shalateen). • In the Western Desert: 3 stations. (Matrouh “Siwa “Kharga).

A model for DRC scientific research stations is the North Sinai research station NSRS:

Structure: • Egyptian Deserts Gene Bank (EDGB). • Research fields • Green houses • Adaptation units • Vegetation sector • Medicinal plants sector

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• Metrological lab • Field gene bank • Tissue culture lab • Biotechnology lab • Herbarium Activities: • Collecting plant genetic resources from their wild habitats. • Seed conservation in storage rooms • Evaluation and characterization in field gene bank • Training

Plant Genetic Resources: Success stories: Moringa olifera - Citrllus colynthus - Balanities egyptiaca - Colotropus procera “ Jatrova sp “ Lygos ratam “ Selonostemma arghel “ Capparis sp. Hohoba. 3.Medicinal and Herbal Plants in the Upper Egyptian Provinces Adel Abdel-Aziz Zayed, ARC (in Arabic) 4-Economic Herbal Relatives in Egyptian Flora Wafaa M. Amer, Plant Dept., Fac. of Science, Cairo Univ. (Oral presentation only) 5-Uses of Yaktine’ in Medicine Reda H. Elsisy & Atef Khalil (ESMAP) (Oral presentation only) Third Session Organic farming systems 1- Organic Farming in Egypt

Yussef Ali Hamdi, Chairman of Egyptian Center for Organic Farming, Cairo (in Arabic) 2- Toward an Excellent Crops Production System in the Frame of

Egyptian Biological Farming Abdel-Monaim Maher, Dept. Plant Protection, Fac.of Agric., Assiut Univ.

(in Arabic) 3- The Role of the Central Organic Farming Institute in the Extension

of Concepts of Organic Farming Emad Abdel-Qader Hassan, Director of Central Organic Farming Institute, Cairo.

(in Arabic)

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4- Methods of Increasing Soil Fertility in the Organic Farming System Atef Abdel-Aziz Hassan, Deputy Director, Central Organic Farming Institute Cairo (in Arabic)

5- Negative Side-Effects of Pesticides on Human Beings and the Environment Abdel-Rahman Farhat Tolba, Deputy Director, Central Organic Farming Institute (in Arabic) Fourth Session Towards Optimum Use of Wild Plants 1 – The Use of Aloe Vera Plants in Medicinal Therapy Atif Tantawy1, M.S.A.Safwat2 and M.El-Kholy3, 1Department of Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University; 2Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, Minia University;

3Bio Aloe Vera & Organic Herbs Extracts Company, Fayoum. Egypt. Abstract

Bio- Aloe Vera plant, especially the Egyptian one has recently seen a world wide demand from pharmaceutical industries due to its high protein, amino acids and other chemical components like anthraquinone derivatives. These components have great value for the formulation and synthesis of chemical substances, in addition to their medicinal uses as nutrients in pharmaceutical preparations. Furthermore, Aloe Vera plant represents an interesting commercial and economic resource for exporting, job creating and raising the national income. Aloe Vera contains at least three anti-inflammatory fatty acids which are helpful for the gastrointestinal tract, such as the stomach, small intestine and colon. It naturally alkalizes the digestive juices to prevent over acidity - a common cause of indigestion. Aloe Vera encourages healthy elimination, the most powerful herbal supports for a chronically sluggish colon, and cleans the digestive tract by exerting a soothing and balancing effect. One newly discovered compound in Aloe Vera has been studied for its contribution in strengthening natural resistance. Some studies have shown that acemannan helps boost T-lymphocyte cells (the cells which are involved in the immunity of the body). Other studies have identified antiviral factors in Aloe Vera.

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Aloe Vera can help in different pharmacological ways:

• helps heal wounds • supports surgical recover • soothes burns • minimizes frostbite damage • screens out radiation • heals psoriasis lesions • eases intestinal problems • reduces blood sugar in Diabetes • reduces arthritic swelling • curtails HIV infection • gives nutritional support for HIV patients • stimulates immune response against cancer, protects from lung cancer.

The ancient Egyptians used Aloe Vera as cosmetic component for their beauty nutrient, and wound healing drug.

SO3H O

O

Derivative of Anthraquionene (Toxic isolated component in

Aloe Vera plants)

S

O O

O

OH

Phenol red (Sulfophenophthalene) used as indicator

Bio Aloe Vera Plants

The use of Aloe Vera can be traced all the way back to the ancient Egyptians. The glamorous Cleopatra regarded Aloe Vera asher beauty secret. Aloe was held in such reverence in Egypt that it was considered to be the "Plant of Immortality". Drawings of the aloe plant have even been found inscribed in the tombs of pharaohs.

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1. It helps heal wounds :

Aloe gel is a mild anesthetic relieving itching , swelling and pain. Antibacterial and antifungal, it increases blood flow to wounded areas, and stimulates fibroblasts and skin cells responsible for wound healing.

2. and supports surgical recovery :

Decreases recovery time and heals surgical wounds after removing skin cancer.

3. and soothes burns: The burns heal more quickly using Aloe Vera gel (12 days) compared to (18 days) using Vaseline.

4. and minimizes frostbite damage Aloe Vera cream decreases blood flow to the frozen tissues.

5. and eases intestinal problems :

Aloe Vera juice can be effective for treating inflammatory bowel diseases and help detoxify the bowel plus neutralization of stomach acidity.

6. and reduces blood sugar in Diabetes :

Blood sugar level in diabetic patients is reduced to about 45% without reducing the body weight.

7. and reduces arthritic swelling : It prevents arthritis and inflammations and curtails HIV Infections: Mannose in Aloe Vera sugars can inhibit HIV-1 (The virus associated with AIDS.)

8. Nutritional support for HIV patients :

Aloe Vera juice proved to be an effective part of nutritional support programs for HIV patients.

9. and stimulates immune response against cancer: Aloe Vera may help prolong survival time and stimulates the immune system of cancer patients.

10. and protects from lung cancer :

Aloe Vera prevents human pulmonary carcinogenesis lung cancer.

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Fourth Session 3 -Situation of Pesticide Residues and Microbiological Contamination

in Aromatic Plants and Spices Salwa Dogheim The Central Laboratory. of Residue Analysis of Pesticide Residues and Heavy Metals, Food Agricultural Research Centre, Giza, Egypt. Pesticide residues in spices Elaboration of MRLs for spices in the CCPR and the JMPR

The issue of setting MRLs for spices based on monitoring data was discussed by the CCPR on several occasions.

The 2002 JMPR prepared guidelines for the format of submission of monitoring data for evaluation.

In 2004, the 36th session of the CCPR proposed to divide the commodity group 028 into sub-groups on the basis of parts of plants from which they are obtained (seeds; fruits or berries; roots or rhizomes; bark; buds; aril and flower stigma) and proposed that MRLs for pesticides, which had been evaluated within the Codex system, should be set for the sub-groups.

The 2004 JMPR estimated MRLs for spices based on monitoring data submitted by the American Spice Trade Association (ASTA), European Spice Association (ESA), and EGYPT

The residue data on cumin from Egypt indicated that post-harvest application was possibly made with several pesticides.

The residue levels of malathion,chlorpyrifos and profenofos on anise seed were also much higher than those in case of other pesticides which indicated the possibility of post-harvest use of these pesticides. (Table 1).

Elaboration of MRLs for spices The Meeting concluded that post-harvest use of pesticides on spices should be

regulated by national governments, and monitoring data should not be used for estimating maximum residue levels reflecting the post-harvest use.

Consequently, residue data suggesting post-harvest use were not included in the 2004 evaluation.

The Central Laboratory of Residue Analysis of Pesticides and Heavy Metals in Food

The laboratory is committed to the awarded ISO/EN 17025,2005 Accreditation Certificate (FINAS T219) where the focus is the customers' satisfaction.

In this respect and according to customers' demand, the laboratory started a plan for renovation of equipment and analysis methodology targeting development and improvement of technical performance.

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Table 1. Residues of pesticdes on seeds of aromatic plants and spices

MRLs [mg/kg] for spice seeds: Chlorpyrifos 5 Diazinon 5 Dimethoate 5 Malathion 2 Metalaxyl 5 Pirimicarb 5 Residues in cumin from Egypt Profenofos 150 Chlorpyrifos 15 Malathion2.8dimethoate 1.5 Chlorpyrifos-methyl 0.58

Diazinon 0.24 Residues in anise seed from Egypt Profenofos 44

Chlorpyrifos 11 Malathion 11 Chlorpyrifos-methyl 1.

2 diazinon 0.24 MRLs for residues in caraway Chlorpyrifos 1 Diazinon 0.1 (*) Dimethoate 0.5

Fenitrothion 1 Malathion 1 Residues in caraway from Egypt Profenofos 8.3 Malathion 1.4 Dimethoate 0.63 Chlorpyrifos 0.46 Diazinon 0.07

The following equipment: 1.HPLC-MS-MS (4 Million LE) and 2.GC-MS ( 0.8

Million LE) was added to the lab. capacity in order to reach higher sensitivity (lower LOQ) and introduce more pesticide residues to the system. New equipment and methods of analysis are under validation to be submitted for accreditation next year. ESHEDA

Some of ESHEDA's recent activities: Steam sterilization Training programs Exhibitions

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Networking and communication Project for developing an instrument for

the collection of Chamomile Project for the tracing of microbial populations during

production process First workshop at Al-Fayoum Governorate relating to the new project

"Solar Dryer" funded by MUCIA. GTZ project. etc.

Table 2. Microbiological Tests (aromatic and spices), E-Coli and Salmonella Basil* Dry Mint* Dry dill* Dry Molokhia Anise* Dry Parsley Cumin* Fennel* Calendula Flower* Hibiscus Calendula Petals hot chili Chamomile* Lemon Grass Caraway* Marjoram* Dry Celery liquorice Dry Coriander* Molokhia Dry Coriander Leaves dry leek Thymus Sesame Sunflower Seeds *E-Coli test

4 - Species of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Being Threatened by Extinction in Morocco, and the Strategy of their Protection Al Faïz C., I. Thami Alami, N. Saïdi and H. Hilali Centre Régional de la Recherche Agronomique de Rabat BP 6570, Rabat Instituts, 10101 Morocco INTRODUCTION

It is well recognized that 50% of our drugs come from nature. It is also well established that many plants disappear year after year, due to man’s intervention, which destroys plants habitat, overexploits the valued plants and disturbs the earth climate. Experts recognize that nearly 15% of plants will disappear in one hundred years.

Morocco is one of the most biodiversity-rich countries of the Arab World and the

Mediterranean basin, with a total of more than 2000 higher plant species and a rate of endemism exceeding 15%. This biodiversity is fundamental to the livelihoods of local communities, mostly in mountainous, arid and semi-arid regions which still hold the remaining biodiversity rich spots. It also has a global significance as a genetic resource for crop improvement and for its potential contribution to overcome desertification. This biodiversity is also characterized by its wealth in medicinal and aromatic species which

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play an important role in enhancing the health care of humans and livestock in rural areas. In addition, these species, if well managed, provide good opportunities and potential for increasing and diversifying the income of many people, as the demand for these species is increasing both at national and international levels.

The sub-sector of medicinal and aromatic plants in Morocco is quite large and

varied. Most MAP come from harsh areas (rangeland, mountains, desert). More than 450 plant species are currently used for medicinal and aromatic purposes (Bellakhdar, 1995), most of which are submitted to unorganized direct harvests from their natural habitats and only few species are produced under cultivation. Some of these species with global importance are increasingly and seriously threatened (Rosemarinus, Mentha, Centaurea, Thymus, Origanum, Ormenis, Artemisia, Laurus, etc.).

Morocco is the world exclusive exporter of many MAP products, such as essential

oil of Artemisa herba alba, wild chamomile of Morocco (Ormenia mixta), wild thyme of Morocco (Thymus saturoïdes) and more recently the essential oil of blue chamomile (Tanacetum annum). Some Moroccan species are also famous due to their unique quality and reputed in the international market, such as Origanum elongatum called the “thymol thyme”, an endemic species to the Rif region and the mild thyme Thymus broussonetii, endemic to Rabat and Essaouira regions.

Over-exploitation, habitat loss and habitat degradation favoured by the increasing

demand and absence of adequate policies and legislations, are the major underlying factors of the degradation of medicinal and aromatic plants. Many wild harvested medicinal and aromatic plants face extinction or severe genetic loss, but detailed information on the extent of this degradation is lacking or poorly documented. Much research is needed to contribute to the safeguard of the highly threatened species within their natural habitats or under any possible forms able to protect the resources for next generations.

The objective of this paper is to present the status of some important threatened

MAS, according to the available data, and the strategies adopted by INRA for the conservation and valorization of the MAS genetic resources. Methodology

Since no data exists concerning the monitoring of the abundance or disappearance of MAS, we used the following data to have an idea about the threat encountered by some species: The herbarium information data, the quantities exported of the considered species and some surveys at selling points and during plant collection.

The herbarium data give information on the growing sites where the specimen has

been collected. Normally, returning to the same site without finding any reported species means that the species disappear. Once on the site, surveys complete the required information and the main causes of disappearance.

Statistic data on the exportation are a good indicator of the degree of the

exploitation of the species, particularly if the species are wild harvested.

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Collection missions are the best methods of evaluating the threats encountered

by the species. However, this way is more difficult, time and money consuming. It could be undertaken in priority only for some valuable species. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Export data

Analyzing the export data as reported in Table (1), we notice that more than twenty species are widely exploited, reaching very high quantities. Carobs, rosemary, wild onions and thyme are the most exploited. All these species are heavily exploited without any respect to the sustainability of the resources. Collectors are in general paid by the quantities harvested leading to a maximum plant harvest. The impact of the viability of the species is so high since no quota is well defined to control the exploiters.

The situation is more dramatic for the species exploited for their roots, such as

Iris, Corrigiola and Anacyclus pyrethrum. The plants are frequently uprooted during the flowering stage, reducing any chance to the plant of setting seeds. Bulbs are represented essentially by Muscari commosum. With more than 2 $/kg, bulbs are widely harvested by local population in semi arid areas for selling to intermediaries who export to Europe, mainly to Italy. The pressure has become so high that cultivation of this species has to be adopted.

We should notice however, that the data in Table (1) do not include essential oil

exportation, which represent a high percentage of exportation products. The major species concerned by this subsector are : Rosmarinus officinalis, Artemisia herba alba, Myrtus communis, Ormenis mixta, Tanacetum annum, Thymus saturoides, Mentha pelugium. All of these species are also heavily exploited, but the annuals suffered are more threatened than the perennials. Locally traded species

A preliminary reading of surveys in three regions in Morocco concerning the most traded species (Table 2) revealed that some species are commonly used while others are specific to the region. According to the traders, some local species have become rare due to overexploitation and drought. This situation has resulted in price increases leading to the prevalence of false species replacing the extinct or rare species.

Some species like Centaurea, Ranunculus, Ruta have become rare due to the

uprooting of plants, because the roots are the traded organ. Origanum and Thymus are becoming increasingly rare year after year due to the non sustainable harvest by the local population. Collection

The collection missions undertaken up to now by INRA revealed the scarcity of the most exploited MAP species. Several visited habitats, showed a disappointing situation, as plants no longer grew. When local population was interviewed, they stated that plants did exist in the past but were so highly exploited that they ceased to grow.

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Table 1. Exported quantities of some wild harvested MAS (EACEE 2004) Species Exported quantities (t) Carobs 11 595,2 Rosemary 3 058,7 Wild onion (muscari, other liliacea) 2 432,0 Thyme 1 312,0 Corrigiola telephiifolia (roots) 319,2 Iris roots 230,9 Oak moss 176,0 Fumaria (fumeterre) 143,6 Oregano 77,2 Ivy (lierre) 72,62 Anacyclus pyrethrum 52,7 Lavender 45,1 Monk's pepper (Vitex agnus) 38,0 Dill (Aneth) 30,4 Khella (Ammi visnaga) 30,3 Atractylis gummifera (Dad) 24,7 Centaurea 22,2 Arenaria 16,7 Saponaria 12,7 Hawthorn (Aubépine) 9,9 Other plants 9,8 Popover 9,4

The high rate of degradation forces us to focus on non accessible areas, making the tasks more complicated and dangerous. Some collectors of rare plants don’t hesitate to use sophisticated means to reach areas which are difficult to access (e. g. airplanes). Examples are given for two important species targeted during the collection mission : Origanum and Thymus . Table 2. The most traded medicinal plants in three Moroccan regions Region The most traded species Rabat-Salé-Témara (center of Morocco)

Origanum, Thymus, camomille, Urtica dioïca Lavandula vera & stoekas, Mentha pelugium, Ziziphus lotus (leaves), Euphorbia

Marrakech (South) Lavendula stoechas, Thymus, Origanum, Artemisia herba alba, Glycyrrhiza foetida, Tbech, Garance, Afezdad sp., Camomil sp.e, Carvisp., Punicum granatum, Chenopodium sp., Cardamum sp., Illicium verum,

Essaouira (West) Artemisia herba alba, Ruta sp., Urtica dioïca, Lavendula stoechas, Marrubium vulgare, origanum sp., Chenopodium saturoides, Thymus sp., Carum carvi, Foeniculum vulgare

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Four species are grown naturally in Morocco: O. compactum, O. elongatum, O. grosii and O. virens. The two former are the most exploited. In the past, Morocco was one of the high exporters of oregano. It was exported as far as to China, exceeding the most famous Syrian oregano, due to its good quality (Bellakhdar 1997). It was so exploited that Morocco now is far behind some other leading exporters, such as Turkey, Israel and Greece (Hüsnü 2002). During our collection, O. virens has not been found, while in only two accession of O. grosii were collected.

According to Morales (2002), we counted about 214 species and 36 subspecies

more of thymus, distributed mainly around the Mediterranean region. Fifteen species (12 endemic) grow in northwest Africa. The species reported in Morocco are : T. satureioides subsp. satureioides and subsp. commutates, T. riatarum, T. munbyanus subsp. munbyanus and subsp. coloratus. T. bleilcherianus, T. heymalis subsp. fumanifolius, T. zygis subsp. gracilis, T. algeriensis, T. willdenowii, T. broussonetii subsp. broussoneti and subsp. hannonis, T. maroccanus subsp. maroccanus and subsp. rhombicus, T. dreatensis.

Similar to Origanum, Thymus species are also threatened due to their

overexploitation. The most threatened specie is T. satureioides, widely exported as herbs or essential oil. The other species are also affected since the ecosystem itself, where they evolved has been destroyed by human and animal action. Thymus is more drought tolerant and could easily live on rocky soils. Thus, it seems less threatened than oregano, which requires greater soil fertility and humidity. Table (3) summarizes a preliminary evaluation on the threat concerning some medicinal and aromatic species. Collection and ex-situ conservation

Collecting and conserving germplasm of most medicinal and aromatic species has become urgent for all the rich biodiversity countries such as Morocco. With its new gene bank, INRA, which is already involved in several gemplasm collections, is focusing now on this heritage. Up to now, we documented more than 150 collection samples of different MAP species. How to safeguard the MAP threatened species

Compared to the potential number of species being more than 300, this number is far from representing a significant sample of total biodiversity. That means that several collection missions are required to cover all the species of interest and regions where they are supposed to grow. Domestication and cultivation

Domesticating wild species is not an easy task, since a lot of genetic and agronomical hard work is required. The economic value of any given species determines whether its cultivation should be undertaken. In the case of Morocco, according to the available data on the economical importance and the feasibility of its domestication programme, we consider that the cultivation of the following species could be both economically and ecologically beneficial: oregano, thyme, Moroccan chamomiles (Ormenis mixta and Tanacetum annum), Muscari commosum, *E-Coli test. Other species could be eventually added in the future, such as Iris, Centaurea or some other rare species.

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Table 3. Cause and degree of threads to some medicinal and aromatic species in Morocco Species Degree of threatens Responsible factors Origanum spp. High Over-exploitation, non

sustainable harvest, drought

Thymus spp. Medium to high, depending on the species

Over-exploitation, non sustainable harvest, habitat destruction

Mentha spp. Low to medium Drought Muscari commosum High Over-exploitation, herbicide

uses Anacyclus pyrethrum High non sustainable harvest

Ormenis mixta Medium to high Over-exploitation Tanacetum annum Medium to high Over-exploitation and

agriculture intensification Lavendula spp. Low

In-situ conservation In spite of its difficult implementation, this approach of germplasm conservation

remains one of the ideal methods. Its difficulty comes from the low level of public awareness and the extreme poverty of local population. To be successful, the in-situ conservation should be undertaken in a participatory way by guarantying some income to the direct users.

Some target sites for in-situ conservation have been already identified during our

field trips. To establish such conservation, arrangements have to be made between the forestry administration (owner of the lands), the direst users (local neighboring population), the scientific community (the supervising conservation area) and donors (the providers of requested funds).

References

Bellakhdar J. 1997. La pharmacopée marocaine traditionnelle. Ibis Press.

Hüsnü Can Baser K. 2002. The Turkish Origanum species. In Oregano, ed. by Spiridon E. Kintzios. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Industrial Profiles.

Morales R. 2002. The history, botany and taxonomy of the genus Thymus. In Thyme. Ed. By E. Stahl-Biskup and F. Saez. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Industrial Profiles.

46

Fifth Session The Therapeutic Effect of Medicinal and Herbal Plants 2 – The Direct Effect Against Flu Viruses Using Emissions of Medicinal Plants Volatile Oils: The New Discovery "LAZOKAM" Mohamed A. A. El-Kholy1, Atif Tantawy2 and M.S.A.Safwat3, 1Bio Aloe Vera Company, Fayoum 2Department of Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy ,Mansoura University 3Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, Minia University, Egypt. (Oral presentation only) 3 - Influence of increasing N, P, or K ratio in the fertilizer on the

growth, head yield and quality of broccoli Mohamed Abou EL-Magd, M.M and Z.F.Fawzy. Vegetable Research Dept., National Research Center, Dokki, Cairo ,Egypt

Abstract

Broccoli varieties (Atlantic, White Vienna and Atlantic hybrid ) were grown in a sandy soil in 2002 /2003 and 2003/2004 winter seasons under five mineral fertilizer treatments i.e. (zero) , 1/1/1(1) , 2,1.1(2N) , 1/2/1 (2P) and 1/1/2(2K) to study their effect on growth , yield and head quality. NPK improved vegetative growth expressed as plant height and leaves number as well as total yield and head quality . The highest values of total yield were obtained by the combined effect of white Vienna var. with 2 P treatments.

Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L.) is one of the non-traditional vegetable crops

for exportation and local consumption in Egypt. It is considered as a promising crop in the newly reclaimed soils. Addition of N, P and K separated or together increased growth and yield of broccoli . At the same time, the aim of this work is to evaluate the effect of four N P K ratios in an N P K compound fertilizer on the growth, yield and quality of broccoli.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present work was carried out during the two seasons of 2002 / 2003 and 2003/2004 in EL-Kasasien Horticulture station, Ismailia governorate. The experimental soil was sandy in texture. Seedlings of broccoli varieties were transplanted in the field on 15th Oct. In both experimental seasons, the physical properties and chemical analysis of the experimental soil are shown in Table (1) irrigation water analysis is shown in Table (2)

Every experiment included fifteen treatments, which were the interaction of

three varieties with five treatments of mineral fertilization as follows:

47

A: Varieties: 1- Atlantic 2- White Vienna 3- Atlantic hybrid B: Mineral fertilizers N: P: K 1- 0: 0: 0 (control) 2- 1: 1: 1 (1) 3- 2: 1: 1 (2 N) 4- 1: 2: 1 (2P) 5- 1: 1: 2 (2K) The experimental design was split plot with three replicates, where varieties

occupied the main plots and mineral fertilizer treatments were randomly allocated in the sub plots. Plot area was 11.25 m2 consisting of 5 rows, each was 75 cm width and 3 meters length. Cattle manure was added at 20 m3 /fed. during preparation of the soil. Mineral fertilizer treatments were divided into two equal portions, and added after 30 and 60 days from transplanting. Drip irrigation method was followed during broccoli growing. Normal agricultural practices common in the area were followed.

Three plants from each plot were chosen randomly at 120 days after transplanting and the following data were recorded: A-Vegetative growth:

Plant height (cm) and leaves number per plant B- Yield and quality:

Samples of five plants from each experimental plot were collected at harvesting time to measure:

• Total yield, gm / plant and ton / fed. • The increases in the total yield, and increase % • Diameter of head (cm) • Diameter of stem (cm), number of flower stalks per plant

Data were subjected to statistical analysis according to the method of Gomez

and Gomez (1984). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Effect of varieties 1. Vegetative growth

Table (3) shows clearly that varieties were statistically different in their vegetative growth. The Atlantic variety recorded higher plant height and leaves number as compared with the other varieties in both experimental seasons, while the Atlantic hybrid recorded the lowest values.

2. Yield and quality:

Results in Table (3) indicated that the highest values of the total yield were obtained by white Vienna. Lower head yields were obtained by Atlantic variety. The lowest head yield was obtained by Atlantic hybrid.

Quality of the heads: Bigger heads were obtained by white Vienna which

recorded the highest head diameter. Lower head diameter was obtained by Atlantic

48

variety but Atlantic hybrid was the lowest in the first season. Diameter of stem and number of flower stalks followed the same trend. It cold be concluded that the highest quality of heads expressed as head diameter, diameter of stem and number of flower stalks were obtained by white Vienna variety and the lowest by Atlantic hybrid. B. Effect of fertilizer: 1. Vegetative growth

Vegetative growth of broccoli expressed as plant height and leaves number were affected by applying mineral fertilization in both seasons (Table 4). significant increases were obtained by mineral fertilization in plant height, especially in the second season. Leaves number was also increased by mineral fertilization in the two seasons.

49

Duplication of potassium in the fertilization ratio recorded the highest values of

number of leaves in the two seasons followed by 2 P and 2 N in a descending order. The results were in accordance with those obtained by Tremblay (1989) Wyatt et al., (1989) and Sing et al., (2000) on broccoli and Babik et al., (1996) on Brussels sprouts .

2-Yield and quality:

Mineral fertilization (N:P:K) increased the total yield of broccoli compared with the control as shown in Table (4). Application of a compound NPK fertilizer recorded increases in the total head yield of broccoli. Results showed that application of 2 N recorded the highest values of head yield as compared with the other fertilizer treatments. Increases in the head yield due to 1N , 2N, 2P and 2K compound fertilizer reached 0.64 , 1.24, 0.86 and 0.65 ; 0.35 , 0.32 , 0.89 and 0.08 ton / fed in the first and second seasons , respectively, these increases amounted to 33, 66 , 44 , and 33% ; 10, 9, 26 and 20% in the two seasons , respectively . The highest head yield of broccoli was obtained by duplications of nitrogen and phosphorus in the compound fertilizer in the first and second seasons, respectively. The increase in the head yield of broccoli due to mineral fertilization and or duplicating N, P or K ratio in the compound fertilizer were true in the two seasons of the experiment . Lower head yield values were obtained by the equal N, P and K ratio in the compound fertilizer. In general, the lowest yield was obtained by the control treatment.

A similar effect was reported by Masson (1991) ; Satamaria et al. (1994) ;

Toivonen et al. (1994) ; Zebarth et al. (1995) ; Abdul –Baki et al. (1997) ; Sanderson and Ivany (1999) and Castellano et al. (2001) who found that increasing the N rates increased yield of broccoli .

Quality characters: Mineral fertilization enhanced the quality of broccoli heads

expressed as diameter of head, diameter of stem and number of flower stalks. The highest quality of heads was obtained by 2N and 2P ratios in the compound fertilizer. Data indicated that the diameter of head was higher by applying 2P or 2N as compound fertilizer containing compared with the other treatments in two seasons. In addition, duplicating N or P ratio in the compound fertilizer recorded the highest values of stem diameter in the two seasons. Concerning the number of flower stalks 2P ratios in the compound fertilizer gave the highest values compared with the other treatment. Results were similar with those reported by; Satamaria et al. (1994); and Toivonen et al. (1994) on broccoli and Babik et al. (1996) on Brussels sprouts

C. Effect of interaction:

1-vegetative growth: Data presented in Table (5) show significant differences in the vegetative growth

of broccoli due to the interaction between varieties and mineral fertilizer. The highest plant height and leaves number were obtained by applying 2 K to Atlantic variety in the two seasons, leaves number in the first season. In general, higher values of plant height and leaves number were reported by either tested varieties with 2 K ratio in the compound fertilizer. Meanwhile, the other interactions showed variable trends.

50

2. Yield and quality:

Total yield and quality were significantly affected due to the interaction between varieties and mineral fertilization in the two seasons (Table 5). The total yield (ton /fed) followed the same trend of the individual yield of plant (gm). The highest total yield was obtained by applying 2N and 2p ratio to white Vienna compared with other interactions. . Increase in broccoli yield due to white Vienna with 2N and 2p amounted to 3.050 and 5.950 ton /fed. representing 219.4 and 405.1 % in the first and second seasons respectively. Lower values of head yield were obtained by other interactions. In addition, the lowest head yields were obtained by the interaction of the tested varieties without or with equivalent ratios of NPK in the compound fertilizer. As regard to, the effect of interaction between varieties and mineral fertilizers on quality of broccoli, data indicated that the number of flower stalks was higher by applying 2N and 2k ratio with to white Vienna compared with other interactions in the two seasons. Meanwhile, diameter of head and stem take variable trends. References Abdul-Baki, A A; Morse-RD; Teasdale –JR and Devine-TE (1997) Nitrogen

requirements of broccoli in cover crop mulches and clean cultivation. Journal of Vegetable Crop production 27: (1) 99-100.

Babik, I;Rumpel –J; Elkner-K; Dias –JS(ed.); Crte –I(ed.); onteiro- AA (1996) . The influence of nitrogen and fertilization on yield quality and senescence of brussel sprouts. International symposium on brassicas. Ninth crcifer genetics workshop, 15-18 Nov. 1994, Lisbon, Portugal. Acta Horticulturae. 1996. No. 407, 353-359.

Castellanos- JZ ; Lazcano –I; Sosa –Baldibia – A ; Badillo –V and Villalobos -S (1999). Influence of nitrogen and potassium on growth and head yield of broccoli (Brassica Oleracea L.var italica ) under low hills subtropical condition -Ecosystems-and-Environment. 56: (2) 121-135.

Everaats ,AP; Moel-CP-de; Willigen-P-de; De –Moel-CP and De- Willigen-P(1997). Nitrogen fertilizing and nutrient uptake of broccoli .PAV Bullletin –Vollegrondsgroenteteelt. February, 16-17 .

Gomez, K-A. and A-A Gomez(1984) . Statistical procedures for Agriculture Research. Second ed. Willey Inter Science Pbl. pp . 357-423

Masson,J ; Tremblay – N and Gosselin-A (1991) . Effect of nitrogen fertilization and HPS supplementary lighting on vegetable transplant production II . Yield. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. 116 (4) 599-602.

Sanderson-KR and Ivany –JA (1999) . Cole crop yield response to reduced nitrogen rates. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 79: (1) 149-151.

Santamaria,P; Elia- A and Conversa –G(1994) . Growth and yield of broccoli (Brassica Oleracea L.var italica ) plenck in a vegetable crop sequence. Effect of nitrogen and herbicides . Riista – di. Agronomia . 28: ( 2 ) 135-141.

Singh, AK. Akhilesh - Singh; and Singh-A(2000) . Influence of nitrogen and potassium on growth and head yield of broccoli (Brassica Oleracea L.var italica ) under low hills subtropical condition of H.P.Vegetable- Science 27 (1) 99-100.

51

Toivonen-PMA; Zebarth – BJ and Bowen- PA(1994) . Effect of nitrogen fertilization on head size ,vitamin C content and storage life of broccoli (Brassica Oleracea L.var italica ). Canadian Journal of Plant Science 74: (3) 607-610.

Tremblay-N (1989). Effect of nitrogen sources and rates on yield and hollow stem development in broccoli. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 69: (3) 1049-1053.

Wang- Giying; Zhang-Chunzheng; Zhang –Fushan ; Wang- GY ; Zhang –CZ and Zhang FS (1997). Effect of nitrogen phosphorus and potassium fertilizer on the yield and physiology target of broccoli . China –Vegetable. 36: (1) 14-17

Wyatt, JE; Mullins – JA and Mullins-CA (1989). Potassium fertilization of broccoli transplants. Fertilizer Research .21(1) 13-18.

Zebarth – BJ; Bowen- PA and Toivonen-PMA(1995) Influence of nitrogen fertilization on broccoli yield , nitrogen accumulation and apparent fertilizer nitrogen recovery. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 75: (3) 717-725.

Table 1.: Physical properties and chemical analysis of the experiment soil Physical properties

Sand %

Clay %

Silt % Texture F.C.

% W.P. %

Bulk density g/cm3

87.96 11.38 0.66 Sandy 16.77 5.65 1.44 Chemical analysis

Meq./L Ca++ Mg++ Na+ K+ HCO3- Cl-

9.1 8.4 26.00 3.00 62.00 2.79 2.1 26.00 Table 2.: Analysis of irrigation water

Milli equirelent /liter Cations Anions Ca Mg Na K CO3 HCO3 Cl

7.10 2.69 8 6 15.2 0.44 Nil 5.2 14

52

Table 3.: Effect of varieties on vegetative growth, yield and quality of broccoli.

(2002/2003)

Plant Leaf Total yield Quality

Varieties height(cm) No./plant gm/plant Ton/fed.

Increases

ton/fed %

diameter

of head

(cm)

diameter

of

stem(cm)

No. of

flower

stalks

Atlantic 55.50 30.43 214.17 2.28 -- 2.70 12.03 2.50 9.77

White Vienna 50.46 31.82 322.29 3.44 0.06

55.0

0 14.78 2.68 10.60

Aِtlantic

Hybrid 48.69 25.35 208.21 2.22 1.22 11.65 2.35 9.34

L.S.D at 0.05 1.51 2.61 28.37 0.30 -- -- 0.64 0.32 0.99

(2003/2004)

Plant Leaf Total yield Quality

Varieties height(cm) No./plant gm/plant Ton/fed.

Increases

ton/fed %

diamete

r of

head

(cm)

diameter

of

stem(cm)

No. of

flower

stalks

Atlantic 63.06 54.87 127.61 2.13 -- -- 9.77 2.74 9.52

White Vienna 50.25 39.67 361.12 6.02 3.89

182.

63 14.38 3.25 10.35

Aِtlantic

Hybrid 45.74 24.20 189.20 3.15 1.02

47.8

9 11.43 2.14 9.09

L.S.D at 0.05 2.76 8.78 59.29 0.99 -- -- 1.97 0.16 0.99

53

Table 4.: Effect of fertilizer on vegetative growth, yield and quality of broccoli. (2002/2003)

Mineral

fertilizer Plant Leaf Total yield Quality

N:P:K height(cm) No./plant gm/plant Ton/fed.

Increases

ton/fed %

diamete

r of

head

(cm)

diameter

of

stem(cm)

No. of

flower

stalks

0 / 0 / 0 51.23 25.97 183.59 1.96 -- -- 13.08 2.46 9.44

1 / 1 / 1 52.44 28.14 243.82 2.60 0.35

10.1

7 13.37 2.50 9.57

2 / 1 / 1 50.69 27.56 304.91 3.25 0.32 9.30 13.74 2.59 10.83

1 / 2 / 1 50.43 31.64 264.17 2.82 0.89

25.8

7 13.86 2.51 10.00

1 / 1 / 2 52.97 32.69 244.63 2.61 0.08 2.33 10.04 2.47 9.67

L.S.D at 0.05 3.35 3.64 45.73 0.49 -- -- 1.45 0.21 0.87

(2003/2004)

Mineral

fertilizer Plant Leaf Total yield Quality

N:P:K height(cm) No./plant gm/plant Ton/fed.

Increases

ton/fed %

diamete

r of

head

(cm)

diameter

of

stem(cm)

No. of

flower

stalks

0 / 0 / 0 55.30 35.84 206.09 3.44 -- -- 11.88 2.61 9.19

1 / 1 / 1 47.20 33.87 227.59 3.79 0.35

10.1

7 11.98 2.55 9.32

2 / 1 / 1 53.16 39.84 225.41 3.76 0.32 9.30 12.93 2.65 10.58

1 / 2 / 1 55.57 43.45 259.65 4.33 0.89

25.8

7 12.48 3.10 9.75

1 / 1 / 2 53.87 44.89 211.13 3.52 0.08 2.33 10.03 2.64 9.42

L.S.D at 0.05 4.49 10.89 77.77 1.30 -- -- 2.47 0.37 0.87

54

Table 5.: Effect of interaction (Var.X Fert.) on vegetative growth, yield and quality of broccoli.

(2002/2003)

Mineral

fertilizer Plant Leaf Total yield Quality

varieties N:P:K height(cm) No./plant gm/plant Ton/fed.

Increases

ton/fed %

diameter

of head

(cm)

diameter

of

stem(cm)

No. of

flower

stalks

0 / 0 / 0 53.35 25.00 129.93 1.39 -- -- 12.80 2.53 9.50

1 / 1 / 1 55.78 32.17 254.20 2.71 1.32 95.00 13.67 2.60 9.33

Atlantic 2 / 1 / 1 56.35 29.17 285.72 3.05 1.66 119.40 11.08 2.43 11.00

1 / 2 / 1 54.25 34.50 243.95 2.60 1.21 87.10 12.20 2.42 9.50

1 / 1 / 2 57.75 31.33 157.07 1.68 0.29 20.90 10.39 2.50 9.50

0 / 0 / 0 52.47 33.25 265.16 2.83 1.44 103.60 14.32 2.67 10.50

1 / 1 / 1 51.00 29.50 268.03 2.86 1.47 105.80 13.43 2.53 9.50

White

vienna 2 / 1 / 1 49.80 31.83 416.27 4.44 3.05 219.40 16.00 2.95 11.17

1 / 2 / 1 47.62 31.25 315.91 3.37 1.98 142.40 15.72 2.45 10.17

1 / 1 / 2 51.42 33.25 346.09 3.69 2.30 165.50 14.42 2.78 11.67

0 / 0 / 0 47.86 19.67 155.67 1.66 0.27 19.40 12.12 2.17 8.33

1 / 1 / 1 50.52 22.75 209.24 2.23 0.48 60.40 13.00 2.37 9.88

Aِtlantic

Hybrid 2 / 1 / 1 45.92 21.67 212.73 2.27 0.88 63.30 14.15 2.40 10.33

1 / 2 / 1 49.42 29.17 232.65 2.48 1.09 78.40 13.67 2.67 10.33

1 / 1 / 2 49.75 33.50 230.73 2.46 1.07 77.00 5.30 2.12 7.83

L.S.D at 0.05 5.80 6.31 79.21 0.84 -- -- 2.52 0.36 1.51

55

Table 6.: Effect of interaction (Var.X Fert.) on vegetative growth, yield and quality of broccoli .

(2003/2004)

Mineral

fertilizer Plant Leaf Total yield Quality

varieties N:P:K height(cm) No./plant gm/plant Ton/fed.

Increases

ton/fed %

diameter

of head

(cm)

diameter

of

stem(cm)

No. of

flower

stalks

0 / 0 / 0 63.43 47.33 99.53 1.66 0.28 20.30 9.70 2.33 9.25

1 / 1 / 1 48.53 41.00 82.91 1.38 -- -- 8.17 2.13 9.08

Atlantic 2 / 1 / 1 61.53 55.67 163.17 2.72 1.43 97.10 10.87 2.53 10.75

1 / 2 / 1 69.23 55.67 147.08 2.45 1.07 77.50 9.73 3.23 9.25

1 / 1 / 2 72.57 74.67 145.34 2.42 1.04 75.40 10.40 3.47 9.25

0 / 0 / 0 57.57 41.67 382.07 6.37 4.99 361.60 14.03 3.53 10.25

1 / 1 / 1 45.50 39.00 409.63 6.83 5.45 394.90 15.00 3.37 9.25

White

vienna 2 / 1 / 1 54.97 43.33 319.32 5.32 3.94 285.50 14.00 3.23 10.92

1 / 2 / 1 51.00 46.67 418.22 6.97 5.59 405.10 14.27 3.60 9.92

1 / 1 / 2 42.23 27.67 276.33 4.61 3.23 234.10 14.60 2.53 11.42

0 / 0 / 0 44.91 18.52 136.66 2.28 0.90 65.20 11.90 1.96 8.08

1 / 1 / 1 47.57 21.60 190.23 3.17 1.79 129.70 12.78 2.16 9.63

Aِtlantic

Hybrid 2 / 1 / 1 42.97 20.52 193.72 3.23 1.85 134.10 13.93 2.19 10.08

1 / 2 / 1 46.47 28.02 213.64 3.56 2.18 158.00 13.45 2.46 10.08

1 / 1 / 2 46.80 32.35 211.72 3.53 2.15 155.80 5.08 1.91 7.58

L.S.D at 0.05 7.78 18.86 134.69 2.25 -- -- 4.28 0.64 1.51

56

Sixth Session General Topics About Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 1 - A comparative study between chemical and organic (compost)

fertilization on yield and active constituents of fennel

Shalaby, A. E. and Yasser Adel Hanafy Osman, National Research Center, and Desert Research Center, Cairo, Egypt

Abstract Two field trials were conducted during 2002 and 2003 seasons at the research farm of The Egyptian Biodynamic Association (EBDA), Belbis – Sharkia governorate, to the study effect of fertilization on growth, yield, some chemical compositions, and both, essential oil percentage and constituents of fennel plants. Four treatments were carried out: without fertilization, recommended chemical fertilization, compost with additives (yarrow and nettle extracts) and compost without additives. The results showed that chemical fertilization followed by compost with additives were superior in plant height, number of branches, number of umbels, fruits yield and oil percentage compared with control. The differences were not significantly in case of compost without additives. The results also recorded that using compost with additives was economically higher than using chemical fertilization. INTRODUCTION

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) is a hardy perennial or biannual herb originating from Europe (Chiej, 1984. (The genus Fennel contains many species and cultivars, Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) also called Foeniculum officinale All., Foeniculum capillaceum Gilib., Meum foeniculum Spreng. or Anethum foeniculum L. (Kandil, 2002). The cultivated area in Egypt is about 2000–3000 feddans according to the statistics of the Ministry of Agriculture. Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) is one of the most important medicinal plants grown within the Mediterranean region, in Europe and in Egypt. It is export value amounts to 10 million US $ from Egypt. Investigations to improve the possibilities of growing fennel also on newly reclaimed land within Egypt have been done. The Egyptian government in collaboration with the WHO seeks to protect these plants that serve as sources for pharmaceutical compounds and which might increase the export of these plants from Egypt to all over the world (Egypt Magazine, 2000). The main Egyptian markets for fennel are the USA, and European markets (CBI 1999, Osman 2000 and Brinckmann 2006). Besides the use as a vegetable, the pharmacopoeial use concentrates on the fruits and the important ingredient is the oil. Botanically the seeds are defined as fruits, (Bhati et al. 1988 and Buntain and Chung, 1994). Fennel is used in folk medicine as a stimulant, diuretic carminative and sedative (Charles et al.1993) and galactagogic, emmenagogic, expectorant and antispasmodic (Chiej, 1984). Fennel fruits are used to treat diseases like cholera, bile disturbances, nervous disorder, constipation, dysentery and diarrhea (Leung and Foster, 1996). It is also used against diseases affecting chest, lungs spleen, and kidneys and in colic pains (Bown, 1995). Fennel is also considered as a spice due to terpenic compounds isolated from its

57

fruits volatile oil (Masada, 1976). Also, fennel fruits are widely used in the preparation of various dishes like soups, sauces, stuffing, pastries, confectionery, pickles, meat dishes, bread, cakes and biscuits (Bhati et al. 1988, Bremness 1997 and Phillips 1998). The leaf, stalks sand the tender shoots are also used in salads. Fennel is used in cooking for liqueurs (Bhati et al.1988). Its essential oil is used to flavor different food preparations and in perfume industries. (Abdallah et al. 1978 and Simon et al. 1984). Its modern uses in Germany and the United States stem from traditional Greek medicine as practiced by Hypocrites and later by Discorides (Leung and Foster 1996). It is still widely used in traditional Arabian medicine as diuretic appetizer and digestive (Kranick, 1994). Fennel’s therapeutic uses have been introduced and integrated into many other systems of traditional medicine, including Ayurvedic, Chinese and Japanese Kampo (Wichtl and Bisset, 1994). The present Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia recommends the dried fruit or fluid extract form, for flatulent dyspepsia, anorexia, and flatulent colic in children (Karnick, 1994). In Germany, fennel fruits are licensed as a standard medicinal tea for dyspepsia (Arslan et al. 1989). It is also used in cough syrups and honeys (anti jussive and expectorants), and stomach and bowel remedies, especially in pediatrics as aqueous infusion, juice and syrup (Wichtel and Bisset 1994). In the United States, it is also used as a component of galactagogue preparations (Leung and Foster, 1996). Fennel oil is used as an expectorant component of cough remedies, and also as carminative component of stomach and bowel remedies in dosage forms including honey and syrup (Khan et al. 1992 and Marotti and Piccaglia, 1992). The new trend is a change from traditional medicinal practice using mostly chemicals to homeopathic kind of medicine using mostly herbal medicine. In Egypt, large areas of newly reclaimed and desert land have been cultivated with medicinal and aromatic plants during the last few years (Belal, 1995). The intensive farming on Nile valley soils in Egypt and agriculture practices have forced the farmers to use more fertilizers to get high benefits. The intensive use of manufactured nitrogen fertilizers increased the crops productivity but with low quality which is not acceptable for export (Lain et al. 1996 and Wang et al. 1996). Very little information is available on the specific requirements of fennel fertilization on newly reclaimed land.

The aim of this work is to study effect of different fertilization resources i.e., conventional, compost with or without additives on some growth characters and both essential oil production and constituents, and chemical composition of Fennel plant (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and carbohydrates contents).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present work was conducted in the Experimental Farm of The Egyptian Biodynamic Association (EBDA), Sharkia governorate, during two seasons of 2002 and 2003. Table (1) presents soil chemical analysis, and Table (2) some physical and chemical analysis of compost. Seeds of Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mille) were obtained from Sekem Company and sown in a well-prepared soil in plots each one was 8m2 with 5 rows. Three replicates were used and five plants were taken for analyses from each replicate. The ridges were 60cm apart; while the distance between hills was 30cm. Four treatments have been done as follows: 1 Without fertilization (control). 2 Normal chemical fertilization (calcium super phosphate (300kg/feddan) during land

preparation, while ammonium sulphate (300kg/feddan) and potassium sulphate (100kg/feddan) were added during growth season.

58

3 Organic fertilization (adding compost with additives – some plant extracts and residuals - organic (20m3)) was added.

4 Organic fertilization (adding compost without additives organic (20m3)) was added. Table 1.: Soil chemical analysis:

Depth(cm) O.M(%) CaCO3(%) EC Na+ K+ Ca++ Mg++ HCO3- Cl- SO4--

0-20 0.93 2.03 1.41 0.53 0.32 1.23 0.93 0.32 0.93 0.47 20-40 0.45 1.81 0.37 0.19 0.16 0.48 0.32 0.32 0.53 0.08

Table 2.: Some physical and chemical analysis of compost Character Compost

Weight of one m3 (kg) 580.5 Wet. (%) 37.5 pH 3.6 EC 1.7 Total N (%) 1.5 O.M. (%) 46.0 Total carbon (%) 28.6 Ash 29.5 C/N ratio 20.5 Total phosphorus (%) 0.9 Total potassium (%) 2.6

Data were recorded on some growth characters (plant height, number of branches,

number of umbels and fruits weight per plant). Essential oil percentage as well as Head Solid State (HSS) and Gas chromatography technique (GC) analyses for the crushed fruits were performed to identify oil constituents as follows: A sample of 2g of fruits was crushed and replaced in the HSS vial, sealed in the presence of an inert gas (N2), then vials were incubated at 80oC with fast shaking for about 60 min in the Dani-HSS. After 60 min, the headspace aroma was automatically injected into the column (HP-5 capillary 30m × 0.250mm × 0.5 µm film thickness) in the GC HP5890 Series Gas Chromatograph. The injection conditions were as follows: Nitrogen was used as the carrier gas with a flow rate of 1.8 ml/min. Air and hydrogen flow rates were 50 and 50 ml/min, respectively. Temperature program was as follows: Injection temperature at 39.50ºC was held for 5 min, and was programmed to rise from 40o to 220ºC at the rate of 5ºC/min. The maximum temperature was maintained for a further 10 min before cooling. A set of standard compounds representing different chemical groups with a stated purity of 99% by GLC, was obtained from Drugago Company (Holzminden, Germany).

Determination of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium elements was carried out in

acid solution, prepared according to Hach et al (1985). Nitrogen content was determined according to Pregl (1945), potassium content (Brown and Lilleland, 1946), phosphorus content (Jackson, 1958) and carbohydrates content according to A.O.A.C. (1985). Oil percentage was determined according to the British Pharmacopoeia (1963) and Guenther (1960).Completely randomized block design was used. The statistical analysis was carried out using CoStat software program (CoStat 1986). L.S.D at 5% and 1% test was used to compare the average means of different treatments.

59

RESULT AND DISCUSSION (1) Plant height (cm):

Data in Table (3) showed significant differences in plant height among different treatments, especially between the control (111.56 and 125.48cm) and chemical fertilization (134.22 and 150.99cm) in the first and second season, respectively. But there was only slight significant differences between chemical fertilization and compost with additives treatments. Also the data recorded that the first season was shorter than the second one all over the studied treatments. These results were in line with those obtained by Zhou-Jin and Zhou (1995), and Ali (2002).

(2) Number of branches (branch/plant):

Concerning the number of branches, data in Table (3) recorded that the best result was obtained from chemical fertilization (9.83 and 11.04 branch/plant), followed by compost with additives treatments (8.76 and 9.83 branch/plant) respectively for the first and second season. While there was no significant difference between chemical fertilization and compost with additives treatment. Generally, it was observed that, the plants in the second season had more branching than the first one. Similar results were recorded by Vinay-Singh et al. (1999) and Kandil (2002).

Table 3.: Effect of fertilization on plant height (cm) and number of branches

(Branch/plant) of Fennel during 2001 and 2002 seasons

Treatments

Plant height (cm)

Number of branches (Branch/plant)

2001 2002 Mean 2001 2002 Mean Control 111.56 125.48 118.52 7.26 8.16 6.21 Chemical 134.22 150.99 142.61 9.83 11.04 10.44 Compost + Add. 126.44 142.23 134.39 8.76 9.83 9.30 Compost 118.89 133.71 126.30 8.44 9.49 8.97 L.S.D. 5% 6.10 6.99 1.07 1.15 L.S.D. 1% 8.88 10.88 1.56 1.67

(3) No. of umbels (Umbel/plant): Data on number of umbels per plant (Table, 4) revealed significant differences among all treatments. The chemical fertilization in both seasons gave the highest number of umbels. But the there was no significant difference between chemical fertilization and compost with additives treatments. These results were in agreement with those obtained by Migahed and El Kased (1998) and Osman (2000).

(4) Plant fruits yield (gm/plant):

The data on fruits weight per plant as shown in Table (4) showed significant differences. Chemical fertilization followed by compost with additives gave the best results in both seasons compared with the control. It was also noticed that there was only significant difference between chemical fertilization and compost with additives treatments in the first season. These results were in harmony with those mentioned by Ali et al. (1994) and Ali (2002).

60

(5) Essential oil percentage (%) of Fennel during 2001 and 2002 seasons:

Taking essential oil percentage into consideration, Table (5) showed that among different treatments chemical fertilization was (1.83–2.14%) superior in oil percentage for the first and second season respectively. But there were significant differences between the essential oil obtained from plants treated with chemical fertilization, compost with additives and control (0.94 -1.10%) in the first season. The recorded results followed the same trend as Kandil (2002).

Table 4.: Number of umbels (Umbel/plant) and plant fruits yield (gm/plant) of

Fennel during 2001 and 2002 seasons

Treatments No of Umbels (Umbel/plant)

Plant fruits yield (gm/plant)

2001 2002 Mean 2001 2002 Mean Control 27.72 32.42 30.07 39.16 42.02 40.59 Chemical 38.22 44.66 41.44 71.50 76.78 74.14 Compost + Add. 35.61 41.58 38.60 61.11 65.60 63.35 Compost 33.78 39.42 36.60 45.00 48.31 57.36 L.S.D. 5% 3.43 7.94 5.85 8.75 L.S.D. 1% 4.99 11.55 8.52 12.73

(6) Oil yield of Fennel during 2001 and 2002 seasons:

Taking essential oil yield into consideration, Table (5) showed that that among different treatments conventional (chemical) fertilization was (1.30 –1.64) superior in oil yield in both seasons, while unfertilized plants (0.94 –1.10) resulted in the lowest oil yield values.

(7) Essential oil constituents:

Components which were identified in the volatile oil of different treatments were divided into three main groups namely, hydrocarbons, oxygenated and unidentified ones. All the recorded data were tabulated in Table (6). The data showed that although; chemical fertilization treatment was superior overall other treatments in its active constituents (total hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds), it showed its high content of Estragole (Methyl chavicol), which not only reduces its medical value but also reduce its opportunities for exportation, to both European and USA markets because (Estragole induces cancer in liver and genotoxicity effects Tomas et al. 1999). So for medical properties it is recommended to use compost or compost with additives. Generally, the main constituents of volatile oil of the studied treatments were D- Limonene (3.94 – 9.39%), Fenchone (Norbornanone) (0.30 – 14.29%), Estragole (Methyl chavicol) (10.56 – 41.92%) and Anethole (Anisole) (38.88 – 80.92%).

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Table 5. : Essential oil percentage (%) and oil yield of Fennel during 2001 and 2002 seasons

Treatments Essential oil percentage (%)

Oil yield

2001 2002 Mean 2001 2002 Mean Control 0.94 1.10 1.02 0.37 0.46 0.42 Chemical 1.83 2.14 1.98 1.30 1.64 1.47 Compost + Add. 1.61 1.88 1.75 0.99 1.23 1.11 Compost 1.32 1.53 1.43 0.73 0.91 0.82 L.S.D. 5% 0.32 0.77 0.09 0.22 L.S.D. 1% 0.45 1.12 0.13 0.32

Table 6. :

Chemical composition of Fennel essential oil fractionated by GC technique

Compounds Peak No.

RT % Area in oil

Chemical Comp.+Add Comp. Control Hydrocarbons Β-trans –Ocimene 1 8.25 0.55 1.19 0.86 0.37 Camphene 2 8.65 ------ ------ ------ ------ Β-Pinene 3 9.53 ------ ------ ------ ------ Β-myrecene 4 9.61 ------ 1.49 ------ ------ Α-phellandrene 5 10.66 0.43 ------ ------ ------ Β-cymene 6 11.25 1.10 1.19 1.02 0.83 Eucalyptol 7 11.51 0.97 0.46 ------ 0.38 D-Limonene 8 11.67 9.39 7.95 6.50 3.94 Ocimene 9 11.99 1.50 0.98 ------ 0.86 Γ-Terpinene 10 12.71 2.27 3.34 2.98 1.56 Norbornanone (Fenchone)

11 13.35 2.98 14.29 7.82 0.30

Α-Terpinene 12 13.81 ------ ------ ------ ------ Total 19.19 30.89 19.18 8.13 2) Oxygenated compounds Camphor 13 15.18 ------ 0.40 ------ ------ Estragole (Methyl chavicol)

14 17.65 41.92 27.92 20.29 10.56

p- anise aldhyde 15 18.74 ------ ------ ------ 0.56 Anethole (Anisole) 16 20.08 38.88 39.80 60.54 80.92 Total 80.8 68.12 80.63 91.82 3) Unknown 0.01 0.99 0.19 0.05

62

(8) Nitrogen content: Results of nitrogen content (%) were presented in Table (7). It shows that chemical fertilization followed by compost with additives exhibited the highest content of nitrogen content (%) (1.29 – 2.17%) and 1.03 – 1.74%) for the first and second season respectively. On the contrary, unfertilized plants treatment had the lowest nitrogen content (0.27 – 0.43%) compared to other treatments during both seasons. (9) Phosphorus content: Data on phosphorus content (%) presented in Table (7) showed that the highest content of phosphorus content (0.54 – 0.47%) resulted from chemical fertilization. The control treatment resulted in the lowest phosphorus content (0.35 – 0.30%) during both seasons. Table 7. :

Nitrogen and phosphorus contents of Fennel during 2001 and 2002 seasons

Treatments Nitrogen content

(%) Phosphorus content (%)

2001 2002 Mean 2001 2002 Mean Control 0.27 0.43 0.35 0.35 0.30 0.32 Chemical 1.29 2.17 1.73 0.54 0.47 0.51 Compost + Add. 1.03 1.74 1.38 0.45 0.38 0.41 Compost 0.79 1.30 1.04 0.43 0.37 0.40

(10) Potassium content: Results of potassium content (Table 8) showed that among different fertilization

treatments, conventional (chemical) treatment gave the highest content of potassium content (2.44 – 2.85%). However, control exhibited the lowest potassium content (0.66 – 0.77%) compared to other studied treatments for the first and second season respectively.

(11) Carbohydrates content:

Taking carbohydrates content (%) into consideration, Table (8) showed that among different treatments, chemical fertilization was superior as it gave the highest content of carbohydrates (21.90 – 31.20%). On the Contrary, control exhibited the lowest carbohydrates content (7.46 – 10.66%) for the first and second season respectively.

Table 8. : Potassium and carbohydrates contents of Fennel during 2001 and 2002 seasons

Treatments Potassium content (%)

Carbohydrates content (%)

2001 2002 Mean 2001 2002 Mean Control 0.66 0.77 0.72 7.46 10.66 9.06 Chemical 2.44 2.85 2.64 21.90 31.20 26.55 Compost + Add. 2.21 2.56 2.38 19.23 27.32 23.27 Compost 1.61 1.90 1.75 17.17 24.44 20.81

63

References Abdallah, N., El-Gengaihi, S. and Sedrak, E. (1978): The effect of fertilizer treatments on

yield of seed and volatile oil of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mille). Pharmazie. 33 (9) : 607-608.

Ali, M. Y. M. (2002): Physiological studies on Foeniculum vulgare Mille plants under Sinai conditions. M. Sc. Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University.

Ali, S. A. : R. K. S. Tomar and K. N. Maurya (1994): Response of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) to irrigations and nutrient levels. Bhartyia Krishi Anusandhan Patrika. 9 : 4, 241-246.

A.O.A.C (1985): Association of official Agriculture Chemistry. Official methods of analysis. 14th Ed. Pub. Benjamin Franklin station, Washington D.C., U.S.A.

Arslan, N., Bayrak, A. and Akgul, A. (1989): The yield and components of essential oil in Fennel of different origin (Foeniculum vulgare Mille.) grown in Ankara Turkey Conditions. Herbe Hung. 28 (3): 27-32.

Belal, A. E. (1995): Environmental Management of Fuel wood Resources in Wadi Allaqi. Report. IDRC P-921001.

Bhati, D. S., Shaktawat, M. S.; Somani, L. L. and Agarwal, H. R. (1988): Response of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) to nitrogen and phosphorus. Transactions of Indian Society of Desert Technology, No. 2; 79-83.

Bown, D. (1995): Encyclopaedia of herbs and their uses. New York: DK Publishing, Inc.283-284.Braun, M. and Franz, G. (1999). Quality criteria of bitter fennel oil in the German pharmacopoeia. Pharm. Pharmacol Lett 9 (2): 48-51.

Bremness, L. (1997): Herbs, DK pocket encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley. London pp. 240.

Brinckmann, J. (2006): Market News Service (MNS). pp. 53. Vol. (20) September (2006). International Trade Center UNCTAD/WTO. 54-56 rue de Montbrillant, CH-1202 Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.intracen.org

British Pharmacopea (1963). The Pharmaceutical Press. 17 Bloomsbury Square, London W.C.L.

Brown, J.D. and Lilleland, O. (1946): Determination of Potassium and Sodium in plant material and soil extract by flame photometry. Proc. Amer. Soc. [C.F. Hort. Sci., 73: 813].

Buntain, M. and Chung, B. (1994): Effects of irrigation and nitrogen on the yield components of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.). Australian J. of Experimental Agriculture. 34(6):845-849.

CBI (1999): Spices and herbs, a survey of the Netherlands and other major markets in European markets. Center for the promotion of Imports from development countries, Netherlands pp.146. http://www.cbi.nl/

Charles, D. J; Morales, M. R. and Simon, J. E. (1993): Essential oil content and chemical composition of finocchio fennel. In: Janick, J. and J. E. Simon (eds), New crops. Wiley, New York. P. 570-573.

Chiej, R. (1984): The Macdonald Encyclopaedia of Medicinal Plants. Macdonald & Co., London. pp. 446.

CoStat (2005): CoStat Version 6.3-Statistics Software// www.cohort.com/costat.html Egypt Magazine (1993): www.sis.gov.eg/public/magazine/iss023e/html/mag11.htm Hach, C.C.; S. V. Brayton and A. B. Kopelove (1985): A powerful Kejelda nitrogen

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method using peroxy-mono sulfuric acid. Journal Agric. Food chem. 33: 1117-1123.

Guenther, H. (1960): The essential oil. D. Van Nostrand Company, New York, Torento, London, Vol. 1.

Jackson, N. L. (1958): Soil chemical Analysis constable. Ltd. Co., London pp. 498. Kandil, M. A. M. H. (2002): The effect of fertilizers for conventional and organic

farming on yield and oil quality of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) n Egypt. PhD. Thesis, Technischen Universitat Carolo-Wilhemina zu Braunschweig - Germany

Karnick, C. R. (1994): Pharmacopoeial standards of herbal plants, Vol. 1-2. Delhi : Sri . Atguru Publications. Vol. 1: 139-141; Vol 2:71.

Khan, M. M. A., Samiullah, S. H. and Afridi, M. M. R. K. (1992): Yield and quality of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) in relation to basal and foliar application of nitrogen and phosphorus. Journal of plant nutrition 15(11): 2505-2515.

Lain, S., Wang, C. H. and Lee, Y. C. (1996): Analysis of fertilizer responses and efficiencies of fertilizers applied to vegetables in Hsilo Area of Taiwan. pp. 172-189. In: R. A. Morris(ed.) Managing soil fertility for intensive vegetable production systems in Asia. Food and fertilizer technology center for the Asia and Pacific Region, Taipei, Taiwan.

Leung A. Y. and Foster, S. (1996): Encyclopaedia of common natural ingredients used in food,drugs and cosmetics. Second ed. New York : John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Marotti, M., Piccaglia, R.; Giovanelli, E.; Deans, S. G. and Eaglesham E. (1994): Effects of variety and ontogenic stage on the essential oil composition and biological activity of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.). Journal of Essential Oil Research. 6 (1): 57-62.

Masada, Y. (1976): Analysis of essential oils by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Copyright by the Hirokawa Publishing company, INC printed in Japan.

Migahed M. A. H. and F. A. El-Kased (1998): Effect of fertilization of Fennel in desert soil under salinity conditions. Egypt J. Appli. Sci; 13 (7) 327-340..

Osman Y. A. H. (2000): Possibility of production of Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L) under Sinai conditions. Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture Cairo University.

Philips R. and M. Rix (1998): Herbs for cooking. Macmillan Publishers Limited. London pp. 95.

Pregl, F. (1945). Quantitative Organic Microanalysis. 4th ed. J.A. Churchill Ltd., London, p. 126-129.

Simon, J.E.; A.F. Chadwick and L.E. Craker (1984): Herbs. The scientific literature on selected herbs, and aromatic and medicinal plants of the temperate zone. Archon Books, pp. 770., Hamdan, CT, U.S.A.

Tomas, A. McDonald; G.V. Alexceef; L. Zeise; M.S. sandy and Y.Y. Wang (1999): Evidence on the carcinogenicity of estragole. Reproductive and cancer hazard assessment section, office of environmental hazard assessment, California environmental protection agency, U.S.A.

Viany-Singh; R. K. Bisen and V. Singh (1999): Response of nitrogen and phosphorus on seed crop of coriander. Environment and Ecology. 17: 1, 238-239.

Wang, Y. P., Tan, C. C. and Huang, W. B. (1996): Effect of chemical fertilization on the quality of percolation water. J. Chinese Agric. Chem. Soc. 34: 406-416.

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Wichtel, M. and Bisset, N. G. (1994): Herbal drugs and phytopharmaceuticals. Stuttgart : Med pharm scientific publishers.

Zhou-Jin and J. Zhou (1995): Effects of combined application potassium and other elements on yield and qualities of several crops. Soil and fertilizers Beijing. No. 1, 18-21,25.

2- Potential of Combining Some Wheat Varieties With Each of Anise

and Coconut Oil for the Control of the Khapra Beetle, Trogoderma Granarium Everts.

Mohamed S. Fouad Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Minia University, Minia, Egypt. Abstract The efficacy of different rates (1, 2, 4 and 8 ml / kg grain) of application of anise and coconut oil was assessed on six wheat varieties (Sids 1, 4; Giza 164, 168 and Beni-Suef 1, 3) with differing susceptibilities to Trogoderma granarium.

The different rates of each one anise and coconut oil significantly interacted with wheat varietal resistance and increased larval mortality, as well as reduced percentage of adult emergence of T. granarium. Moreover, anise and coconut oils at different rates significantly increased the developmental period of the different stages of this insect, reaching 29.5 41.3 days at 8 ml / kg grain as compared to the check (21.0 33.8 days) in the different wheat varieties. In addition, treatment of grains with each of anise and coconut oil at rate of 8 ml / kg grain reduced grain damage from over 27 % in the control to less than 13 % in all treated varieties. INTRODUCTION

The loss of food grains during storage due to insect pests is a serious problem. The Khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium Everts is the most common and serious pest of grain causing severe damage in storage (Ismail et al., 1989).

Recent trends in pest management practices emphasized the need for restricted

use of pesticides in order to avoid the possible complications and hazards which may result on account of excessive and indiscriminate use of pesticides. In the search for alternatives, essential oils extracted from aromatic plants have been widely investigated. Their toxicity to stored product insects has been of special interest during the last decade (Dey and Sarup, 1993; Mahgoub and Ahmed, 1996; Tunc et al., 2000).

Therefore, the present study is concerned with the potential use of anise and

coconut oil being mixed with some wheat varieties for the control of T. granarium. MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium Everts was reared on wheat grains at 27 °C and 65 t 5 % R.H. Deposited eggs were collected and kept under the same

66

conditions, newly hatched larvae were obtained and reared on the wheat grains till the beginning of the fourth instar (Mostafa, 1993).

Six wheat varieties (Sids 1, 4; Giza 164, 168 and Beni-Suef 1, 3) were obtained from the Agricultural Research Center, Giza Egypt. Experimental procedure:

Combining effect on the previous wheat varieties with each of anise and coconut oil was tested. Each oil was applied at four dosages (1, 2, 4 and 8 ml / kg grain). The desired quantity of each oil was dissolved in 20 ml of petroleum ether to allow uniform application on the surface of the grains. Oil solution was pipetted on samples of 500 g (from each wheat variety) grains in one liter wide mouth jars. The grains were then mixed manually and thoroughly for five minutes to insure complete coverage (adopted by Khaire et al., 1992). Treated grains were exposed to air for 24 hours to get rid of the petroleum ether. Grains of each wheat variety were treated with petroleum ether alone in the same procedure were used as control. For each treatment, 10 g sample (with four replications) was infested with 5 pairs of the 4th instar larvae of T. granarium and kept in small glass jars, one day after oil treatment. Then, the jars were covered with muslin cloth, then kept under the same conditions of 27 °C and 65 % ± 5 % R.H. (Mostafa, 1993).

Observations of mortality, growth and metamorphosis were made at 3 day

intervals for a period of six weeks after treatment to determine the number of dead larvae and adults emerged.

To study the developmental period of T. granarium, 50 larvae (1, 2 day old) were

added to 100 g of each wheat variety treated with each oil. The infested grains were kept under the respective conditions till the offspring started to emerge, the progeny produced were counted daily (Ismail et al., 1989).

During the course of the trials, each infested sample of wheat grains was weighed

initially and at the end of experiment after all the insects and all the dust they created had been removed. Uninfested samples were also weighed and the change in weights was used to correct the initial changes in weight of the corresponding trial samples, and the percentage loss in weight was calculated (Fouad, 1995).

The susceptibility index of each variety was assessed based on emerging adults

(F1) and the length of developmental period (Dobie, 1974). All the obtained data were estimated and subjected to the analysis of variance

according to Snedecor and Cochran, 1980.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The effect of each anise and coconut oil mixed with the tested wheat varieties on the mean percentage mortality of T. granarium larvae was presented in Table (1). High mortality of larvae was observed on the different wheat varieties treated with each of anise and coconut oil at 8 ml / kg grain. Meantime higher larval mortality occurred in Giza 164 and Giza 168 grains (70, 72.5 and 60 %) treated with 8 ml / kg of each anise and coconut oil, respectively than other tested varieties. Furthermore, the effect of oil

67

dose level on the mean percentage mortality of T. granarium larvae was significant in all varieties; but the combination of wheat varietal resistance with different rates of each anise and coconut oil had no significant interaction effect on the percentage of dead larvae. In agreement with these results Tunc et al., (2000) found that the exposure to vapours of essential oil from anise resulted in 100 % mortality of the confused flour beetle, Tribolium confusum eggs.

Table (2) shows that each of anise (at all dosages) and coconut oil (at 4 ml / kg) significantly reduced the percentage of adults emerging at different wheat varieties as compared to the control. The least percentage of adults emerging was observed in Giza 164 and Giza 168 (5 10 and 12.5 15 %) when mixed with each of anise and coconut oil at the rate of 8 ml / kg grain, respectively. Meanwhile, suppression of adult emergence was significantly dose dependent, decreasing with increasing oil dose. Dey and Sarup (1993) demonstrated that coconut oil was effective in protecting the grains of various maize varieties against Sitophilus oryzae.

The average developmental period of T. granarium was longer in all wheat

varieties mixed with each of anise or coconut oil under all different ratios of both oils. Moreover, it was significantly increased to 39.5 41.3 and 38.0 40.5 days in Giza 164 and Giza 168, respectively as compared with the other treated varieties (29.5 36.3 days) when mixed with each of anise and coconut oil at 8 ml / kg grain. (Table, 3) (Salem, 1996).

As for the percentage loss in weight (Table, 4). It was clearly indicated that in all wheat grain varieties treated with each of anise and coconut oil at 4 ml / kg were significantly less infested than untreated grains. However, treatment of grains at 8 ml / kg grains with each of anise and coconut oil had reduced damage from 9.0 27.8 % to less than 13.0 % in all tested varieties. The present investigation has shown that integration of anise and coconut oils significantly increased the percentage of grains of different wheat varieties protected against damage by T. granarium. Mahgoub and Ahmed (1996) found that extracts of Ricinus communis seed gave a good protection to wheat grains against S. oryzae up to 12 weeks approximately. Data illustrated in Fig (1) show the susceptibility index of different wheat varieties mixed with each of anise and coconut oil at 8 ml / kg grain. It was cleared that the susceptibility index was completely reduced in Giza 164 and Giza 168 treated with anise oil and reached to 0.6 1.1 when these varieties treated with coconut oil as compared to the untreated wheat varieties (4.4 9.9).

It could be concluded that the combination of anise and coconut oil had great potential for the management of this beetle in stored wheat varieties.

68

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Susc

eptib

ility

inde

x

Sids 4Giza 164Beni- Seuf 1Sids 1Giza 168Beni- Seuf 3

Wheat varieties

Fig (1): Susceptibility index of different wheat varieties treated with each of anise and coconut oil against T. granarium infestation

Untreated with oil

treated with anise oil (at 8 ml/ kg)

treated with coconut oil (at 8 ml/ kg)

69

Table (1) : Effect of anise and coconut oil mixed with different wheat varieties on the mean percentage mortality of T. granarium larvae.

Dosage of anise oil (ml / kg) Dosage of coconut oil (ml / kg)Wheat varieties 0.0 1

ml 2

ml 4

ml 8

ml Mean 1

ml 2

ml 4

ml 8

ml Mean

Sids 4 7.5 35 40 37.5 57.5 35.5 35 32.5 30 50 31.0 Giza 164 35 42.5 55 45 72.5 50.0 35 35 52.5 60 43.5 Beni-suef 1 20 45 57.5 65 70 51.5 25 30 40 55 34.0 Sids 1 10 35 45 60 62.5 42.5 10 15 15 40 18.0 Giza 168 37.5 40 52.5 62.5 70 52.5 40 45 55 60 47.5 Beni-suef 3 2.5 40 57.5 60 62.5 44.5 5 20 20 35 16.5 Mean 18.8 39.6 51.3 46.7 74.2 25.0 29.6 35.4 50.0 L.S.D. Dosage of oil Wheat variety

at 5 % at 1 % 1.5 2.0 1.6 2.2

at 5 % at 1 % 1.6 2.2 1.7 2.4

Table (2) : Effect of anise and coconut oil mixed with different wheat

varieties on the mean percentage of adult emergence of T. granarium .

Dosage of anise oil (ml / kg) Dosage of coconut oil (ml / kg) Wheat

varieties 0.0 1 ml 2 ml 4 ml 8 ml Mean 1 ml 2 ml 4 ml 8 ml Mean Sids 4 82.5 60 37.5 37.5 27.5 49.0 60 50 52.5 45 58 Giza 164 45 17.5 22.5 15 5 21.0 42.5 32.5 35 15 34 Beni-suef 1 70 35 30 22.5 20.0 35.5 70 70 50 20 56 Sids 1 80 35 45 25 15 40.0 80 70 60 32.5 64.5 Giza 168 50 40 30 30 10 32 35 32.5 30 12.5 32 Beni-suef 3 85 70 50 50 45 54.6 75 70 70 47.5 69.5 Mean 68.8 42.9 35.8 32.1 18.3 64.6 50 49.6 28.8 L.S.D. Dosage of oil Wheat variety

at 5 % at 1 % 1.2 1.6 1.3 1.9

at 5 % at 1 % 1.1 1.4 1.2 1.6

70

Table (3) : Effect of anise and coconut oil mixed with different wheat varieties on the average developmental period (days) of T. granarium.

Dosage of anise oil (ml / kg) Dosage of coconut oil (ml / kg) Wheat varieties

0.0 1 ml 2 ml 4 ml 8 ml Mean 1 ml 2 ml 4 ml 8 ml Mean Sids 4 21.3 27 30.8 30.5 36.3 29.2 26.5 32.0 32.0 35.5 29.5 Giza 164 33.8 34 34.0 39.5 41.3 36.5 36.3 36.3 35.8 38.0 35.6 Beni-suef 1 21.0 22 22.5 28.0 33 25.3 29.5 32.0 32.0 35.0 29.9 Sids 1 25.5 27.5 25.3 33.0 33 28.9 26.0 26.5 26.5 29.5 26.8 Giza 168 26.8 27.5 32.5 33 39.5 31.9 27.0 32.0 32.0 40.5 31.7 Beni-suef 3 22.0 21.5 22.5 28 33 25.4 27.0 26.5 26.5 32.0 26.8 Mean 25.1 26.6 27.9 32.0 36.0 28.7 30.9 30.8 35.1 L.S.D. Dosage of oil Wheat variety

at 5 % at 1 % 4.5 6.1 5.0 6.8

at 5 % at 1 % 5.1 7.0 5.6 7.6

Table (4) : Mean percentage of loss in weight of different wheat varieties

grains treated with of anise and coconut oil against T. granarium infestation.

Dosage of anise oil (ml / kg) Dosage of coconut oil (ml / kg) Wheat varieties

0.0 1 ml 2 ml 4 ml 8 ml Mean 1 ml 2 ml 4 ml 8 ml Mean Sids 4 27.8 15.5 15 10.8 5 14.8 16.5 16.0 16.0 9.5 17.2 Giza 164 9.0 9.0 3.8 3.3 0.6 5.1 8.1 6.9 3.8 3.1 6.2 Beni-suef 1 22.0 18.4 17.5 11 4.3 14.6 19.9 18.5 17.9 13.0 18.3 Sids 1 27.3 27.3 21 9.8 6.3 18.3 21.6 20.1 18.3 8.8 19.2 Giza 168 12.1 6.3 5.8 3.3 1.3 5.8 9.4 7.5 6.3 1.9 7.4 Beni-suef 3 26.3 22.3 20.8 15.3 5.5 18.0 25.0 24.9 21.4 12.3 22.0 Mean 20.8 16.5 14 8.9 3.8 16.8 15.7 14 8.1 L.S.D. Dosage of oil Wheat variety

at 5 % at 1 % 5.0 6.8 5.5 7.4

at 5 % at 1 % 5.2 7.0 5.7 7.8

71

References

Dey, D. and P. Sarup (1993) : Feasibility of protecting maize varieties with vegetable oils to save losses in storage due to Sitophilus oryzae Linn. Entomol. Res.,17 : 1 15.

Dobie, P. (1974) : The laboratory assessment of the inherent susceptibility of maize varieties to post harvest infestation by Sitophilus zeamais Motsch. (Coleoptera, curculionidae). J. Stored Prod. Res., 10 : 183 97.

Fouad, M. S. (1995) : Correlation between certain nutritional constituents of some wheat varieties and infestation by Sitophilus granarium L. (Coleoptera: curculionidae) J. Egypt. Ger. Soc. Zool., Vol. 16 (E), Entomology, 171 182.

Ismail, I. I.; T. S. Mostafa and B. B. El Keridees (1989) : Effect of food and light on reproductive capacity and rate of infestation of Trogoderma granarium Everts. Bull. Soc. Ent. Egypte, 68 : 159 168.

Khaire, V. M.; B. V. Kachare and U. N. Mote (1992) : Efficacy of different vegetable oils as grain protectants against pulse beetle, Callosobruchus chinensis in increasing storability of pigeonpea. J. Stored Prod. Res., 28 : 153 156.

Mahgoub, S. M. and S. M. S. Ahmed. (1996) : Ricinus communis seed extracts as protectants of wheat grains against the rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae. Annals of Agric. Sci., Ain Shams Univ., Cairo, Egypt. 4 (1) : 483 491.

Mostafa, T. S. (1993) : Effect of certain plant extracts on body weight and biochemical aspects of the Khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium. Everts. Bull, Ent. Soc. Egypt Econ. Ser., 20: 77 85.

Salem, H. (1996) : Neem Based insecticide as a repellent and growth inhibitor against the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera : Tenebrionidae). Bull. Ent. Soc. Egypt., Econ. Ser., 23 : 78 85.

Snedecor, G. W. and W. G. Cochran (1980) : Statistical methods. (6th ed.) Iowa State Univ. Press, Iowa, USA pp. : 255 269.

Tunc, I.; B. M. Berger; F. Erler and F. Dagh (2000) : Ovicidal activity of essential oils from five plants against two stored product insects J. Stored Prod. Res., 36 : 161 168.

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3- Statement of ESHEDA Association Eng. EL-Sayed Sakr ESHEDA, Egypt. INTRODUCTION: I. Vision “ESHEDA” is a non-governmental trade association which was established in 2004. Its members constitute more than 85% of the export business operating in the field of production, processing and exporting of herbs and spices in Egypt. II. Work of ESHEDA

In co-operation between ESHEDA members who are active in the herbs and spices manufacturing, processing, packing, and exporting in Egypt, ESHEDA has managed to accomplish the actual export development of this sector, with doubling the national revenue of exporting herbs & spices products through :

• a- Small farmers’ knowledge & practical assistance to produce safe and cleaner crops.

• b-The development of old traditional seeds and the exporting of new species which give high quality products, and encourage more related researches.

• c- Post harvest right application. • d- Establishing the first steam sterilization unit in Egypt, which applies the

EU health and safety regulations. • e- Connecting the local and foreign parties involved. • In co-operation with governmental establishments, reviewing and

releasing the necessary legislations, to produce safe products using food and safety packing stations.

• Expanding and opening international markets for Egyptian products, especially herbs and spices, through participating in several specialized international study tours and exhibitions.

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III. Current concerns & plant contamination

Solution Problem

Long Short

a- Awareness and education.

b- Enforcing GAP.

Short solution includes sterilization: a- Establish a non-atomic sterilization plant in Egypt b- Use Gamma rays “if accepted”.

Enforce safe pesticides.

2-Pesticides : Due to bad agricultural practices and use of banned pesticides.

Develop a hygiene drying methods & keep cost at minimum.

3-Drying : -Essential for exports. -Practices used do not meet international standards.

4-Prices : -Local producers of not accepted goods must stop export. -Export regulations must be exceeded. -Margins are constantly squeezed.

5-Regulations “Locally”: -Prohibited seeds import restrictions. -No effective enforcement of existing regulations. -Only one lab. belonging to the ministry of agriculture.

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Sixth Session 4- Biotechnology and Organic Farming of Medicinal and Aromatic

Plants: Potentials and Strategies in Egypt. Mohamed Fathy Salem, Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute, GEBRI, Minuofiya University, Sadat City, Egypt.

Abstract There is a great demand for our agriculture systems in Egypt to be changed

completely. This means to cultivate our endemic flora in Egypt to be fruitful for both farmers and agribusiness for pharmaceuticals production, especially for certain epidemic diseases, like kidney failure, liver cirrhoses and cancer, etc. This necessitates registering and protecting our plant flora, and fauna. In addition, we need more and more research work about the active ingredient compounds for this important flora. The last decade introduced a significant growth of activities in the field of organic farming. This has been linked to an increased awareness regarding both, environmental protection and food safety. These activities have reflected in agricultural practice and scientific exploration Nowadays, there is a great need for good and safe food in Egypt. This presentation concentrates on two main aspects:

1 The potential of biotechnology in medicinal plants production. 2 The potential of organic farming in medicinal plants production and

marketing worldwide.

INTRODUCTION In recent years, there is an increasing interest among Egyptians in clean water,

refreshing air, and healthy crops. Thus, we must change and understand well our new and essential means of medicinal and aromatic plants, especially for pharmaceuticals production. The geographical and climatic conditions in Egypt offer excellent advantages for production of many kind of medicinal plants with different climate regimes. Agricultural sector in Egypt

Organic agriculture occupies more than 31 million hectares worldwide, while in Egypt, only 15.000 hectares (February 14, 2006). Are used for organic agriculture.

The Green revolution technologies involving greater use of synthetic agrochemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides with adoption of nutrient- responsive, high- yielding varieties of crops have boosted the production output per feddan/hectare in most of the cases. However, this increase in production in Egypt has slowed down and in some cases there are indications of decline in growth of productivity and production. Priorities in Egyptian agriculture research are gradually moving from the focus on individual crop performance to a total system productivity, with due attention on product quality and environment safety. Environmental and health problems associated with agriculture have been increasingly well documented, but it is only recently that the scale of the costs has attracted the attention of both, scientists and policy makers in Egypt.

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The concept of organic agriculture in Egypt Organic farming is not new to the Egyptian farming community. Several forms of

organic farming are being successfully practiced in diverse climates. and different areas of the country. Much of the desert areas produce of economic important herbs, medicinal plants, etc., by default, comes under this category. Among all farming systems, organic farming is gaining wide attention among Egyptian farmers, entrepreneurs, policy makers and agricultural scientists for varied reasons. It minimizes the dependence on chemical inputs (fertilizers; pesticides; herbicides and other agro-chemicals) thus it is safe and improves quality of resources and environment, it is labour intensive and provides an opportunity to increase rural employment and achieves long term improvements in the quality of resource base.

From this point of view, we have to focus on Herbal Supplements, i.e. type of

dietary supplement that contains herbs, either singly or in mixtures. Many herbs have a long history of use and of claimed health benefits. However, some herbs have caused health problems for users. This ensures our efforts to find out the beneficial effects of these herbs, and how to use them in a safer way.

Organic production systems are based on specific standards precisely formulated

for food production and aiming at achieving agro ecosystems which are socially and ecologically sustainable.

The organic agriculture movement was born in Egypt some 20 years ago, chiefly to

alleviate the increasing threat of pesticide poisoning to Egyptian farmers. Cotton cultivation is one of the most pesticide intensive crops. In the last two decades, the Egyptian average yield of raw cotton remained stable despite a continued increase of pesticides. In the early 1990s, SEKEM started applying biodynamic methods (already in use for herbs, cereals, and vegetables) to cotton. The success in cotton pest control (by pheromones) raised authorities’ interest in biological control. Today, nearly 80 per cent of Egypt’s cotton cultivation applies biological pest control and the Ministry of Agriculture has forbidden aerial sprays of pesticides on cotton, with a view to promoting biological control. In 1995, pesticide use in cotton dropped from 1 800 t to 320 t and average yield grew from 900 to 1 220 kg/acre. Organic cotton cultivation (using organic fertilization – compost, wood ash, rock phosphate, clover/onions rotations) is based on intensive cooperation between farmers and scientists. The Centre for Organic Agriculture in Egypt operates an inspection and certification scheme according to the EU Regulation 2092/91.

There are many definitions for organic agriculture with primary focus on

ecological principles as the basis for crop production and animal husbandry. According to Codex Alimentations Commission, a joint body of FAO/WHO

defines “organic agriculture as holistic food production management systems, which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished by using, where possible, agronomic, biological

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and mechanical methods, as opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfil any specific function within the system”. In its simplistic form organic agriculture may be defined as a kind of diversified agriculture wherein crops and livestock are managed through use of integrated technologies with preference to depend on resources available either at farm or locally. It emphasizes more on optimizing the yield potential of crops and livestock under a given set of farming conditions rather than maximization. To promote organic agriculture and to ensure fair practices in international trade of organic food, the Codex Alimentations Commission also framed certain guidelines for the production, processing, labelling and marketing of organically produced foods.

Nowadays, there is a steady increase of the popularity of organic farming and

now organic agriculture is practiced in almost all countries of the world, and its share of agricultural land and farms is growing. A recent report of International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) indicated that the total organically managed area is more than 24 million hectares world-wide, practiced in approximately 130 countries of the world and the area under organic management is continually growing. Although production of organic crops is increasing across the globe, sales are concentrated in the industrialized parts of the world. Thus, this can be our golden key to make an excellent partnership with Europe.

The market for organic products is growing, not only in Europe and North

America but also in many other countries. The global market for organic food is expected to touch US$ 31 to 39 billions by 2007. The demand for organic food is steadily increasing both in developed and developing countries, with annual average growth rate of 20-25%.

Official interest in organic agriculture is emerging in many countries, shown by

the fact that several countries have a fully implemented regulation on organic farming or are in the process of drafting regulations. The countries with the largest areas of organic farmland are: Australia, Argentina, Italy, Canada and USA. Some countries have reached a substantial proportion (close to or more than 10%) of organic land; these include Sweden, Austria, Switzerland, Finland and Italy.

There is a lot of debate in Egypt between the supporters of organic farming and a

section of the community who questions the scientific validity and feasibility of organic farming. The most often debated issues on organic agriculture are :

a.Can organic farming produce enough food for everybody in Egypt .This can be

equilibrated by its safety and higher price with special reference to its marketing system. b.Is it possible to meet the nutrient requirements of crops entirely from organic

sources? This needs a precise and continuous research in bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides.

c. Are there any significant environmental benefits of organic farming? d. Is the food produced by organic farming superior in quality? e. Is organic agriculture economically feasible? f. Is it possible to manage pests and diseases in organic farming?

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Organically Cultivated Area in Egypt

The area cultivated in Egypt according to the three certification bodies active in the country is 29,960 feddans. As this area is cultivated twice yearly, the cropping area is about 60,000 feddans. The total number of companies dealing with organic agriculture is 86 companies. Total areas cultivated with vegetables, fruits, medicinal plants and herbs and crops were, 5,979, 1357, 2464 , 3571 respectively, and others were 16807 feddans

Crops produced Large number of crops is now produced organically:

Vegetables: potatoes, onion, garlic, beans, sweet and hot pepper, cucumber, cantaloupe, strawberry, tomatoes, cherry tomato, squash, carrots and peas.

Fruits: grapes, apricots, beach, apple, lemon, orange, mandarin, pear, pomegranate and mango.

Fiber and field crops: cotton, peanut, sesame. Medicinal and ornamental plants: marjoram, caraway, anise, calendula,

spearmint, basil, thyme, hibiscus, cumin, celery, parsley, common dill, leeks, geranium, fennel, lemongrass, coriander, chamomile.

Processed organic products: Processing of organic products includes: freezing, drying and dehydration.

Examples of these products are: Frozen products as in case of strawberries, pepper, beans, cowpea, and peas. Dried products (air dried) as herbs and medicinal plants. Dehydrated products as onion, garlic, leek, carrots, sugar beets, sweat potatoes, tomatoes and potatoes.

Impact of organic agriculture In intensive farming systems, organic agriculture decreases yield; the range

depends on the intensity of external input used before conversion. In the green revolution areas (irrigated lands and well endowed water regions), conversion to organic agriculture usually leads to almost identical yields. In traditional rain fed agriculture (with low external inputs), organic agriculture has shown the potentials to increase yields. A number of studies have shown that under drought conditions, crops in organic agriculture systems produce significantly and sustainable higher yields than comparable conventional agricultural crops, often out-yielding conventional crops by 7 – 90 per cent. Others have shown that organic systems have less long-term yield variability. The impact of organic agriculture on natural resources favours interactions within the agro-ecosystem those are vital for both agricultural production and nature conservation. Ecological services derived include soil forming and conditioning, soil stabilization through buffering and structural improvement, waste recycling, carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, predation, pollination and habitats. The environmental costs of conventional agriculture are substantial, and the evidence for significant environmental amelioration via conversion to organic agriculture is over-whelming. There are also high pre-consumer human health costs to conventional agriculture, particularly, in the use of pesticides. It is estimated that 25 million agricultural workers in developing countries suffer from pesticide poisoning each year.

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Organic agriculture and food security There is a debate about, how can we achieve the problem of food security in

Egypt? if we already grow our farming system organically, This will lead us to the crop management practices such as crop rotations, green manure, crop residues recycling, water management, efficient plant types etc., adopted through a combination of structural and tactical management options to ensure farm produce of sufficient quantity and quality for livestock and human consumption. Normally, a crop rotation involving a leguminous crop is preferred over others. Organic farmer preferably grow locally adopted varieties having some quality traits for the premium markets.

Organic farmers grow a variety of crops and maintain livestock in order to

optimize use of nutrients and the space between species. This ensures economic advantages through low crops production or yield failure due to biotic and a biotic factors in all of these simultaneously. This can have an important impact on local food security and resilience should an unwanted phenomena happens. In rain-fed systems, organic agriculture has demonstrated to out- perform conventional agricultural systems under environmental stress conditions. Under the right circumstances, the market returns from organic agriculture can potentially contribute to local food security by increasing family income.

Nutrient management in organic farming

Organic farming is often understood as a form of agriculture with use of only organic inputs for the supply of nutrients and management of pests and diseases. In fact, it is a specialized form of diversified agriculture, wherein problems of farming are managed using local resources alone. The term organic does not explicitly mean the type of inputs used; rather it refers to the concept of farm as an organism. Often, organic agriculture has been criticized on the grounds that with organic inputs alone, farm productivity and profitability might not be improved because the availability of organic sources is highly restricted. True organic resources availability is limited; but under conditions of soil constraints and climate vagaries, organic inputs use has proved more profitable compared to agrochemicals.

Nitrogen availability from organic resources often limits full yield potential of

cereals under organic production system. Under restricted water availability or rainy conditions, the differences in crop yields between organic and conventional production narrow down to between 10-15%. FYM used in these experiments usually contains N, 0.5-0.8%, P, 0.2-0.4% and K, 0.8-1.0% with no mention of quality of organic matter/manure or alternative methods of efficient use. This nutrient rich manure helps to raise crop productivity even at lover application rates (5-10 t ha-1) compared to the use of 15-20 t/ha FYM with and without chemical fertilizer. In addition, use of liquid manures prepared through fermentation of green leafy materials, cattle urine and other locally available resources is common. The differences in quality of manures used are probably the reason for wide difference reported in crop yields under organic and conventional system of crop production. There is, however, a need to scientifically evaluate the nutrient supply methods in organic versus conventional systems. Their efficient use is an area of future research investigation.

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Organic farming systems rely on the management of soil organic matter to enhance the chemical, biological and physical properties of the soil. One of the basic principles of soil fertility management in organic systems is that plant nutrition depends on ‘biologically-derived nutrients’ instead of using readily soluble forms of nutrients; less available forms of nutrients such as those in bulky organic materials are used. This requires release of nutrients to the plant via the activity of soil microbes and soil animals. Improved soil biological activity is also known to play a key role in suppressing weeds, pests and diseases. What is now required is to harmonize and bind the components in a system synergy and all round complementarities.

Composting with animal dung, crop residues, green manure, bio-fertilizers and

bio-solids from agro-industries and food processing wastes are some of the potential sources of nutrients of organic farming. While animal dung has competitive uses as fuel, it is extensively used in the form of farmyard manure. Development of several compost production technologies like Vermin composting, Microbe Mediated, Phosphor composting, N-enriched Phosphor composting, etc. improves the quality of composts through enrichment with nutrient-bearing minerals and other additives. These manures have the capacity to fulfil nutrient demand of crops adequately and promote the activity of beneficial macro-and micro-flora in the soil.

Presently, only 30% of total cultivable areas in the country has irrigation facilities

where agrochemicals use is higher compared to rain-fed zones. It is here that ingenuity and efforts are required to increase crop productivity and farm production despite recurrence of environmental constraints of drought and waste scarcity. The basic requirement in organic farming is to increase input use efficiency at each step of the farm operations. This is achieved partly through reducing losses and adoption of new technologies for enrichment of nutrient content in manure. Technologies to enrich the nutrient supply potential from manure, including farmyard manure three to four times are being widely used in organic farms. According to a conservative estimate, around 600 to 700 million tones (mt) of agricultural waste is available in the country every year, but most of it is not used properly. We must convert waste into wealth by converting this biomass into bio-energy, nutrients to starved soil and fuel to farmers. India produces about 1800 mt of animal dung per annum. Even if two thirds of the dung is used for biogas generation, it is expected to yield about 440 mt per year of manure, which is equivalent to 2.90 mt N, 2.75mt P2O5 and 1.89 mt K2).

Organic farms and food production systems are quite distinct from conventional

farms in terms of nutrient management strategies. Organic systems adopt management options with the primary aim to develop holistic farms, like a living organism with balanced growth, in both crops and livestock holding. Thus the nutrient cycle is closed as far as possible. Only nutrients in the form of food are exported out of the farm. Crop residues burning is prohibited, so also the unscientific storage of animal wastes and its application in the fields. It is, therefore, considered more environment friendly and sustainable than the conventional system. Farm conversion from high-input, chemical-based system to organic system is designed after undertaking a constraint analysis for the farm with the primary aim to take advantage of local conditions and their interactions with farm activities, climate, soil and environment, so as to achieve (as far as possible)

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closed nutrient cycles with less dependence on off-farm inputs. This implies that the only nutrients leaving the farm unit are those for human consumption.

Crop rotations and varieties are selected to suit local conditions having the

potential to sufficiently balance the nitrogen demand of crops. Requirements for phosphorus, potash, sulphur and micronutrients are met with local, preferably renewable resources. Organic agriculture is therefore, often termed as knowledge-based rather than input-based agriculture. Furthermore, organic farms aim to optimize the crop productivity under a given set of farm conditions. There are ample evidences to show that agrochemical-based, high input agriculture is not sustainable for long periods due to gradual decline in factor productivity, with adverse impact on soil health and quality. Harnessing the varietals potential by appropriate biotechnology input is neglected area and needs adequate attention.

Safety and quality of organically produced food

There is a growing demand for organic foods driven primarily by the consumer’s perceptions of the quality and safety of these foods and to the positive environmental impact of organic agriculture practices. It has been demonstrated that organically produced foods have lower levels of pesticides, and medicinal and hormonal residues and in many cases lower nitrate contents. Nitrates are significant contaminants of foods, generally associated with intensive use of nitrogen fertilizers. Studies that compared nitrate contents of organic and conventional products found significantly higher nitrates in conventional products. Quality after storage has been reported to be better in organic produce relative to chemical based produce after comparative tests. ‘Organic’ inorganic agriculture is a labelling term that denotes products that have been produced in accordance with certain predefined parameters and certified by a duly constituted certification agency or authority. The organic label is therefore a process claim rather than a product claim. Organic standard will not exempt producer and processors from compliance with general regularity requirements such as food safety regulation, pesticide registration, general food and nutrition labelling rules, etc.

Pest and disease management in organic farming

This is one of the most important issues in organic farming Pest control in organic farming begins by taking right decisions at right right time, such as growing crops that are naturally resistant to diseases and pests, or choosing sowing times that prevent pest and disease outbreaks. Careful management in both, time and space of planting not only prevents pests, but also increases population of natural predators that have natural capability to control insects, diseases and weeds. Other methods generally employed for the management of pests and diseases are: clean cultivation, improving soil health to resist soil pathogens and promote plant; growth; rotating crops; encouraging natural biological agents for control of diseases, insects and weeds; using physical barriers for protection from insects, birds and animals; modifying habitat to encourage pollinators and natural enemies of pests; and using semi-chemicals such as pheromone attractants and trap pests.

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Organic farmers have long maintained that synthetic fertilizers and pesticides increase crop susceptibility to pests. Organic crops have been shown to be more tolerant as well as resistant to insect attack. Organic rice is reported to have thicker cell walls and lower levels of free amino acids than conventional rice. Plant susceptibility to insect herbivore has been shown in numerous studies to be associated with high plant N levels on account of high inputs of soluble N fertilizers. Organic N is available slowly as the plant grows and thus acts as a self-control against the disease.

Soil-borne root diseases are generally less severe on organic farms than

conventional farms, while there have been no consistent differences in foliar diseases between the two systems. The successful control of root diseases in organic systems is likely to be related to the use of long and diverse crop rotations, crop mixtures and regular application of organic amendments. Increased levels of soil microbial activity leading to increased competition and antagonism in the rhizosphere, the presence of beneficial root-colonizing bacteria and increased levels of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization of roots have all been identified as contributing factors; in the control of root diseases. This is an unexplored area where native organisms provide protection against other harmful organisms

. Organic agriculture: Its relevance to Egyptian farming

Only 10 % of Egypt's total cultivable area is covered with fertilizers where irrigation facilities are available, and in the remaining 65% of arable land, which is mainly rain-fed, negligible amounts of fertilizers are being used. Farmers in these areas often use organic manure as a source of nutrients that are readily available either in their own farm or in their locality. The north-eastern region of India provides considerable scope and opportunity for organic farming due to least utilization of chemical inputs. It is estimated that 18 million hectare of such land is available in the North-East, which can be exploited for organic production. With the sizable acreage under naturally organic/default organic cultivation, India has tremendous potential to grow crops organically and emerge as a major supplier of organic products in the worlds organic market. Need is for putting up a clear strategy on organic farming and its link with the markets.

Economics of organic farming

The replacement of external inputs by farm-derived resources normally leads to a reduction in variable input costs under organic management. Expenditure on fertilizers and sprays is substantially lower than in conventional systems in almost all the cases. In a few cases, higher input costs due to the purchase of compost and other organic manure have been reported. Studies have shown that the common organic agricultural combination of lower input costs and favourable price premiums can offset reduced yields and make organic farms equally or often more profitable than conventional farms. The economics of organic cotton cultivation over a period of six years indicated that there is a reduction in cost of cultivation and increased gross and net returns compared to conventional cotton cultivation in India.

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The interest in organic agriculture in developing countries is growing because it

places more reliance on the natural and human resources available, requires less financial input and provides safe food while conserving the environment. Studies to date seem to indicate that organic agriculture offers comparative advantage in areas with less rainfall and relatively low natural and soil fertility levels. Labour realizes a good return and this is important where paid labour is almost non-existent. Organic agriculture does not need costly investments in irrigation, energy and external inputs, but rather organic agricultural policies have the potential to improve local food security, especially in marginal areas.

Possibly, the greatest impact of organic agriculture is on the mindset of people. It

uses traditional and indigenous farming knowledge, while introducing selected modern technologies to manage and enhance diversity, to incorporate biological principles and resources into farming systems, and to ecologically intensify agricultural production. Instead of being an obstacle to progress, traditions may become an integral part of it. By adopting organic agriculture, farmers are challenged to take on new knowledge and perspectives, and to innovate. This leads to an increased engagement in farming which can trigger greater opportunities for rural employment and economic prosperity. Thus through greater emphasis on use of local resources and self-reliance, conversion to organic agriculture definitely contributes to the empowerment of farmers and local communities.

Organic farming systems can deliver agronomic and environmental benefits both

through structural changes and tactical management of farming systems.. The benefits of organic farming are relevant both to developed nations (environmental protection, biodiversity enhancement, reduced energy use and CO2 emission) and to developing countries like India (sustainable resource use, increased crop yields without over-reliance on costly external inputs, environment and biodiversity protection, etc.).

The government, private sector and producer associations each have a necessary

role to play in promoting and facilitating marketing of organic produce. How the various pieces fit together in order to increase value and marketability of farmers’ produce is a challenge, and will require additional work to make the system function properly. Technical advice on how these processes function in other places and the roles of the different players would be very helpful. Under no circumstances, food self sufficiency and security should be comprise in our genuine needs for organic farming. Having stated that I strongly urge to identify niche areas and crops for organic farming. With that full potential of organic farming can be harnessed and country’s commitment on food and other economic activity can be sustained.

Biotechnology of medicinal plants:

It is a great source of importance to find out the possibility of producing secondary products from our endemic herbs through biotechnology. Biotechnology is described as methodology to enhance the formation and accumulation of desirable natural products and possible product modification in medicinal plants. Micro propagation, cell and hairy root culture as well as gene technology are being highlighted.

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Attention is given to the role of biotechnology in producing Visnagin from the in vitro cultures of Ammi visnaga callus. In order to check the possibility of producing secondary metabolites, in vitro cultures of A. visnaga callus were established. The best growth of A. visnaga callus was obtained on Murashige and Skoog medium (MS) containing 6-benzyladenine (BA) and α-naphtaleneacetic acid (NAA). The study was concentrated on the production of Visnagin as secondary metabolites by exposing callus to some biotic stress: like chitin isolated from soil-borne pathogen Macrophomina phaseolina . GC analysis indicated that callus of A. visnaga grown from organic seeds produced under organic farming conditions and incubated in darkness accumulated 2 times more visnagin than the one which was grown from seeds produced under conventional farming system under different photoperiods . Finally, I will summarize my personal recommendation to the Egyptian authorities:

1 We cannot keep on buying food by weight alone. We have to change our mind thinking. This is as foolish as buying brass at the price of pure gold.

2 It is pointless for Egypt to spend more on adding beds, hospitals and doctors. If we continue doing so (adding overdoses of chemical fertilizers and pesticides), this we will soon need a bed for every person in Egypt.

3 We have to encourage organic farmers by buying their vegetables and fruits with relatively higher prices.

4 There It should be an agency to certify the Nutritional Value of food grown just as there are bodies that certify organic food.

5 The government should recognize the importance and separately classify all types of dietary supplements – herbal and nutritional so as to encourage its free sale as non prescription drugs. This would be in keeping with the norms of other countries like USA, Canada and Europe. Turmeric, Ginger and Saffron to name a few, should not be classified as Ayurvedic Medicine but strictly as food items.

6 We have to start a new era of biotechnology research work, about the beneficial aspects of medicinal plants, and its role in pharmaceuticals to face the obstacles of TRIBS and Gate in the near future.

References Elgamal M.H.A., Hanna A.G., Mekhael M.K.G. and Meyer C.(1997). Synthesis of Some

Novel Nitrogenous Visnagin Derivatives ,POLISH JOURNAL OF CHEMISTRY,Volume 71 Number 11 November 1997,Pages 1511- 1641.

FAO,(2001):World Markets for Organic Fruit and vegetables.Oppourtunities for developing Countries in the Production and Export of organic Horticultural Products.FAO;ITC and CTA,Room (2001),p.312.

Kee C Huang (1998). The Pharmacology of Chinese Herbs, Second Edition,pp. 544 University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, USA

Karton Y, Jiang JL, Ji XD, Melman N, Olah ME, Stiles GL, and Jacobson KA.(1996). Synthesis and biological activities of flavonoid derivatives as A3 adenosine receptor antagonists.J Med Chem. 1996 Jun 7;39(12):2293-301.Lampkin,N.(1990).Organic farming.Farming Press,pp701.

L. D Kapoor ,and Neshanic Station, NJ (2000).Handbook of Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants, Publication Date: 11/10/2000 Number of Pages: 424 Availability: In Stock CRC Press

Rees,R.M;B.C.Ball;C.D.Campbell and C.A.Watson(2001):Sustainable management of soil Organic Matter.Published by CAB International,UK.pp440.

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Seventh Session General Topics About Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Eighth Session New Trends for the Use of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 1 - Applied Research Center of Medicinal Plants (ARCMP) Salwa Hosni Elkashlan, National Organization for Drug Supervision and Research, Cairo, Egypt INTRODUCTION

In the recent years, the use of medicinal plants and natural products has become a global trend. In Egypt, there is a great progress in the Herbal Drug Industries. Some criteria are given by the Ministry of Health and population for regulation of use of Herbal Medicines. The good quality, safety and efficacy of pharmaceuticals, biological and herbal drugs are assured by the specialized laboratories of The National Organization for Drug Control and Research. The establishment of the Applied Research Center of Medicinal Plants was a crucial demand for both manufacturing and safety assessment of natural products and phyto -pharmaceuticals. About the Center The Applied Research Center of Medicinal Plants was established within the structure of NODCAR by the Ministry of Health and Population in accordance with the ministerial decree No 212/1995. The strategic goal of the center is developing the area of research in medicinal plants in Egypt to support pharmaceutical industry to formulate safe and effective pharmaceutical products from plant origin. The center is located in Kafr-El-Gabal on an experimental farm of 23 acres. The center includes several laboratories: the Central lab, Photochemistry lab, Biotechnological lab, Microbiology lab, and Biological Science Unit, accompanied by the animal house. Also the center includes a Pilot Scale Manufacturing Unit and Tissue Culture Unit.

All laboratories and units are well equipped with high technology facilities and the staff members are of high qualifications and expertise to perform their tasks. The center is surrounded by seventeen acres experimental farm cultivated with medicinal plants. Green- houses were established for adaptation of cultured plants. Besides, the Scientific Library, an Information Center and the Herbarium were added. Objectives The center was established to achieve advancement in the availability and use of medicinal plants; therefore, some identified goals have been entrusted to the center:

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1) Collection of the research done on some plants that have been

internationally identified as pharmacologically and therapeutically active and safe for the purpose of further research on their use in traditional and complementary medicine.

2) Performance of applied scientific research on Egyptian medicinal plants for proper, economic and scientific use in drug production.

3) Development of Egyptian Scientific Monographs for medicinal plants recognized to be of medicinal use. The monographs will include all phyt-chemical data concerning the methods of extraction of the active constituents, the medicinal, toxicological, dosage forms, analytical and quality control data.

4) Isolation, extraction and identification of the active constituents of some plants using advanced technology methods to comply with the need of the local market and exportation.

5) Collaboration and harmonization with similar institutes, research centers, universities, manufacturers and international agencies.

6) Development and propagation of medicinal plants via using modern techniques.

7) Preparation and standardization of the plant extracts and phyto -pharmaceuticals on experimental scale to be later adopted by the Egyptian Pharmaceutical Manufactures for further industrial processes.

2 –Post -Harvest Handling of Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Elhadi M. Yahia 1 and Elsaady Badawi2 1Facultad de Ciencias Naturales Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro Avenida de las Ciencias, Juriquilla Queretaro, , México; and 2Dept.of Horticulture, Fac. of Agric. Cairo University, Giza, Egypt. Abstract

Increased use of fresh and dried herbs, aromatic and medicinal plants have increased the demand for high quality. Pre -harvest factors impact the yield and quality of these plants; but these plants, especially when handled fresh, are very vulnerable to accelerated post-harvest (PH) senescence due to a high rate of metabolism, and possible microbiological problems. The successful marketing of high quality, especially of fresh materials, requires extreme care and attention to PH handling conditions. Some of the quality indicators that can be easily deteriorated after harvest include active components, color, aroma, water loss, in addition to possible microbiological problems that can lead to safety problems. Harvest date has a significant effect on content. The most important PH factors that should be adequately controlled are temperature, relative humidity (RH), and atmospheric composition. These plants keep better at low temperatures. Under controlled conditions, a shelf life of fresh plants of 3 to 4 weeks can be achieved at 0ºC and 2 ºC to 3 weeks at 5ºC. Prevention of water loss in the harvested plants and tissues and storage at their optimal temperature are prime factors in the maintenance of their

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quality. An appropriate pre-cooling method is needed. Stress has been shown to affect the synthesis of a number of secondary or natural plant products. Prevention of moisture loss is the second most important PH factor affecting the quality and shelf life of these fresh plants. Most respond favorably to high RH (>95%), and some can even be held successfully in water. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) reduces metabolism, water loss, yellowing and decay. Ethylene limits the shelf life of leafy tissues, causing yellowing of leaves, and an increased rate of deterioration. Potassium permanganate, elevated concentrations of CO2, decreased levels of O2, are some of the treatments that can inhibit the senescence-inducive effects of ethylene. Growth of microorganisms can be significantly reduced by proper temperature management and good hygienic practices in the field and after harvest. Chlorinated water can reduce microbial load if water is used during handling. Irradiation is a commonly and effectively used technique to reduce microbial activity in several of these dried plants. Keywords: Temperature, relative humidity, ethylene, modified atmospheres, irradiation, microorganisms INTRODUCTION

There are many aromatic, culinary and medicinal plants. Most secondary products in these plants can be altered by environmental factors as well as post-harvest handling practices, yet little is known about the stability of these plants and their active components when subjected to either pre- or post-harvest environmental changes.

Increased use of fresh and dried herbs, aromatic and medicinal plants have

increased the demand for high quality. Pre-harvest factors, including cultural system, fertilization, and light exposure impact the yield and quality of these plants, but these plants, especially when handled fresh, are very vulnerable to accelerated post -harvest senescence due to a high rate of metabolism, and possible microbiological problems. The successful marketing of high quality, especially of fresh materials, requires extreme care and attention to post-harvest handling conditions. Some of the quality indicators that can be easily deteriorated after harvest include active components, color, aroma, water loss, in addition to possible microbiological problems that can lead to safety problems. Fresh green herbs (Labiatae family) are vulnerable to accelerated senescence due to a high rate of metabolism which is increased further following harvesting and handling procedures.

Post-harvest handling has been identified as crucial to the development of material

suitable for processing. All the post-harvest principles that apply to leafy green tissues apply to the handling of fresh herbs and some other fresh aromatic and medicinal plants. However, the post-harvest handling of these products is very challenging due to their great diversity, diverse components, and diverse utilization. For example, improving the quality of Australian echinacea through better post-harvest handling practices was found to be complicated by the finding that the alkylamides and cichoric acid sometimes respond differently to the various handling operations used. Some results have indicated that echinacea plants were able to withstand a reasonable degree of rough handling, and could be held for prolonged periods as fresh plants at ambient temperature without any significant decrease in level of active constituents. Therefore, it was recommended to use this method as a means to decrease drying time and hence overhead costs.

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This paper will give a general overview of the quality components and characteristics of some of these plants, important factors that cause their quality deterioration, and post-harvest techniques that are either used for these plants or can be potentially used to reduce qualitative and quantitative losses, and properly maintain their quality and safety. Quality characteristics and grades

Fresh aromatic, herbal and medicinal plants are very diverse and thus are characterized by diverse requirements, but generally should appear fresh and with adequate color, depending on the type of the plant (many are green but some have other colors such as the case of purple forms of basil that should have a rich color), without yellowing, decay, insect or mechanical damage, and leaves should be uniform in size. Flavor and aroma should be strong in those that are characterized by a certain positive flavor. The over-riding determinant of quality in all medicinal plants is the concentration of active constituents that impart a health benefit to humans.

Some research has been done on the antioxidant capacity of some medicinal

plants. Hypericum chinensis var. salicifolia and Alpinia speciosa showed potent antioxidative activity (1). For example, in dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), which is a widespread medicinal plant and used in soups and salads as a natural source of flavouring and a coffee substitute, compared to the root extract, the leaf extract showed approximately 3x higher polyphenol content (9.9 g%), 6x higher flavonoid content (0.086 g%) and proved to be more effective as a hydrogen-donor (I50 = 160 mug), reducing agent (740 ASE/mg) and H2O2 scavenger (I50 = 155 mug) (2). Commonly used medicinal plant extracts with standardized content of polyphenols were investigated for their total antioxidant activity (TAA) (3). Green tea, oligomeric procyanidins (from grape seed and pine bark), bilberry, and ginkgo exhibited total antioxidant activity (TAA) in the range of 5.12-2.57 mM Trolox, thereby indicating a valuable antioxidant capacity. Witch hazel, propolis EPID, artichoke, and hawthorn afforded lower TAA (1.54-0.44 mM Trolox), whereas echinacea, ginseng, passionflower, sweet clover, and eleuthero were rather ineffective (TAA < 0.32 mM Trolox).

The active constituent groups within the medicinal herb echinacea are the caffeoyl

phenols, alkylamides and polysaccharides. Wills and Stuart (1999) investigated the alkylamides and caffeoyl phenols in post-harvest and processing steps of alcoholic extracts, and developed a guide outlining optimum conditions for growers and processors to maximize these constituents. Currently, each country uses different constituent groups within echinacea as the quality standard with the United States concentrating on the caffeoyl phenols, and Australia using either the alkylamides or caffeoyl phenols. In Europe, however, the market is dominated by products that have been standardized on the polysaccharide content. A study on the polysaccharide concentration during plant growth revealed a large variation both between plant sections and sites of growth. While the stem and root have the highest concentrations, the processors who are interested in the total content of polysaccharides available per plant would also include the leaf for the return of polysaccharides. This does not correlate well with the return of alkylamides and cichoric acid found in studies by Wills and Stuart (1999) where the stem was determined as having the least value within the plant sections. These findings, however, allow for specific plant sections to be processed to obtain optimum levels of specific active constituents.

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The flavor of oregano varies greatly when grown from seed. The volatiles of faham leaves, a flavoring and medicinal plant of the Indian Ocean, have been analyzed by GC/MS (4). Besides the main compound, coumarin, 99 minor components were identified after enrichment with a preparative capillary chromatograph. The presence of diterpenes (kaurenes and phytadienes) was confirmed using GC/FTIR. Four new quassinoids named samaderines X (1), Y (2), and Z (3), and indaquassin X (5), and a new C sub(19) quassinoid glycoside, 2-O-glucosylsamaderine C (10), together with five known quassinoids, samaderines B (7), C (8), and E (4), indaquassin C (6), and simarinolide (9), were isolated from the stems of Quassia indica (Simaroubaceae), an Indonesian medicinal plant (5). The chemical structures of these quassinoids have been elucidated on the bases of their chemical and physicochemical properties. Essential oil compositions of fresh and freeze-dried leaves were determined for 16 accessions of Ocimum basilicum belonging to different varieties to see whether they could be used as infraspecific taxonomic characters (6). Some 30 monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids and phenylpropanoids were identified, the major components (more than 20% of the total essential oil composition in one or more accessions) being geranial and neral in O. xcitriodorum, and linalool, methyl chavicol, eugenol, methyl eugenol and geraniol in O. basilicum. Based on a combination of the latter compounds, five major essential oil profiles could be distinguished in the accessions studied for O. basilicum. These profiles were largely the same for fresh and freeze-dried material of the same plant, although in dried leaves, methyl chavicol and eugenol concentrations had generally declined in comparison to those of linalool. There appeared to be little correlation between essential oil patterns and varietal classification within O. basilicum. In view of the chemical heterogeneity of O. basilicum and its use as an essential oil-producing crop, culinary herb, medicinal plant and insect-controlling agent, in all of which chemicals play an important role, the infraspecific classification of this taxon should take chemical characters into consideration. Changes in contents and composition of essential oils during plant ripening were studied for a medicinal plant (Erigeron canadensis), wild carrot (Daucus carota subsp. carota) and dill (Anethum graveolens) (7). A marked relationship between ontogenetic stage and essential oil contents and composition was found, indicating the importance of harvest stage. Zanthoxylum piperitum (prickly ash) is an aromatic plant of the Rutaceae family that is native to Korea, China and Japan, and used as a medicinal plant and as a spice, due to its characteristic aroma. Of the volatile compounds extracted from the culture, 3-hydroxy-2-butanone was identified by GC-MS as the most abundant, followed by gamma-butyrolactone and 2,3-butanedione. 2,3-Butanedione, ethyl 3-methylbutyrate and ethyl 2-methylpropanoate were identified as the most intense aroma-active compounds, and represented the characteristic aroma of the culture (8). Volatile compounds present in Angelica tenuissima , an aromatic plant used as a headache and cold remedy, and for flavoring traditional Asian dishes, essential oil were identified leading to the identification of 97 volatile flavor components, comprising 87.99% of the total volatile composition of the oil (9). The oil contained 39 hydrocarbons (64.45%), 6 aldehydes (0.59%), 21 alcohols (4.38%), 5 ketones (0.32%), 8 esters (0.53%), 4 oxides (0.25%), 5 acids (0.16%), 6 phthalides (16.91%) and 3 miscellaneous components (0.5%). The most abundant compounds were gamma-terpinene (18.89%), beta-phellandrene (16.63%) and ligustilide (14.43%). Volatile flavor compounds of miniature beefsteak plant (Mosla dianthera Maxim.), used as a spice and as a medicinal plant from Vietnam were analysed by GC-MS combined with

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olfactometry (10). Sixty-two compounds were identified by GC-MS, of these, (plus/minus)-carvone and (plus/minus)-limonene were the most abundant, followed by (Z)-limonene oxide, beta-caryophyllene, and alpha-humulene. 20 aroma-active compounds were detected by aroma extract dilution analysis conducted on 2 GC columns of different polarities (DB-5MS and DB-Wax). The most intense aroma-active compounds were linalool (floral/sweet/lemon), (-)-carvone (spearmint) and 1-octen-3-one (mushroom/earthy). Other predominant aroma active compounds included (Z)-3-hexenol (grassy/leafy/metallic), (Z)-limonene oxide (lemon/floral), myrcene (plastic/sweet), (+)-limonene (orange/lemon), alpha-thujene (soy sauce/grassy) and (Z)-dihydrocarvone (spearmint/peppermint). On the basis of the aroma characteristics and intensities, it was concluded that (-)-carvone was responsible for the characteristic aroma of the miniature beefsteak plant.

Various harvesting and post-harvest handling treatments were studied to

determine their effects on the volatile oil content of Vitex negundo L. (lagundi) leaves. The effects usually depend on season (dry or wet), age of plant, drying method (air-, sun-, oven-drying, etc), stage of plant growth and development, leaf maturity, among other factors. Volatile oil content of V. negundo was found not to be affected by season, age of plant, leaf maturity and drying. The stage of plant development and drying method on the other hand significantly affect the plant's volatile oil content. Volatile oil yield is higher for flowering plants, and air-dried leaves than for non-flowering plants and sun- or oven-dried leaves, respectively. It has been therefore recommended that V. negundo be harvested for volatile oil anytime of the year as early as three months from planting of cuttings. Leaves to be harvested can be either young or mature, fresh or air-dried without any difference in volatile oil content.

There are no market grades or sizes for fresh herbs. They may be tied or bunches

with a rubber-band, packaged in plastic bags or clamshells, then packed in corrugated cartons. Perforated polyethylene liners will prevent dehydration and maintain quality.

Horticultural maturity and harvesting indices Harvest date has a significant effect on the content of active components. Annual

herbs should be harvested before flowering. Basil will maintain its quality with some flowers. Harvest date had a significant effect on artemisinin content (11).

Microbial and other potential safety problems Careless handling can result pathogen attack. Molds and bacterial decay may

develop, especially on mechanically damaged leaves or cut ends of stems. Chlorinated water can reduce microbial load if water is used during handling. Growth of microorganisms can be reduced by proper temperature management and good hygienic practices in the field and packing station. Low temperatures should be maintained throughout the cold chain to minimize pathological disorders and prolong shelf-life. Chilling injury can increase the susceptibility of basil to decay.

The fungal flora of 6 Asian medicinal plants, Aerva lanata (Linn.) Juss.

Alyssicarpus vaginalis D.C., Tribulus terrestris Linn. Adhatoda vasica Nees., Centella asciatica (L.) Urb., Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn. was determined after surface disinfection (12). Aspergillus spp. were most frequently observed. Aspergillus flavus,

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isolated from Alyssicarpus vaginalis and Aerva lanata produced aflatoxins in culture. Aflatoxin B sub(1) was also detected in a sample of Aerra lanata at a level of 0.5 mu g/g. Therefore, plant material destined for medicinal use should be stored carefully prior to its use to prevent growth of naturally occurring toxigenic mold fungi.

To determine degree of contamination of Egyptian spices and medicinal plants

with heavy metals, 303 samples, which represent 20 different types of spice or medicinal plant, were collected from shipments due for export from Egypt and analyzed for heavy metals content (13). Results revealed that the heavy metals content of spices and medicinal plants was dependent on the plant species. Maximum levels of heavy metals in the samples were 14.4, 2.44, 33.75, 2.85, 0.10, 68.80, 343.0, 11.40 and 1046.25 mug/g for Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, Sn, Zn, Mn, Cu and Fe, respectively. Co was not detected in any of the samples. Levels of heavy metals determined exceeded maximum allowable levels recommended by Zentrale Erfassungs- und Bewertungsstelle fuer Umweltchemikalien (ZEBS). Decontamination with gas fumigation and irradiation

Spices, herbs and vegetable seasonings are often contaminated with high levels of bacteria, molds and yeasts; if untreated, these will result in rapid spoilage of the foods they are supposed to enhance, and may cause health risks, especially when contaminated with pathogenic bacteria. The possibility for health risk is greater when these plants are used in processed meats or other foods that may not be thoroughly heat treated. Spices are clearly one of the most important contaminants in meat processing. This is even more risky when these contaminated processed foods are consumed by children who are more susceptible to pathogenic bacteria.

Spices are usually decontaminated by irradiation or by fumigation with some

gases such as ethylene oxide (ETO), methyl bromide or propylene oxide (14). Some spices can be steam treated. In the US, over 30,000 tons of spices, herbs and dry ingredients are irradiated each year.

The use of ETO has some environmental problems. The instability and

flammability of ETO requires it to be mixed with another gas. Formerly the gas used was CFC, but its use is no longer allowed because it is an ozone depleting substance. Now, ETO is stabilized with much less effective 80% CO2 and delivered with steam. Worker safety issues have greatly complicated the use of ETO for all purposes. The World Heath Organization has recently upgraded ETO to a known carcinogen. Since ETO leaves spices slowly after treatment, they must be stored open to allow the gas to dissipate. The gas is then released in the warehouse environment, and thus the necessity to store ETO treated spices in open containers before shipping or sale results in increased warehousing cost, inconvenient product hold-up and can result in recontamination. The use of steam with ETO can cause flavor and volatile components and color changes. Steam can also increase the moisture level of the spice being treated, possibly resulting in the high level of mold contamination seen in spices and herbs previously treated with ETO. ETO treated spices pack more densely after treatment; this is a functional difficulty in food processing. Vegetable seasonings are harmed by the steam, and must be re-dried and re-ground after ETO treatments. ETO can result in darkening and unacceptable color

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changes in some vegetable seasonings such as onion and garlic powder and off flavor in mustard and mustard flour. ETO treatment is commonly required to be repeated before the microbiological contamination reaches levels suitable for food processing requirements. The reasons for ETO’s lack of effectiveness with spices are both physical and chemical. Clearly, ETO is highly toxic to bacteria and other micro contaminants; however, as previously mentioned, ETO can not be used alone. The CO2 used at the 80% level to stabilize the ETO, and the steam used to deliver the gasses reduce its ETO’s effectiveness microbiologically. Physically, the nature of spices interferes with the ability of ETO to sanitize. Spices, herbs and vegetable seasonings are either delivered ground, chopped or whole. Bulk ground spices pack very densely, and therefore it is difficult for the ETO to penetrate through the volume of spice. Consequently, the fine distribution of bacteria in ground spices remains relatively undisturbed. Spices destined for ETO treatment must be packed in materials that allow the gas to enter the package. Bulk barrels must be opened for treatment. These packaging requirements allow for recontamination. ETO sanitation is not compatible with newer packaging materials that are impervious to gas or are heat sealed plastics. ETO is banned in several countries (Japan, some of EEC, the United Kingdom) because it reacts with organic spice components to produce the harmful residues ethylene chlorohydrin and ethylene bromohydrin. Ethylene chlorohydrin is a known carcinogen that persists in the spice for several months, even after food processing. For this reason and because of worker safety issues, its use in the United States is under review by the Environmental Protection Agency under the Food Quality Protection Act (residues levels of 50 ppm are currently allowed). In Canada, ETO can not be used on vegetable seasonings or spice mixtures containing salt (residues of 1500 ppm are currently allowed).

In some countries, propylene oxide is also allowed, although banned in other

countries for the residues it leaves in the spices. Methyl bromide (MB) is sometimes used to disinfest spices, although its use will be phased out as it is classified under the Montreal Protocol as ozone depleting substance. The use of MB on spices also results in higher levels of the residue ethylene bromohydrin in ETO treated spices.

Irradiation is a commonly and effectively used technique to reduce microbial

activity in several of these dried plants (14, 15). Significant amount of research has been done on the irradiation of spices, herbs and vegetable seasonings, and the effect of irradiation on microbial contamination and sensory properties have been quantified. The use of irradiation for these products has been allowed by CODEX, and by many countries worldwide. Irradiation results in some changes in the sensory quality of some spices but to a lesser extent than ETO. Most countries require irradiated spices to be labeled with the international symbol for irradiation, and sometimes words to describe the process and/or the effect (such as treated to destroy harmful bacteria), although most countries do not require that the use of an irradiated spice be noted on the label of a processed food. Canada requires that irradiated ingredients in a processed food be labeled. Irradiation, at a minimum dose of 5kGy effectively kills bacteria, molds and yeasts. A dose of 5 -10 kGy results in an immediate minimum 2-3 log cycle reduction of bacteria. Most countries set maximum dose regulatory limits, and these higher limits allow for higher levels of microbial kill. Spore forming bacteria require higher dose levels to kill because spores are less sensitive to radiation. Surviving bacteria and spores are, however, much more

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susceptible to heat. The sensory properties of most spices are well maintained between 7.5 - 15 kGy. Generally, the sensory properties of spices are more resistant to irradiation than are some herbs. Colors, such as in chili, paprika and turmeric are stable to irradiation treatment, and the functional properties of ingredients such as mustard and mustard flour are not impaired. In addition, at the doses required to control microbial contamination, insects and other pests will be killed in all life stages. Irradiation can be done in bulk packages, retail packages, in gas impervious packages and heat sealed plastics. Not all plastics are compatible with irradiation processing, and the suitability of the packaging material needs to be determined before treatment. Irradiation allows the spice package to remain closed and sealed at all times. Physiological disorders

Yellowing and leaf abscission may occur due to ethylene exposure, especially if held at 10°C or warmer. Basil is susceptible to chilling injury if held below 12°C, the main symptom being necrosis and blackening of the leaves. Chervil, coriander, dill and savory are not sensitive to chilling temperatures and should be stored as cold as possible without freezing. Ethylene effects

Ethylene gas, a naturally produced senescence hormone by all plants including medicinal and herbs, limits the shelf life of many plants especially leafy tissues. Ethylene causes yellowing of leaves, and an increased rate of deterioration at very low concentration (few ppm). Annual herbs produce very little ethylene, but are highly susceptible to ethylene exposure. It is therefore important to avoid exposing these tissues to ethylene, or store or transport them with products that are ethylene producers. Young growing herb tissue responds to as low as 5 ppm ethylene, whereas little effect was observed in mature herb cuttings. Holding the plants at the recommended temperatures will greatly reduce their ability to respond to ethylene in the environment, and thus will reduce the effect of this gas. Potassium permanganate, elevated concentrations of CO2 and decreased levels of O2, are some of the treatments that can reduce the senescence-inducive effects of ethylene. The accumulation of excessive ethylene and CO2 in packages should be controlled. Optimum storage conditions

The most important post-harvest factors that should be adequately controlled are temperature, relative humidity (RH), and atmospheric composition. Many fresh herbs, aromatic and medicinal plants keep better at low temperatures, for many of them 0°C. Prevention of water loss in the harvested plants and tissues and storage at their optimal temperature are prime factors in the maintenance of their quality.

Temperature is the single most important factor in maintaining quality after

harvest of fresh products. For example, despite the diverse botanical origin of fresh herbs, the optimum post-harvest temperature for fresh thyme, oregano, rosemary, mints, sage, parsley, cilantro, savory, marjoram, dill, and tarragon is 0ºC. Under controlled conditions, a shelf life of 3 to 4 weeks can be achieved at this temperature. With a temperature of 5ºC, a minimum shelf life of 2 to 3 weeks can be expected. If herbs are harvested early in the morning, the need for cooling is minimized.

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If harvested later, the appropriate cooling method depends on the type of herb.

Most respond favorable to room and forced air cooling. Herbs have also been successfully vacuum-cooled. A simple forced air pre-cooler can be constructed for small operations that require only an adequate cool room, a fan, and some simple carpentry.

Chervil, coriander, dill and savory should be stored at 0°C and 95 to 100% RH.

Post-harvest life ranges from 1 week for chervil to 2 weeks for coriander and dill, and up to 3 weeks for savory. Basil should be stored at 12°C and 95 to 100% RH. At this temperature and RH, quality can be maintained for 2 weeks (16). High RH is used to prevent water loss and is especially important in maintaining the quality of fresh herbs.

After temperature, prevention of excess moisture loss is the second most

important post-harvest factor affecting the quality and shelf life of herbs. Most herbs respond favorably to very high humidity (> 90%). Some herbs, such as basil, mints, tarragon, can be held successfully in water, whereas water loss can best be controlled by packaging and maintaining high humidity in the environment. Lowering the holding temperature to the recommended levels also greatly reduces water loss.

Modified atmospheres (CA) and controlled atmospheres (CA), which refer to

maintaining plants in an atmosphere with lower O2 and/or higher CO2 than usually found in normal air, delay senescence, color changes and maintain quality (17, 18). Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) utilizes packaging in polymeric materials to establish a MA. A CA atmosphere containing 5 to 10% O2 + 4 to 6% CO2 was found to be only moderately beneficial for fresh herbs. However, MAP lengthens the shelf-life of coriander and chervil and basil (16). Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) is capable of reducing metabolism, water loss, yellowing and decay (19, 20, 21). Packaging

Herbs should be packaged in bags designed to minimize water loss, and senescence. It is particularly important to maintain constant temperatures, to reduce condensation inside the bag and the consequent risk of fungal or bacterial growth. The bags may be partially ventilated with perforations, or may be constructed of a polymer that is partially permeable to water vapor.

Careful handling to avoid physical injury to the leafy tissue of fresh herbs and

medicinal plants is important. Rigid clear plastic containers are recommended to be used for soft plant tissues. "Pillow packs" (plastic bags which are partially inflated when sealed) may be an alternative packaging technique.

Most fresh herbs of the Labiatae family are kept well when packed in cartons

lined with folded perforated polyethylene (PE), in which water loss, leaf abscission and decay are minimal. Perforation of the PE liner reduces the undesirable accumulation of ethylene and CO2. Nevertheless, the perforated film is not effective enough to delay the senescence of yellowing-susceptible herbs such as coriander, dill, chervil, sorrel, parsley, chives, and watercress. Packing these species in cartons with non-perforated PE liners results in the creation of a moderate modified atmosphere (MA) capable of retarding

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yellowing and decay. Elevated concentrations of CO2 inhibits the senescence-inducive effect of accumulated ethylene in the package, especially when combined with a decreased level of O2. Packing herbs in sealed PE-lined cartons exhibits more marked changes in the respiratory gases, especially oxygen. Extreme temperature fluctuations during shipment may result in anaerobic respiration in sealed film, which can be eliminated by using micro perforated (MP) film. The use of regular perforated films for the packaging of these plants can be effective in reducing water loss, but not for delaying the senescence of yellowing-susceptible plants and tissues. In MP packages, CO2 concentrations would not exceed 10% and O2 concentrations would not be dropped below 5%. Spraying of yellowing-susceptible herbs with gibberellic acid (GA3) immediately prior to harvest retards senescence and decay. Optimal results are commonly achieved when the GA3-treated herbs are packed in film with MA. Effects of stress

Stress has been shown to induce the synthesis of a number of secondary or natural plant products (22, 23). However, Charles et al. (11) have shown that water stress was not related to artemisinin content, plant or leaf yields. Water stress during the two weeks before harvest was associated with reduced plant height. Regression analysis revealed that greater soil water stress (lower soil water potential) during the two weeks before harvest lead to reduced leaf artemisinin content. Curing and drying

Post-harvest curing and drying of artemisia plants could affect artemisinin content. Six drying techniques over different time periods were examined to identify the best drying method (11). Drying method and duration had highly significant effects on leaf moisture. Artemisinin contents were retained to a greater extent when plants were dried under ambient conditions compared to forced air at 30° to 80°C, except when dried at 80°C for the shortest time period (12 h). Prolonged drying generally result in further losses in artemisinin. Therefore both plant water status and postharvest handling can influence the retention of artemisinin. Some studies on drying have indicated that levels of polysaccharides are affected by the drying temperature, however, not in a linear fashion. The findings suggest that optimal drying occurred at 70°C and 40°C with significantly lower returns between these temperatures. Studies with alkylamides also showed a highly significant quadratic relationship between temperature and concentration. It appears therefore, that only the caffeoyl phenols are directly affected by temperature, and further research is required to determine other factors influencing the alkylamides and polysaccharides with respect to temperature. Once echinacea is harvested and dried it is invariably stored for periods during export or before being processed into liquid extracts. A study to determine the stability of dried crushed material was undertaken to determine conditions and timeframes for effective storage without loss of active constituents, found that polysaccharide 2 was highly susceptible to storage under these conditions, and this has an impact on the postharvest handling of echinacea. Degradation is slightly minimized if material is kept at low humidity (as with the cichoric acid), though loss is still significant (40% in 3 days). Further studies are required to determine if this result is replicated in dried whole plant material, and if so, then storage of any plant material prior to processing would be highly disadvantageous to polysaccharide contents. These results indicate therefore that polysaccharides do not correlate with either alkylamides or cichoric acid which could be held for longer than two months without significant loss of concentration.

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The processing of dried echinacea through extraction of active constituents with aqueous ethanol was found to give highly variable extraction rates with a substantial proportion of polysaccharides being either degraded during processing or not extracted from the starting material. The low maximum extraction levels of 3-4% for polysaccharide 1 and 14-16% for polysaccharide 2 have shown that this method of extraction is highly inefficient. If dry material is to be used for extraction it is required to be freshly dried to ensure a minimum degradation of polysaccharide 2. In contrast to this were extraction yields of 25% for polysaccharide 1 and 70% for polysaccharide 2 in fresh material extraction processing. Of particular interest was the detection of polysaccharide 2 in the aerial section, and the absence of polysaccharide 1 in the root when fresh processing was adopted. This is a major qualitative difference in extracts produced through different techniques, and it could extrapolate to being the difference between therapeutically efficacious and non efficacious extracts.

Curing can be conducted in either a static system or with forced-air curing

chambers equipped with programmable temperature and RH controls. The selection of the ideal post-harvest curing/drying technique is important to reduce losses in functional components, focusing on temperature, time, and RH, and to avoid the potential of formation of nitrosamines in these plant tissues during the curing process when gas combustion is used as the heat source. Retail outlet display considerations

Use of water sprinklers is commonly used during retail display of these fresh plants. Fresh plants should be displayed in refrigerated low temperatures, with some exceptions such as the case of basil that should not be displayed < 12°C due to chilling sensitivity. References cited 1. Masuda, T., Oyama, Y., Inaba, Y., Toi, Y., Arata, T., Takeda, Y., Nakamoto, K.,

Kuninaga, H., Nishizato, S. and Nonaka, A. 2002. Antioxidant-related activities of ethanol extracts from edible and medicinal plants cultivated in Okinawa, Japan. J. Jap. Soc. Food Sci. Technol. 49(10): 652-661.

2. Hagymasi, K., Blazovics, A., Lugasi, A., Kristo, S.T., Feher, J. and Kery, A. 2000. In vitro antioxidant evaluation of dandelion (Taraxacum officinale Web.) water extracts. Acta Alimentaria 29(1): 1-7.

3. Pietta, P., Simonetti, P. and Mauri, P. 1998. Antioxidant activity of selected medicinal plants. J. Agric. Food. Chem. 46 (11): 4487-4490.

4. Sing, A.S., Smadja, J., Brevard, H., Maignial, L., Chaintreau, A. and Marion, J.P. 1992. Volatile constituents of faham (Jumellea fragrans (Thou.) Schltr.). J. Agric. Food Chem. 40(4): 642-646.

5. Kitagawa, I., Mahmud, T., Yokota, K.I., Nakagawa, S., Mayumi, T., Kobayashi, M. and Shibuya, H. 1996. Indonesian medicinal plants. XVII. Characterization of quassinoids from the stems of Quassia indica. Chem. Pharm.Bull. Tokyo 44(11): 2009-2014.

6. Grayer, R.J., Kite, G.C., Goldstone, F.J., Bryan, S.E., Paton, A. and Putievsky, E. 1996. Infraspecific taxonomy and essential oil chemotypes in sweet basil, Ocimum basilicum. Phytochemistry 43(5): 1033-1039.

7. Gora, J., Lis, A., Kula, J., Staniszewska, M. and Woloszyn, A. 2002. Chemical composition variability of essential oils in the ontogenesis of some plants. Flav. Frag.

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J. 17 (6): 445-451. 8. Tae, H.K., Tae, H.K., Joong, H.S., Eun, J.Y., Young, S.K. and Hyong, J.L. 2002.

Characteristics of aroma-active compounds in the pectin-elicited suspension culture of Zanthoxylum piperitum (prickly ash). Biotechnol. Letters 24(7): 551-556.

9. Hyang, S.C., Mie, S.L.K. and Sawamura, M. 2001. Constituents of the essential oil of Angelica tenuissima, an aromatic medicinal plant. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 10(5):557-561.

10. Tae, H.K., Nguyen, T.T., Joong, H.S., Hyung, H.B. and Hyong, J.L. 2000. Aroma-active compounds of miniature beefsteak plant (Mosla dianthera Maxim.). J. Agric. Food Chem. 48(7):2877-2881.

11. Charles, D.J., J.E. Simon, C.C. Shock, E.B.G. Feibert, and R.M. Smith. 1993. Effect of water stress and post-harvest handling on artemisinin content in the leaves of Artemisia annua L. p. 628-631. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley, New York.

12. Abeywickrama, K. and Bean, G.A. 1991. Toxigenic Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxins in Sri Lankan medicinal plant material. Mycopathologia 113(3): 187-190.

13. Abou-Arab, A.A.K. and Abou-Donia, M.A. 2000. Heavy metals in Egyptian spices and medicinal plants and the effect of processing on their levels. J. Agric. Food Chem. 48(6): 2300-2304.

14. Marcotte, M. No date. Effect of Irradiation on Spices, Herbs and Seasonings: Comparison with Ethylene Oxide Fumigation. http://www.food-irradiation.com/Spices.htm.

15. Yahia, Elhadi M., Catherine Barry-Ryan, and Ramdane Dris. 2004. Treatments and techniques to minimize the postharvest losses of perishable food crops. In: R. Dris and S. M. Jain (Eds.). Production practices and quality assessment of food crops. Vol. 4. Postharvest treatment and technology. Kluwer Academic Publisher, p. 95-133.

16. Lang, D.D. and A. Cameron. 1994. Postharvest shelf life of sweet basil (Osimum basilicum). HortScience 31: 104-107.

17. Yahia, Elhadi M. 1998. Modified and controlled atmospheres for tropical fruits. Horticultural Reviews 22:123-183.

18. Yahia, Elhadi M. 2004. Modified and controlled atmospheres (in Spanish). Published by CIAD, Mexico. ISBN 968-5862-06-0.

19. Yahia, E.M., Guevara-Arauza, J.C., L.M.M. Tijskens, and L. Cedeño. 2005. The effect of relative humidity on modified atmosphere packaging gas exchange. Acta Horticulturae 674: 97-104.

20. Yahia, E.M. 2006. Modified and controlled atmospheres. In: Recent Advances in Postharvest Technologies to Control Fungal Diseases in Fruits & Vegetables. Editors: R. Troncoso-Rojas and M. E. Tiznado-Hernández. Trivandrum-695 023, Kerala, India. In press.

21. Yahia, E.M. 2006. Need for “Intelligent” and “Active” Packaging in Developing Countries. In: Wilson, C. (Editor), Frontiers of “intelligent” and “active” packaging for fruits and vegetables. CRC. In press.

22. Fluck, H. 1955. The influence of climate on the active principles in medicinal plants. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 7:361-383.

23. Gershenzon, J. 1984. In: B.N. Timmerman, C. Steelnik, and F.A. Loewus (eds.). Phytochemical adaptations to stress. Recent advances in phytochemistry. vol. 18. Plenum Press, New York.

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3-The Debate on Genetically Engineered Products: International and National Considerations

Ossama M. El-Tayeb, Microbial Biotechnology Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University (National Focal Point for Bio-safety, Nature Conservation Sector, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency) Biotechnology and medicinal plants With a broad definition of biotechnology, it interacts with medicinal plants in the following areas:

• Collection from the wild, together with relevant traditional knowledge: herbal applications, phyto -chemical investigation, use as models for drug design.

• Cultivation: additional to the above agronomic practices to optimize clinical activity

• Tissue culture approaches to optimize cultivated production • Tissue culture approaches for direct industrial production of active ingredients

and their derivatives through: @ optimized production of active ingredient through industrial process development @ directed modified production through physiological modifications @ genetic engineering to produce a transgenic organism with novel characteristic

• Gene mining for cloning into other organisms to produce active ingredients (essentially in microorganisms)

• Pharma-cropping to produce active ingredients by growing plants and animals The debate on genetically engineered products (transgenic organisms) and implications on medicinal plant.

• Definitions : what is a transgenic organism? • Potential benefits of transgenic organisms and their products • Potential risks of transgenic organisms and their genomes and products • International regulation of genetically engineered organisms (GMOs): • Transboundary movement: the Cartagena Protocol on Bio-safety(CPB) • Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) under:

@ The Convention of Biological Diversity, CBD: Articles 15 and 8j and objectives @ World Trade Organization, WTO: TRIPs Agreement Article 27 @ World Intellectual Property Organization, WIPO: process vs. product, disclosure of origin, Traditional Knowledge @ UN International Regime on Access and Benefit Sharing, ABS . @ International Treaty for Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture @ plant species, no medicinal plants @ Gene mining: why? @ Bio-piracy: how?

98

• National considerations: • Safeguarding national genetic resources and traditional knowledge:

Law 82 of 2002

Legislation and implementation • Exploiting national genetic resources and traditional knowledge: • In situ/ex situ conservation and sustainable use of genetic resources (CBD objective) • ABS ( CBD objectives) • Organic farming: implications? • Bio-piracy: cases reported in Egypt • Interaction between international and national issues • Socio-economic implications • National sovereignty • Hegemony of the international pharmaceutical industry • Cost of health care

Food for Thought for Egyptian Scientists

� Is biodiversity an interesting scientific phenomena or a significant factor in the future of humanity?

� How can a financially poor country with a massive scientific community like Egypt use its medicinal plants diversity sustainably? What are our competitive advantages?

� How could we encourage research into native medicinal plants and at the same time protect it from bio-piracy during joint research?

� What is the real scope of organic farming for medicinal plants in Egypt and how could we reach it?

� How could we deal with bio-piracy and gene mining under prevailing facts of scientific research funding in Egypt?

� How much knowledge do our scientists need to know about national and international legislation governing IPR?

99

Recommendations

100

Closing Session Recommendations 1. Work towards establishing a Union for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants under the

umbrella of the General Union for Horticulture at the Ministry of Agriculture. 2. Create an instrument for the cooperation between non-governmental organizations

(NGO's) and local scientific institutions as universities, agricultural research centers, national research centers, the General Authority for Drugs Supervision, and the Desert Research Center as well as regional organizations (medicinal plant networks), and international organizations like the WHO. This instrument has the aim of organizing the utilization of the great effects of medicinal and aromatic plants, and the development of methods for the protection of their genetic origins.

3. Invite the agencies and organizations whose activities are connected with medicinal plants, to participate in the specified seminars and workshops that are being organized by ESMAP every six months.

4. Issue a regular newsletter that elucidates the advantages of the medicinal plants existing in Egypt and the Arab region, in addition to the conditions of their utilization and their production systems according to GAP (Good Agricultural Practices) and the systems of organic farming.

5. Recommend the official authorities to: Support activities of the Central Laboratory for Residue Analysis of Pesticides &

Heavy Metals in Food (Agric. Res. Center) in order to serve the needs of the producers and exporters of medicinal and aromatic plants.

Complete the procedures leading to the laws for organic farming. Stress the need for teaching medicinal and aromatic plants at the faculties of

medicine and at other faculties. 6. The Conference wishes to express its gratitude to the Organization for Industrial

Modernization for its support for local and external exhibitions. The Conference as well as ESMAP stresses the need for this organization to continue its support of the exporters in order to enhance the export of medicinal and aromatic plants which benefits the national economy of Egypt.

7. ESMAP is going to organize its 13th International Conference and Exhibition during October 2009 in cooperation with international organizations.

101

List of Participants

Contact Job Name

Kader Factory Mr.Abd El-Hadi Ali Abd El-Hadi 1

02- 3360846 02- 3462029 Fac. of Agric., Assuit Univ. Prof. Dr.Abd El-Monim

Maher 2

2711894-012 Tolba8@yahoo.com

Agriculture Research Center(ARC) Cairo

Prof. Dr. Abd El-Rahman Farahat Tolba 3

5381114-010 raoufbazan@yahoo.com Alwahaa Alkhadra Co. Eng. Abd El-Raof Abd El-

Wahab Bazan 4

nezha_ettabaa@yahoo.com Ministry of Agriculture – Morocco Dr. Abd El-Salam Borfoi 5 002-1264911164

a.elasri@gmail.com Coordinator MAP AP3 –USAID Dr. Abo Bakr El Asri 6

08 -2232376 010-5298135

zayede2003@yahoo.com ARC Prof. Dr. Adel Abd El-Aziz

Zayed 7

02 -3293747 012-6501865

adelgabr3@yahoo.com

National Research Center. (NRC) Cairo

Dr. Adel Gabr Abd El-Razek Sallam 8

Fac. of Agric., Cairo Univ.. Prof. Dr. Adel Zaki Mohamed 9

02- 5620864 010-1906072 Fac. of Pharm., Cairo Univ.. Dr. Ahmed Abo Elhagag

Ahmed 10

Exporters Union Mr. Ahmed Abo Khatwa 11

a.azoroual@yahoo.com Coordinator MAP AP3 –USAID Mr. Ahmed Azoroual 12 0101569029

ahmedmeged78@yahoo.com Animal Production Research

Center Prof. Dr.Ahmed Hussin Abd El-Megeed 13

012-2122394 agricom@link.net Agricom Company Eng. Ahmed Mohamed

Dakrori 14

(+202) 3497412 (+202) 0122191418 NRC Prof. Dr. Ahmed Shalaby 15

ARC Prof. Dr. Ahmed Atif 16 590260-00202 Ministry of Agriculture Dr.Ali El-Degwy 17

albindak@yahoo.com Best Project Mr. Amr Ahmed Abd El-Aal Mohamed 18

016-1825611 096-6746111

South Valley University-Projects Management

Mr.Asad Abo Elnaga Farag Alla 19

012-1300198 organic_gr@yahoo.com ARC Prof. Dr. Atef Abd El-Aziz

Hassan 20

02-3794236 010-5005640 Arab Dohaa Co. Mr. Atef Kamal Khalil 21

02 -2180718 010-6240591

a.tantawy43@yahoo.com Fac of Pharm., Mansoura Univ. Prof. Dr. Atif Tantawy 22

102

Conference Secretary Mrs. Awatef Mostafa Ahmed 23 02 -4833801

ARC Prof. Dr.Bahgat K Mahmoud 24

02 -4502915 010-5121615 ESMAP Member Mr. Basioni Mostafa 25

02-3202788 ESMAP Member Mr. Danial Hasab Allah 26 0021-237774103 0021-261972726

faizchouki@yahoo.com

Agriculture Research Center- Morocco Prof. Dr. El Faiz Chouki 27

010-2646880 NRC Prof. Dr. Elham Ahmed Samoor 28

02-5872537 02- 8345543 010-1668843

ARC. Dr. Elmowafy Abdo Elmowafy AlGhadban 29

012-2174675 02-3303966

Fac. of Agric., Cairo University Prof. Dr. Elsaady Mohamed

Badawy 30

010-5669939 ARC Prof. Dr Elsayed Elgamal. 31 012-2128643

s.sakr@tedata.net.eg sayedskr@yahoo.com

Egyptian Spices, Herbs Export Development Association

(ESHEDA) Mr. Elsayed Mohamed Sakr 32

3146423-02 010-1695292 ESMAP Member Mrs. Eslah M. Hieda 33

082-4450294 010-6460899

www.semedaeg.com export@semedaaeg.com

International Office for Trade and Exporting Eng. Faiz Mohamed Simida 34

Fac. of Agric. ,Mansoura University Dr. Fatma Rashad Ibrahim 35

02-3869898 Fax:02-3841120

012-3101839 drfarouk@elshobaki.com

Chairman of ESMAP

Dr. Farouk El-Shobaki 36

010-1344834 gamal_mousa@hotmail.com Fac. of Agric., Assiut University Prof. Dr. Gamal Taha Mousa 37

Exporters Union Mrs. Hadeer Mohamed Said 38

002-01237774489 Ap3-USAID-Morocco Dr. Hafez El Rashedy 39

02- 7944315 02- 7924173

esheda@link.net ESHEDA Mrs. Halaa Shawky Ahmed 40

03-5483021 Fax: 03-3590993

feelco@hotmail.com Feelco Co. Mr. Hassan Elfeel 41

103

02-5850005 02-3889068

012-2745834

The National Organization for Drug Control and Research

Prof. Dr. Hasnaa Abd El-Haseeb Goda

42

00201237774489 00201264166995

Agriculture Research Center - Morocco Dr. Hamida Hilali 43

Fac. of Agric., Mansoura Univ. Prof. Dr. Hekmat Yehia Mahmoud

44

02- 5905283 02- 7489224 Medical Doctor Dr.Henri Amin Awad 45

02 -7835528 012-7656934 Media programmer Mrs. Hoaida El-Gendy 46

084-6241254 Ministry of Agriculture - Fayoum Dr. Hosni Mohamed Ahmed Habeb

47

02 -3203776 010-1241915 0405771190 0405770486

kamidoexport@yahoo.com

Kamido Company Mr. Ibrahim Amin Khamees

48

002022181659 ARC Prof. Dr Ibrahim Hareedy49 02 -5250310

msasafwat@mailcity.com Minia University Mrs. Iris Safwat 50

012-3672579 ADWIC Dr. Isis Ramzy Rafla 51

007078246759 brink@sonic.net Sebastopol , California , USA Mr. Josef Brinkmann 52

010-5320220 Producer and Exporter Mr. Kamal Shambolia 53

karma@best-eg.org Best Project Mr. Karem Farouk 54

007078246753 Fax: 004078232408 Sebastopol , California , USA Mrs. Kati Huggins

55

0096313212231412 00963212273681

k.durah@cgiar.org

Regional Network Manager Information Specialist.

International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Central West

Asia And North Africa Region

Dr.Khedr El-Dora

56

010-5191590 masldky@hotmail.com ARC Prof. Dr. Mahasen Abd El-

Ghany Sidky 57

02-3377852 02-3385032

010-4495235 Work: 023371433

NRC Prof. Dr. Mahasen Amin Abd El-Aleem

58

02-7580591 Animal Production Research in Dokki- Giza

Prof. Dr. Mahmoud Abd El-Ghany Ahmed El-Henawy

59

104

02-5736503 010-298889

www.egyptianoils.com msalama@egyptianoils.com

Mr. Mahmoud Mohamed Salama

60

Work: 084-6313671 Fax: 084-6313672

012-4759873 manal@best-eg.org

Best Project Mrs. Manal Ibrahim El-Dosoky Khalaf

61

012-9392367 Hana-

mohanad123@hotmail.com Journalist Mrs. Marwa Yousif

Mohamed

62

0224078464 010-6060263

www.apmacegypt.com apmac@link.net

APMAC Mrs. Mervat Saleh

63

Agr. Eng. En. Mervat Mahmoud Hamza

64

02-2559345 010-1658989

Moatez52@yahoo.com Academy of Scientific Research Dr. Moatez Gameel

65

5716656 ARC Dr. Mohamed Arafa Ewis66 02-3881391

010-6123080 melkholy@mailer.eun.eg

Bio Aloe Vera & Organic Herbs Co.

Eng. Mohamed Abd El-Gelil El-Kholy

67

ARC Dr. Mohamed Abd-Elkawy68 Work: 084-6313671 Fax: 084-6313672 Best Project Mr. Mohamed Abd El-Aziz

Disoky 69

02-3370498 malwafa@yahoo.com GTZ Mr. Mohamed Abo El-Wafa 70

012 -7491222 ARC Prof. Dr. Mohamed El-Masry

71

010-7434985 Private Sector Mr. Mohamed EL-Sayed Goda

72

010-6639267 salemkairo@yahoo.com Fac. of Agric., Monofia University Dr. Mohamed Fathi Salem 73

03-4847709 Fax: 034865728 Egypttex Company Mr. Mohamed Ibrahim Omar 74

mohamed.eltamzini@fao.org Food and Agriculture OrganizationDr. Mohamed Ibrahim El Temzini

75

Work: 084-6313671 Fax: 084-6313672 Best Project Mr. Mohamed Khalaf El-

Saman 76

010-6060269 APMAC Mr. Mohamed Mohamed 77 02-2550310

Fax:025282208 012-3236751

msasafwat@hotmail.com

Fac. of Agric., Minia University Prof. Dr. Mohamed Said Ali Safwat

78

086-2362333 Fac. of Agric., Minia University Prof. Dr. Mohamed Samir Fouad

79

105

012-3535820

elbendary_perfumes@ hotmail.com

Owner of El Bendary Company Mr. Mohie Mohamed Mahmoud Bendary

80

Fac. of Agric., Cairo University Prof. Dr. Mona Mohamed Abd El-Hamid

81

012-7393236 ARC Prof. Dr .Mortada Khater 82 02-3659164 012-3462875

drgharabli@egyptianeoils.com

Fac. of Agric., Moshtuhur, Zagazig Univ.

Prof. Dr Dr.Mustafa El-Gharabli

83

Fac. of Agric., Cairo University Prof. Dr.Nadia Abd El-Rahman Salama

84

010-1434002 Shambolia Export Co. Mrs. Nadia Abd El-Tawab Shambolia

85

Conference Secretary Mrs. Nancy Fouad Abd El-Meseh

86

Conference Secretary Mrs. Nemaa Mahmoud Ibrahim

87

Ministry of Agriculture Mrs. Nemaa Mahmoud88 086-2332275 086-2332278

buityhomey@yahoo.com Best Project Mrs. Neven Baheeg Shaker

89

nezha_ettabaa@yahoo.com AP3-USAID-Morocco Mrs. Nezha Ettabaa 90 Conference Secretary Mrs. Noha Yehia Mohamed 91

010-1416396 02-3020749 Producer & Exporter Mr. Omar EL-degwy92

omtayeb@link.net omtayeb@egbch.com

Faculty of Pharmacy,Cairo University Prof. Dr.Osama El- Tayeb 93

02-2753700 02-2753500

Fax:02-2752900 012-2133027

Chairman of the Board of the General Federation of Producers and Exporters of Horticultural

Products

Prof. Dr.Osama Khair El-Dien

94

010-6551955 Arabian Consultant Co. Prof. Dr.Osama Abu-Ellail 95 www.aed.org

ppapania@aed.org Academy for Educational

Development , Washington , USA Mr. Patric Papania 96

010 -1838378 Organic_agr@yahoo.com ARC Prof.Dr. Emad Abd El-Kader

Hassan 97

02-6444430 El-Nasr Drugs Co. Dr. Raifa Fathi Abd El-Aziz 98 02-8731873

010-4022020 ramadan-

elshafay@hotmail.com

ARC Dr.Ramadan Mohie El-Dien Mohamed Ismaiel

99

010-0221945 rasha_art14@hotmail.com

Journalist Mrs. Rasha Hassan Attya 100

AP3 Mr. Rashidi Alawy 10102-2593854

Fax:02-5782510 010-7728238

Journalist Mrs. Rawya Abd Elbary 102

055-3768838 012-2323325 Post Graduate Studies Mr. Reda Mohamed El-Sisi 103

010-8749438 Fac. of Agric., Cairo University Prof. Dr.Saad Milad Nekola 104

106

tower61080@yahoo.com Conference Secretary Mrs. Safaa M. El Kholy 105

Arab Agriculture Development Organization

Prof. Dr. Salah Hossein Abo Raya

106

050-2243100 010-6109495

Fac. of Pharm., Mansoura Univ. Prof. Dr. Saleh El-Sharkawy 107

012-4242822 Fax: 02-3828902

The National Organization for Drug Control and Research Prof. Dr.Salwa Al-Kashlan 108

012-2155201 Consultant ,Central Lab for

Analyses of Pesticides Residues , Cairo

Prof. Dr. Salwa Dogheem 109

010-0283605 ARC Prof. Dr. Sameh Hassan Sayed

110

02-7496187 018-2800815 Agricultural Eng. Eng. Sayed Ibrahim Nada 111

shaimaaelkhouly_84@yahoo.com Conference Secretary Mrs. Shaimaa M. El-Kholy 112

086-2333969 010-1074072

shaker7112001@yahoo.com Fac. of Agric., Minia Univ. Prof. Dr. Shaker Abd El-

Tawab Abd El-Latif

113

086-2332275 086-2332276 Best Project Mrs.Sozit Samir 114

drteg_areres@yahoo.com ARC Prof. Dr.Tag El Deen Shehab El Deen

115

02-5825366 Animal Products Research Inst. Prof. Dr. Tarek Abd El-

Ghafar 116

010-3649688 South Valley University - Kena , Mr. Wael Farghaly Said 11702-5627556

010-1099445 wafaa_amer@hotmail.com

Fac. of Science , Cairo University Prof. Dr. Wafaa Amer

118

012-2175094 wgmaaahdy55@hotmail.com

Egyptian- Holland for Industries Pharmaceuticals

Mr. Wageh Mohamed Khalil Mahdi

119

Exporters Union Mr. Yasser Abd El-Megeed 120010-12663500

Yasser123ok@yahoo.com

Desert Research Center – Cairo (DRC)

Dr.Yasser Adel Hanafi Osman

121

02-3353173 02-3365261

info@ecoa.com.eg ARC Prof. Dr. Yosef Ali Hamdi

122

Fax: 02-3370931 012-3793044 www.zakaria-

fouad.elard.com zakaria6eg@yahoo.co.uk

NRC Dr.Zakaria Fouad Fawzi

123

02-3208276 z-h-m@yahoo.com Control Tech. for Automation Mr. Zakaria Hassan

Mahmoud 124

0021265435624 fouadzahiri@gmail.com AP3-USAID-Morocco Mr.Zehiri Fouad 125

107

EXHIBITORS

Phone/Fax Director Company N0.

Tel: 02 -7746816 Fax: 02- 7746924 Prof. Dr. Bahgat EL-Sayed Ali

Central Lab. Of Organic Agriculture (Agricultural

Research Centre) 1

Tel/Fax:02- 3353173 02 -3365261 Prof. Dr. Yousef Ali Hamdi Egyptian Center of Organic

Agriculture (ECOA) 2

Tel: 02- 3441700 Fax: 02 -3049312 Eng. Mustafa M. Alaa Hashem Hashem Brothers for

Essential Oils 3

Tel: 02 -6335519 Fax: 02 -6357858

Prof. Dr. Ismail Abd El Gelil

Desert Research Center Cairo (DRC) 4

Tel:02-5118096 Fax:02-5129080 Mr.Abo Zeed Sadad Abo Zeed

EL Captain Co. ( Cap Pharm )

5

Fax: 02-6357815 Mob: 010-9352767

Mr.Mohamed Moheb EL Hoda for Composting 6

Tel: 02-5688429 Fax: 02-5689716

Mr.Hatem Zaki Best Project 7

Tel: 02-3811171 02-3810335 Fax: 02-3810568

Mr.Ahmed Khalil

ROYAL 8

Tel: 02- 336139 Mob: 012- 2169263 Eng.Alam Seyam Manahel Seyam 9

Mob: 010- 1021751 Mob: 012- 3821734

Mr.Monir Mahmoud Soliman Mrs.Doaa Mahmoud Ali

AL Maleka Olive & Food Industry 10

Tel: 03 -4364888 03-4350487 Mr.Khaled Abd El-Maksoud Alteb Alnabawy 11

Tel: 03-7608249 Fax: 03-33604030

Mr.Mohamed Abd Rab El- Naby Ebel ELkheir 12

Tel:03-4024423 Fax02-2608718 Eng.Mohamed Abd El-Baky Kader Factory For

Developed Industries 13

Tel: 02 -5733324 Mob: 010 -1592817 Mr. Mohamed Korish Al-Andalosia 14

Exhibition Organizer: Organizer Co. Ramssioun Advertising – Exhibitions Organization General Manager: Miss Manal Nabil Abd EL-Lattef Tele & fax: (02) 3824506 Mobile : ++2 (010) 5443096 ++2 (010) 5764495 Email: ramssion@hotmail.com

108

Dr. Farouk El Shobaki ESMAP Chairman Tel: + 202-3869898 Fax: + 202-3814120 Mobile: 012/3101839 E-mail: drfarouk@elshobaki.com

Prof. Dr. M. Said Ali Safwat

Head of the Organizing Committee Tel: + 202-5250310 Fax: + 202-5282208 Mobile: 012/3236751 E-mail: msasafwat@hotmail.com Said.safwat@gmail.com

Conference Secretaries:

Miss Safaa M. El Kholy Miss Shaimaa M. El Kholy E-mail: esmapcon@yahoo.com

shaimaaelkhouly_84@yahoo.com

Egyptian Society for the Producers, Manufacturers and Exporters of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ESMAP)

Website:

www.esmap.org.eg

E- mail :

esmapcon@yahoo.com

Contact Address : 1, El-Hefnawy St., Fatma Roshdi , El-Haram, Giza, Egypt

109

ESMAP Board of Directors: 1 Dr. Farouk El-Shobaki Chairman

2 Mr Atif Kamal Khalil Secretary

3 Dr. Motaz A. Gameel Treasurer

4 Prof. Dr. Abdel Moneim Maher Member

5 Prof. Dr. Mahasen Amin Abd Aleem Member

6 Prof. Dr. Mohamed Said Ali Safwat Member

7 Prof. Dr. Mortda Khater Ali Member

8 Mrs. Islah Mohamed Heda Member

9 Mr. Hassan Mohamed El Fiel Member

10 Mr. Abdel Moneim Saleh El Said Member

11 Mr. Daniel Abdel Malak Member

Conference Organizing Committee:

1 Dr. Farouk El Shobaki ESMAP Chairman

2 Prof. Dr. Abdel Moneim Maher ESMAP Secretary General

3 Prof. Dr. M.S.A.Safwat Head of the Organizing Committee

4 Mr. Atif Khalil ESMAP Secretary

5 Dr. Moataz A. Gameel ESMAP Treasurer

6 Mrs. Islah Hedah ESMAP Member

7 Dr. Samah Said Mahmoud Allam Food Tech. Res. Inst., ARC

8 Prof. Dr. Atif Tantawy Fac. of Pharmacy, Mansoura Univ.

9 Eng. Mohmed Abdel-Galil El Kholy Egy. Bio Aloe Vera & Organic Herbs Co.

10 Prof. Dr .Mustafa El-Gharabli Fac. of Agric., Moshtohor Zagazig Univ.

11 Mr. Basiony Mostafa ESMAP Member

12 Eng. Ahmad Ghareeb Fac. of Agric., Azhar Univ.