thesis book

D E L T A D E V E L O P M E N T :architecture as the economic and cultural link between communities and their waterfronts on the mississippi river

base image from university of washington, special collections

jordan leigh matthews

cordula roser-gray, advisor

tulane university, ahst 6110

greenville, missippi, author’s collage

3

c o n t e n t s

thesis question + abstract 4

research paper 5

bibliography 14

cubic armature 16

research + analysis, precedent as inspiration + research 18

research + analysis, precedent as research 24

case studies 44

site selection + analysis 46

programming 70

appendix 80

4

t h e s i s q u e s t i o n

Can architectural design successfully reformulate the symbiotic relationships between

economy, community and ecology that are currently missing from post-industrialized

Mississippi River cities? What are the spatial opportunities offered from current disconnect

between the river and the citizens?

Currently, many cities are struggling with inner-urban blight and disjointed, divided

communities due to high unemployment and lack of economic opportunity. Towns

along the Mississippi River are prime examples of such distressed urban spaces, due

to a combination of declining industry, lateral physical expansion away from the center

and into suburbs, shifts in American revenue generators and today’s generally poor

economic climate. The banks of the river are vacant with many Main Street storefronts

unoccupied. Cities offer little to no waterfront commerce, entertainment or gathering –

for locals and tourists alike – besides steamboat casinos. In addition, treatment of the

Mississippi River is especially conservative, cautious and careful due to its strategic

international importance and flood plain sensitivity; leading to the acceptance of early

20th century river control methods, with little room to engage or experience the waters.

Visual and physical access to the river is denied due to levees and flood walls. However,

the river embodies great potential for revitalization due to its quality resources; various

fishery groups have stressed the value of aquaculture, especially for catfish cultivation,

as a strong source of employment and revenue across the state of Mississippi. This

thesis project seeks to investigate a sustainable model for large-scale redevelopment

of decaying downtown spaces that respectfully links landscape and design while

addressing problems tied to the current decline of American cities and towns. Mississippi

River communities, especially in the state of Mississippi, require redevelopment with

the three-fold intent of highlighting regional history, establishing an economy and

providing space for the community to gather. The proposed means of re-urbanization

– an urban catfish aquaculture and fishery center – prescribes an ecological, economic

and productive cultural infrastructure that highlights the river and layers historical and

social spaces to reinvigorate the relationship between city and its place on the water.

a b s t r a c t

thesis question + abstract

5

r e s e a r c h p a p e r

research paper

[ c o n t e m p o r a r y d e c l i n i n g c o m m u n i t i e s ]

figure 1: mississippi riverauthor’s diagram

Without a doubt the Delta is economically one of the poorest spots in America. The tough life of the majority clashes with the apparent richness of soil and the great amounts of capital that are invested in farming it. - traveler’s Report to Mississippi1

Currently, contemporary American cities struggle with depopulated neighborhoods

and disjointed, divided communities as a result of mechanization, high unemployment,

de-industrialization and lack of economic opportunity. Local businesses succumb to

commercial strip malls with nationally recognized chain stores. High inventory surpluses

and manufacturers overseas outsourcing led to employee downsizing. Between 2010

and 2012, national unemployment rates fluctuated between eight and ten percent.2 Small

cities along the Mississippi River are prime examples of communities in distress as a

result of declining industry in the region, urban exodus into the suburbs, and today’s poor

international economic climate.

With a 1,245,000 square mile flood plain that drains 41% of the continental United

States, the Mississippi River is an integral part of the nation’s landscape; the river’s cities

embody the independence and community of the American spirit each with it’s own Main

Street, regional specialities and civic pride. Local businesses and industries are out of

business due to the economic climate, which now promotes the prevalence of suburban

big-box stores and leaves behind abandoned storefronts in historic districts. The state

of Mississippi has had a steady ten-percent unemployment rate over the past decade,

the sixth-highest unemployment in the country.3 However, there are still three regional

industries that tend to dominate the Mississippi job market due to their place-specificity.

Manufacturing, tourism and agriculture combined provide more than 660,00 jobs for the

Lower Mississippi region4 (the river’s communities south of Cairo, Illinois, figure 1) and

all three markets rely heavily on their relationships to the waterfront to execute shipping,

sightseeing and irrigation. In addition to the fiscal issues for these communities areas

in the Lower Mississippi River are bound by a complex levee system, which limits the

waterfront access to which it is so intimately and economically linked. Taking into account 1 Anurdha Mathur and Dilip da Cunha, Mississippi Floods: Designing a Shifting Landscape. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), 53.2 United States Department of Labor, “Databases, Tables and Calculators by Subject,” Bureau of Labor Statis-tics, http://data.bls.gov/timeseries/LASST28000003 (accessed November 17, 2012).3 Ibid.4 Robert Black, Stephanie Hutchinson and Chris Warshaw, Economic Profile of the Lower Mississippi River Region (Cambridge: Industrial Economics Inc, 2004) ES-5

6

[ r e m e d i e sfor urban blight]

figure 2: greenville casinosphotos by the author

the Mississippi River’s dichotomous land value and agricultural wealth with extreme

unemployment and poverty serves as a call to action for mediation via architectural

design. Considering the financial systems of the river communities without equal or

greater consideration of the Mississippi River’s own complexities creates a fundamental,

spatial disconnect, thus denying a true understanding of the region’s economic issues

and potential solutions.

International urban development strategies attempt to combat inner-urban blight

with the introduction of downtown malls, sports stadia, casinos and cultural production

spaces (museums, galleries, etc.)5, however the sustainable longevity of these proposals

do not consider the intricacies of each individual community. Such attempts neglect

to respond to the site-specific character of such small metropolises, like Mississippi

River communities. Jack Nasar and David Julian report on the sociological issues of a

dissolving community in “The Psychological Sense of Community in the Neighborhood”,

noting Americans’ “nostalgia for interdependence of small town life” in an age of high

automobile-dependence, technology and commercialization.6 The authors suggest the

importance and significance of establishing communal relationships as a means of

resolving urban issues; either through a “community of place”, a group sharing a similar

defined environment, or a “community of interest”, a group sharing similar interests.7

Many efforts of the past twenty years focused on construction of projects that might spur

a “community of place” where citizens would both work and spend their money, however

these efforts encountered few successes. For example, the trend of downtown mall

developments in the late twentieth century are now predominantly in decline; as urban

planner Pierre Filion reports, downtown malls “could not sustain suburban competition”

and have “regressed to...much devalued structures, afflicted by high vacancy rates

and hosting mainly low-order activities such as bargain stores.”8 Filion’s study confirms

that the convenience of suburban shopping centers in an automobile-centric society is

problematic for downtown malls as a means of re-stimulating production and consumption. 5 Sharon Zukin, “Urban Lifestyles: Diversity and Standardization in Spaces of Consumption,” Urban Studies 35:6 (1998): 825.6 Jack L. Nasar and David A. Julian, “The Psychological Sense of Community in the Neighborhood,” Journal of the American Planning Association 61:2 (1995): 178.7 Ibid., 179.8 Pierre Filion and Karen Hammond. “When Planning Fails: Downtown Malls in Mid-Size Cities,” Canadian Jour-nal of Urban Research 17:2 (2008): 2.

7

Casinos currently dominate the landscape of the Mississippi River, and have proven

highly profitable for their adjacent communities. In the case of Greenville, Mississippi - a

small city of 34,000 people – two casinos are tucked behind the levee and hidden from

the historic downtown (figure 2); in 2005 these gambling centers contributed $2 million

to the city and county in taxes to augment the annual budget and school districts.9 In

considering adding more casinos to Greenville’s waterfront, City Clerk Tommie Jefcoat

argued: “What it means is more tax dollars for the city and county and employing 300 to

400 people who will probably spend their paychecks in the area.”10 Jefcoat’s hypothesis

never reached fruition as the casino project ended before design development, and

one of the existing casinos recently closed with the economic recession. This example

underlines the fragile nature of the gambling industry’s ‘winning streaks’ and subsequent

‘downswings’.

Conversely, urban theorist Sharon Zukin defines a “symbolic economy” as the

contemporary method for redevelopment: re-appropriating the city for creation of “...

such abstract products as financial instruments, information and ‘culture’ – ie. art, food,

fashion, music and tourism.”11 These techniques simply serve as vessels to spend

money, with emphasis on transmission of culture rather than product. However, Zukin

notes that ideas that promote this ‘culture’ “reflect an absence of traditional resources for

competing for capital investment and jobs.”12 Ultimately, cities in contemporary economic

turmoil require jobs – the aforementioned ‘traditional resource’ that allows a community

to prosper, thrive and grow into a strong and unique entity. Considering the psychological

desires of a community of place and/or interest, neither the downtown mall nor casino

is appropriate for Lower Mississippi River cities; in conjunction with a long term and

sustainable industry, the symbolic economy may serve as an initial format for reviving

small urban centers in the state of Mississippi.

Riverside cities in Mississippi are relatively small centers where history and

industry meet at the water’s edge. Explored by Hernando de Soto’s team in the 16th 9 David Lush, “New Casinos Add to Greenville’s Economy,” Mississippi Business Journal (June 2006), http://msbusiness.com/2006/06/new-casinos-add-to-greenville8217s-economy/ (accessed September 24, 2012).10 Ibid.11 Zukin, “Urban Lifestyles,” 826.12 Ibid., 826.

[ what is a symbolic e c o n o m y ? ]

[welcome to m i s s i s s i p p i ]

8

century, Mississippi was a muddy aggregation of glacial silt and clay sediments, rich with

natural resources.13 The Native American Mississippian tribe developed and cultivated

corn farming, as well as squashes and grains; the area has a millennia of agricultural

experimentation.14 In addition, Mississippian peoples constructed tall ceremonial mounds

to celebrate the land and observe the adjacent Mississippi River; these sites exist today

and stand out from the extremely flat alluvial expanse. With the arrival of the French in the

late 17th century, the Mississippi River Valley underwent a series of transformations: the

French both adapted to the land and adapted the land to meet their needs.15 Parcelling

acres and developing boundaries became a sign of wealth in the United States, and the

landscape of Mississippi still bears the scars of cleared forests, drainage ditches, fences

and levees to denote property lines.16 Currently, this area is known as “The Delta”, the

flat territory between the Mississippi and Yazoo Rivers (figure 3). Self proclaimed as “the

most southern place on earth,”17 the Delta is an agrarian community, where the cotton

farming and plantation lifestyles led to the melancholy twang of Blues music. Tourism in

the Delta revolves around marketing this southern charm and distinctly American music,

encouraging visitors to explore the region’s small towns and cities via blues museums and

performing venues as well as southern cooking establishments and idyllic historic homes

and downtowns.18 Greenville, advertised as “The Heart and Soul of the Delta”19 is the

largest metropolis in the region, seeking to preserve its small town charm with an influx of

marine-oriented industry. Moving in from Greenville’s periphery, cotton fields bind the city

limits until the pavement expands to a series of suburban shopping malls and eventually

into the shaded live oak lined streets of the historic and residential downtown. Due to

a number of forces - including factory closings, poor school systems and a tumultuous

economy - current unemployment in Greenville rates are between fourteen and eighteen

percent, with a median household income of $27,717.20

13 Christopher Morris, The Big Muddy: An Environmental History of the Mississippi and Its Peoples, from Hernando de Soto to Hurricane Katrina, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012) 9.14 Ibid., 16.15 Ibid., 50.16 Ibid., 21, 59.17 John M. Barry, Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How it Changed America, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), 95.18 Greenville and Washington County Convention and Visitors Bureau, “Greenville and Washington County Tour-ism,” Greenville and Washington County, http://www.visitgreenville.org (accessed November 1, 2012).19 Ibid.20 US Census Bureau, “American FactFinder: Selected Economic Characteristics, 2006-2010,” http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/searchresults.xhtml?refresh=t (accessed November 17, 2012).

figure 3: the deltaphotos by the author

9

Mississippi is, as evidenced by its name, deeply linked to and influenced by the

Mississippi River. Over thousands of years, the river and its alluvial plains have naturally

shifted, meandered and swerved through middle America. In changing courses and

routes, the Mississippi River deposited hundreds of nutrient-rich soil layers, making prime

farmland for cotton, rice and soybeans. With each flood, the river widened and expanded

out over the farmlands, wiping out harvests yet leaving a new layer of fertile sediment

behind and a natural sediment levee of three to four feet.21 Frequently, the Mississippi River

would cut off a ribbon of its sinuous path, leaving an oxbow lake: a slack water (non-tidal)

lake, a reminder of the river’s former path.22 Harold Fisk, a member of the US Army Corps

of Engineers documented the various changes in course in 1944 which demonstrates

the wide swings from the river’s high-paced flow (figure 4); Greenville, Mississippi is one

such oxbow still connected at the base to the Mississippi River and thus still vulnerable to

rising flood waters.23 Greenville author William Alexander Percy described his city’s early

levee system and its influence on the landscape: “The low levees of 1893...[had] certain

real advantages. When they broke, the water trickled in gradually, stood quietly over the

land two or three weeks, deposited a fine nutritious layer of sediment, and withdrew

without having drowned anybody or wrecked any buildings or prevented a late planting

of the crop.”24 However this constant and unpredictable flux was not desirable for settled

farmers with investments and livelihoods at stake – thus, towns from Louisiana to Illinois

augmented the height, width and strength of the natural levees originally formed by the

river’s erosion pattern. Buffering the levee with concrete, berms, drainage methods,

vertical walls and occasionally sandbags, levees became fortifications against the fast-

paced Mississippi.25 The devastating and deadly Flood of 1927 involved eighteen months

of high rains, flooding and increased river speed; when the levee broke twelve miles

north of Greenville, a crevasse inundated hundreds of acres of the plains (figure 5). The

need for regulation and protection of the levee system was resolved via the Flood Control

Act of 1928, holding the federal government responsible for engineering, construction 21 Barry, Rising Tide, 40, 97.22 US Army Corps of Engineers, Ports of Natchez, Vicksburg, and Greenville, MS, and Ports on the Lower Mississippi River, Miles 255 to 620 AHP, (US Army Corps of Engineers. Port Series no. 72. 1991), 3.23 Harold Fisk, “The Alluvial valley of the Lower Mississippi River,” Radical Cartography, http://www.radicalcar-tography.net/?fisk (accessed September 24, 2012).24 William Alexander Percy, Lanterns on the Levee: Reflections of a Planter’s Son, (New York: Alfred A. Knoff, 1966), 243.25 Mississippi River Commission. “The Mississippi River and Tributaries Project: Controlling the Project Flood,” Louisiana State University Law, Science and Public Health Program, (2007), biotech.law.lsu.edu/climate/docs/MR-T-info.pdf (accessed October 9, 2012).

[mississippi + the mississippi river]

figure 4: Fisk Alluvial Maps, GreenvilleHarold Fisk, 1944.

10

and maintenance of the levees; the act initiated an infrastructure of tall levees and flood

protections 2,203 miles long.26

Levees, while immensely protective for both people and property, are equally

challenging for spatial connections and continuity. Development of the levee system was

huge in scale, financial investment and ecological alteration. President Calvin Coolidge’s

Flood Control Act of 1928 reportedly cost between $300 million to $1 billion to implement.27

The construction of the new flood protection system was extreme, increasing the human

manipulation over the land with heavy machinery, engineering and visual boundaries.

Percy compared this severity of the new levees in his book Lanterns on the Levee: “[the

four-foot tall levee] had been built by Irishmen with wheelbarrows and paid for by local

taxation; it always broke. The levee of today is forty feet high, has been built by caterpillars

and drag lines and paid for by the United States government; it sometimes breaks.”28 While

the Mississippi River Commission touts that “no project levee built to Mississippi River

Commission standards has ever failed”29, the spatial disconnect between people and the

river is highly problematic and requires consideration. Environmental historian Christopher

Morris explains: “Levees reconfigured the human relationship with the environment, by

separating land and water so as to enhance human control over both. Water touched

land when people permitted it to do so.”30 For example, early American farmers placed

their homes and barns on the highest ground near the rivers, primarily allowing for flood

protection along with views and association with the water; when constructing the new

levees, these homes were forced to relocate in lower areas more prone to flooding and

less in tune with the natural processes of the Mississippi.31 However, for engineers,

lawmakers, and victims of the flood, levees allowed for control and containment of the

river. “Levees protected land from the river. More than that, they transformed the river

from a ‘destructive’ power into a force for ‘improving’ the land. At least, that is what

landowners saw when they looked at a levee: human power triumphing over nature’s

26 US Army Corps of Engineers New Orleans District, “The Mississippi River,” US Army Corps of Engineers (May 19, 2004) http://www.mvn.usace.army.mil/pao/bro/misstrib.htm (accessed October 9, 2012).27 Barry, Rising Tide, 406.28 Percy, Lanterns on the Levee, 242.29 Mississippi River Commission. “The Mississippi River and Tributaries Project: Controlling the Project Flood,” Louisiana State University Law, Science and Public Health Program, (2007), biotech.law.lsu.edu/climate/docs/MR-T-info.pdf (accessed October 9, 2012).30 Morris. The Big Muddy, 95.31 Morris. The Big Muddy, 59.

[flood protection s y s t e m s ]

figure 5: Flood of 1927, crevasse breakingMathur, Mississippi Floods, 2+55.

11

power.”32 However, by continuing the same flood protection systems of the early 20th

century in the present day 21st century, citizens in urban centers are not able to engage

with the river (figure 6). To understand and develop a relationship between the city and

its natural environs does not require triumph or control but rather comprehension and

respect, then mitigation. The two-fold challenge of protecting valuable civic assets from

the Mississippi River and maintaining a symbiotic relationship between the people and

the river is an urban issue for river communities, that can also be resolved with economic

generators.

Considering the challenges of downtown malls, casinos and symbolic economies

as presented by contemporary scholars in conjunction with the intricacies of the Delta

in Mississippi and its engineered context, finding a strategy for economic development

involves careful and conscious planning. For architects Sarah Whiting and Charles

Waldheim, the answer is context-specific, landscape-linked infrastructure. Whiting

explains:

In the contemporary debate, you could possibly say there are cultural infrastructures and institutional infrastructures, and they might be ways that cities can offer an identity to other structures in the city. If the larger- scale cultural and institutional amenities are linked in some way, whether it is formal, economic, or through the politics of city boards, it could almost be even more powerful than a network of freeways. The current- day cultural city has not capitalized on cultural infrastructure as a new model of productive urbanism.33

This cultural infrastructure involves fiscal, contextual institutions with design as problem

solving at an urban scale.34 Whiting’s proposal of combined and juxtaposed infrastructures

initiates a dialogue for Mississippi communities to both develop the culture that makes

it a unique American area, in addition to nurturing and fostering a “productive urbanism”

as a long term, sustainable economic source. Waldheim offers landscape as a method

for such urban repair, noting that “...all of a sudden landscape emerged as a medium...

because it was flexible, it wasn’t terribly expensive, it could have these environmental

claims, and it could do something similar to planning.”35 In Mississippi, a state founded

solely on the quality and expanse of its landscape, urban landscape design has strong 32 Morris. The Big Muddy, 95.33 Michael Maltzan, No More Play: Conversations on Urban Speculation in Los Angeles and Beyond ( Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz Verlag, 2011), 63.34 Ibid., 63.35 Ibid., 87.

figure 6: Greenville leveephoto by the author

[ s y n t h e s i s :e c o n o m y +r i v e r +c o m m u n i t y ]

12

potential and historic significance. James Corner, landscape theorist, goes beyond

landscape as urban planning in his book Recovering Landscapes and proposes a “shift

from landscape as a product of culture to landscape as an agent and producing and

enriching culture.”36 Therefore, Corner advocates for landscape infrastructure as a means

for productive urbanism when he states: “Thus, recovering landscape is less a matter

of appearances and aesthetic categories than an issue of strategic instrumentality.”37

In many ways, mending the divide between people and environment serves as the

foundation for an ideal economic generator.

In conclusion, architectural design is charged with the integration of

Delta cities to historic land with a creative and generative urban infrastructure in an area

of unemployment, poverty and general urban disconnect and decline. Mississippi’s

relationship to the river is prevented by levees of engineered protection; their opaque

facades towards the city deny a cultural connection between urban center and wild river.

Despite their symbiotic interdependence, the city’s economy and the river’s ecology

are visually abstracted, disjointed and neglected. In order to acknowledge and remedy

the area’s historical significance, establish a long term and sustainable economy and

provide a center for the re-urbanization of the community, architecture must respond

in a sensitive and place-specific manner. Considering the balance between people

and place, ecological considerations are high priority, maintaining the flood protection

standards while breaking down their visual barriers. To initiate such re-urbanization, a

catfish aquaculture and fishery center is proposed to bridge historic Downtown Greenville

and the forty-foot tall levee to reconnect citizens to the waterfront (figure 7). A dynamic

facility, the metropolitan fishery offers state of the art fish production and hatching, in

addition to a fish market/co-op and restaurant. Hundreds of local employees will work

together throughout the processes of fish production, reestablishing a communal spirit

and reactivating the work force. Spaces for educational programs, community gathering

and Mississippi River observation serve as the connective tissue for Greenville’s citizens,

providing an arena for celebrating the resilience of their town and creating a community

of both place and interest. The lateral nature of the facility spans over the levee, allowing 36 James Corner, ed, Recovering the Landscape: Essays in Contemporary Landscape Architecture (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999), 4.37 Corner, ed, Recovering the Landscape, 4.

[solutions in a q u a c u l t u r e ]

figure 7: catfish farminghttp://mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us/articles/217/catfish-farming-in-mississippi

13

for comprehension of the river’s powerful nature and reconnecting Mississippians to their

place. Situational and considerate productive infrastructure in an urban environment

strengthens the community’s sense of place, fiscal health and communal vitality.

14

b i b l i o g r a p h y

bibliography

Barry, John M. Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How it Changed America. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997.Black, Robert, Stephanie Hutchinson and Chris Warshaw. Economic Profile of the Lower Mississippi River Region. Cambridge: Industrial Economics, Inc, 2004.Corner, James ed. Recovering the Landscape: Essays in Contemporary Landscape Architecture. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999.Filion, Pierre and Karen Hammond. “When Planning Fails: Downtown Malls in Mid-Size Cities.” Canadian Journal of Urban Research 17:2 (2008): 1-27.Fisk, Harold. “The Alluvial valley of the Lower Mississippi River.” Radical Cartography. http://www.radicalcartography.net/?fisk (accessed September 24, 2012).Greenville and Washington County Convention and Visitors Bureau. “Greenville and Washington County Tourism.” Greenville and Washington County. http://www.visitgreenville.org (accessed November 1, 2012).Lush, David. “New Casinos Add to Greenville’s Economy.” Mississippi Business Journal (June 2006), http://msbusiness.com/2006/06/new-casinos-add-to-greenville8217s-economy/ (accessed September 24, 2012). Mathur, Anurdha and Dilip da Cunha. Mississippi Floods: Designing a Shifting Landscape. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.Maltzan, Michael. No More Play: Conversations on Urban Speculation in Los Angeles and Beyond. Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz Verlag, 2011.Mississippi River Commission. “The Mississippi River and Tributaries Project: Controlling the Project Flood.” Louisiana State University Law, Science and Public Health Program. (2007) biotech.law.lsu.edu/climate/docs/MR-T-info.pdf (accessed October 9, 2012).Morris, Christopher. The Big Muddy: An Environmental History of the Mississippi and Its Peoples, from Hernando de Soto to Hurricane Katrina. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Nasar, Jack L. and David A. Julian. “The Psychological Sense of Community in the Neighborhood.” Journal of the American Planning Association 61:2 (1995): 178-184.Percy, William Alexander. Lanterns on the Levee: Reflections of a Planter’s Son. New York: Alfred A. Knoff, 1966.United States Department of Labor. “Databases, Tables and Calculators by Subject.” Bureau of Labor Statistics. http://data.bls.gov/timeseries/LASST28000003 (accessed November 17, 2012).US Army Corps of Engineers. Ports of Natchez, Vicksburg, and Greenville, MS, and Ports on the Lower Mississippi River, Miles 255 to 620 AHP. US Army Corps of Engineers. Port Series no. 72. 1991.US Army Corps of Engineers New Orleans District. “The Mississippi River.” US Army Corps of Engineers (May 19, 2004) http://www.mvn.usace.army.mil/pao/bro/misstrib.htm (accessed October 9, 2012). US Census Bureau. “American FactFinder: Selected Economic Characteristics, 2006-2010.” http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/searchresults.xhtml?refresh=t (accessed November 17, 2012).Zukin, Sharon. “Urban Lifestyles: Diversity and Standardization in Spaces of Consumption.” Urban Studies 35:6 (1998): 825-839.

15bibliography

Filion's article demonstrates the issues of planning in mid-size cities in the 20th century. While planners hypothesized that redevelopment and reprogramming the city's core would lead to sustained economic success, Filion describes the key factors (ie. transportation) resulting in the decline of such downtown malls.

Maltzan compiled interviews on reflections of Los Angeles, with principles relevant to most American cities. Whiting’s interview expands upon urban theories on cultural infrastructures posing: “What role do architects have in public exchange…how do we get the people to interact and have a collective experience again?”

This article addresses disparate American communities and the impacts of physical space on social behavior without solving the design issues of non-social communities. The authors identify urban planning as defined by its contexts: of place or interest. Mixed-use neighborhoods were the most social with smaller neighborhood blocks, paths, shared parking lots and yard spaces.

Barry is the foremost authority on the Flood of 1927 and his extensive, comprehensive research on the Flood in American history is vital, especially because so much of the book is set in Greenville. The book is focused on engineering principles as well as the political ramifications of the flood.

This article, written for the business community, illustrates the planning efforts and economic stimuli for casinos along the waterfront. With its focus on Greenville, the article describes the conditions of the region before the economic recession, providing insights into the recent planning initiatives of Washington County.

Zukin’s article describes the various methods of urban development and the trends towards “cultural production” and a “symbolic economy”. Her theories illustrate the need for artistic-related businesses as economic revenue sources. Zukin is an authority on urban studies and her opinions are high regarded in the field.

Understanding the ecological and environmental history of the River is essential for a comprehensive design project. Morris’ recent publication is an ambitious account of the Mississippi’s history, but there are key sections that demonstrate the effect of human settlement on the land, especially with regards to flood control.

James Corner’s compilation of landscape architecture essays is an updated synthesis of the contemporary theories and methodologies in design. Because the project is so heavily linked to the land, Corner’s essay is important to revisit often as it breaks down means of fostering culture in landscape architecture.

Mississippi Floods is a mapping and visual exploration to uncover both the history and current conditions of the river. This spatial exploration is provide landscape and geographical information on the river, and the body of research behind their travels is insightful yet concise.

The Army Corps of Engineers researched and published various information on the Mississippi River, ranging from the size of the floodplain to the speed of the water flow and to the cargo capacities of various barges. The information is helpful in understanding the river as a functioning, productive system of both land and water.

16

connectivity + economy + palimpsest + engagement + flow

cubic armature

c u b i c a r m a t u r e

connectivity + economy + palimpsest + engagement + flow

Initial theoretical topics were spatially tested via three 5” x 5” x 5” cubes, an exploration of key themes in abstract form. All cubes are derived from one chipboard construction - a solid cube with a series of boolean subtractions, reused boolean subtractions and figure-ground of the solid. From these cubes, 5 themes surfaced: formal connectivity, economy of materials, palimpsest of process, engagement of users, and spatial flow.

17cubic armature

18

a range of precedents

19

p r e c e d e n t s

permeability | connectivity | processional

weather+weathering+time | layered materials | ecological considerations

Architecture is responsible for the link between people, place, time and environment with consideration of the temporal nature of a design. Moving through an architectural project unfolds the dialogue between people and time, exploring the complex layers that connect space and place.

20

w e i s s m a n f r e d it aekwondoparkk o r e a2 0 0 8

permeabilitytemporal indoor+outdoorflow between spacesecological protection

research + analysis, precedent as inspiration

21

L T Lw a t e r p r o v i n gnew york city2 0 1 0


22

connectivityprocessional texturetopographic interactionsweather+weathering


r i c h a r d h e i nchapel-holycrosssedona az1 9 5 6

23

l o u i s k a h ns a l k i n s t i t u t ela jolla ca1 9 6 6


24 siting + location

b i g v i n t e r b a dc o p e n h a g e n2 0 0 4

BIG juxtaposed a thermal bath and spa in the river - allowing visitors to swim inside and out. The building is derived from local geometries and seeks to blend into the dock’s landscape. Utilizing a simple system of folds and fissures, the barge accommodates diving, jumping and seating. The project imposes contemporary architecture and landscape design overlaid with urbanism - while keeping in context of the city and providing an economic program.

25research + analysis, precedent as research

26 siting + location

diller scofidio i c aboston mass2 0 0 7

Diller Scofidio Renfro’s Institute of Contemporary Art on the Boston Harbor creates a dialogue between museum, visitors and waterfront, constantly synthesizing one’s experience of the building as one’s experience with water. The multi-tiered areas, while extremely prescriptive for the visitor, provide an interesting backdrop, and some encourage public engagement with the permeable space.


permeablepublic

r e f l e c t i o n

blocked sight inopen sight out

open sight in

constructed topography

cultural production

28 theoretical intentions

r e n z o p i a n oc u l t u r a l c e n t e rn e w c a l e d o n i a1 9 9 8

Renzo Piano’s Jean Marie Tijbao Cultural Center in New Caledonia is a sensitive, noninvasive reinterpretation of site creating a communal space that echoes the landscape. The forms are derived from traditional patterns and building methods, thus continuing a dialogue between the history and future of a place. The center’s relationship between land and water mediates thresholds and is passively cooled as well.

30 theoretical intentions

r e xv a k k oi s t a n b u l 2 0 1 0

The Vakko Fashion Center is based on the reuse of an existing, unfinished concrete structure; the client mandated recycling the structure. REX used a variety of innovative solutions to incorporate new and old structures - including a structural glass panel system - while also re-imagining circulation and communication in a traditional office environment. The building has multiple rhythms in conjunction with a responsible reuse strategy.


2 elevators

exit stair

exit stair

programmatic circulation

rectalinear grid for egress + safety

angular grid for experiential qualities

entry to exit stair

32 program + use

weiss manfredi o l y m p i c p a r k seattle wash.2 0 0 7

Olympic Sculpture Park has a dynamic connection to the water via a series of stepped, ramped and sloped programmed routes. The complex includes the Seattle Art Museum, but also the site mediates roadways, train lines and topography to facilitate volumes of visitors. Running paths, sculpture tours and green spaces allow for engagement with the waterfront as well as reintroducing natural elements into this highly urban zone.

34 program + use

At Pier 17, SHoP considered the layers of urban occupation in New York, however the architects denied the practical aspects of urban life in their design. While outdoor gathering/performance space is needed, economic contributors are only in a “mall” format. New York is certainly not at a loss for shopping districts, and such redevelopment is proven to be short lived. Pier 17 is active 24/7 with public thoroughfare inside a protective shell - presenting safety issues.

S H o P p i e r 1 7new york city2 0 0 4

36 material considerations

sauerbruchhuttongswheadquartersb e r l i n2 0 0 0

Technological advancements in the GSW Headquarters are nearly a decade old, yet the strength and efficiency of its passive systems are resounding. Sauerbruch Hutton used a layered, louvered facade system to allow occupants to both control their own natural light and natural ventilation. Studies have shown that by using such personal-control techniques, users are significantly happier and more productive than in a typical office setting.


A AB B

38 material considerations

lassila hirvilammi s h i n g l e c h u r c h karsamakifinland2 0 0 4

The Shingle Church in Finland is a refined and simple materiality study to define space. By using both a variety of wood types and cladding techniques, Lassila Hirvilammi shows a poetic respect for the environment and a poised space for reflection. The space is naturally lit with a single strategic aperture, illustrating the power of the material selection. Such a small space brings focus to the details as well, which are centuries-old methods in contemporary sensibilities.


operable axis

circulation axis

vertical circulation axis

natural light

framing wood (a)interior finish wood (b)interior finish wood (c)exterior wood siding (d)

40 culture + context

w i l l i a m s - t s i e nlincoln centernew york city2 0 0 4

Tod Williams-Billie Tsien’s renovation of the Lincoln Center atrium redefines the boundary between public and private by eliminating threshold. The cultural significance of Lincoln Center to the arts community extends out into the city’s populace - literally bringing the canopy to the sidewalk’s edge and drawing visitors within. The space allows for both gathering and contemplation, with complex indoor-outdoor qualities in a culturally significant siting

42 culture and context

p e t e r z u m t h o rkolumbamuseumc o l o g n e2 0 1 0

Peter Zumthor contextually blending past and present through the Kolumba Museum in Cologne. By incorporating the architect’s studies of texture and mass with historical and traditional brickwork, expressing the relationships between spatial history and future. Zumthor’s study of porosity, as a direct reflection of the historical materials in this case, also serves to define the scale of the new building in relation to its’ surroundings.

44 case studies

c a s e s t u d i e s

In order to understand a range of strategies for the project’s design, two precedents were analyzed in more detail. Both examples are relevant in terms of program and site development. Plan and section studies reveal techniques for waterfront sites and community engagement.

b i g v i n t e r b a dc o p e n h a g e n2 0 0 4

45case studies

s n o h e t t ao p e r a h o u s eo s l o2 0 0 9

46

mississippi river, lake ferguson + greenville

47

s i t e s e l e c t i o n + a n a l y s i s

region | neighborhood | site

unemployment | green space | flood protection | transportation | figure ground

In considering Mississippi River towns, three cities in Mississippi offer a range of spatial conditions on their waterfronts. The following is a comparative, multi-scale (from city to neighborhood and site) study of Vicksburg, Natchez and Greenville, seeking to understand flood protection systems, regional densities, unemployment, transportation, treatment of the Mississippi River and development potential.

48 site selection + analysis

v i c k s b u r g, m i s s i s s i p p i

s i t e

5.8% unemployment

6.7% unemployment

city-scale

neighborhood-scale

49vicksburg, mississippi

g r e e n s p a c e

h e a v y t r e e c o v e r

b u i l d i n g s

f l o o d w a l l

s t r e e t s

p o t e n t i a l s i t e

a x i s

f i g u r e - g r o u n d

economicgenerators

site-scale

site-scale

site-scale


s i t e

6.5% unemployment

2% unemployment

7.5% unemployment

city-scale

neighborhood-scale

n a t c h e z, m i s s i s s i p p i

51natchez, mississippi


h i g h f l o o d i n g

b u i l d i n g s

c l i f f s

s t r e e t s

a x i s

g a t h e r i n g s p a c e


potential site

g r e e n s p a c e

site-scale

site-scale

site-scale


g r e e n v i l l e, m i s s i s s i p p i

s i t e

15% `unemployment

11% unemployment

18% unemployment

12% unemployment

r a i l r o a d

city-scale

neighborhood-scale

53greenville, mississippi

g r e e n s p a c e


b u i l d i n g s

l e v e e

s t r e e t s

p o t e n t i a l s i t e

a x i s


economicgenerators

h i g h f l o o d i n g

site-scale

site-scale

site-scale


In choosing a city, key considerations included: potential for prototyping along the Mississippi, strength of regional economy, and waterfront conditions. Greenville offers each of these variables - shockingly high unemployment rates, a tall levee system found in most river towns of the Lower Mississippi and casinos extending into the water. In addition, the town’s historical significance is noteworthy for 20th century politics as well as its geological meanders and oxbows. The former site of the first SteinMart in Downtown Greenville is in dire need of redevelopment and will connect citizens to the waterfront most effectively.

55exploring greenville, mississippi

confluence of lake ferguson and the mississippi

washington avenue“where main street meets the river”

on site artifactsatop the levee at sunset


behind the levee

site context

57site information

the levee and Lake Ferguson [Greenville, Mississippi]

site, Washington Avenue and South Poplar Street [Greenville, Mississippi]


h i s t o r i c d o w n t o w n g r e e n v i l l e

site, originally the first steinmart1 9 6 4a n d s p e a k i n g o f -

which.blogspot.com

site, originally the first steinmart1 9 6 4a n d s p e a k i n g o f -

which.blogspot.com

59historical greenville

site aerial2 0 0 6a i r p h o t o n a . c o m

greenville postcard~ 1 9 3 8themightymuddy.com

60

h i s t o r i c d o w n t o w n g r e e n v i l l e

sanborn map1 9 3 1

61

t o p o g r a p h i c a lmap, usgs1 9 7 0


246’-

3”

134’-6”

392’-5”25’-10”

184’-10”43’

13’-9”

485’-2”

12’-2”

64’ 136’-

4”

65’-6

”

9’-2”

site plan, ~ 1” = 200’

VL

sid

ew

alk

sid

ew

alk

pavilio

n

walnu

t st

s popla

r stSITEoffices

shoppi

ng

E EE

30’ high leveewith road access atop

119,482’ sqftformer stein mart site

400’ to waterplaygrounds, gathering areas

site section, ~ 1” = 200’

63site information

vacant casino +

fishing zone

casin

o

vaca

ntlaw

office

pav

budg

et ho

telva

cant

busin

ess

local businesses

bar

shop+cafe

casin

o sup

port

police

home

casino

officeoffi

ce

site plan, ~ 1” = 200’

VL

sid

ew

alk

sid

ew

alk

pavilio

n

walnu

t st

s popla

r stSITEoffices

shoppi

ng

E EE

30’ high leveewith road access atop

119,482’ sqftformer stein mart site

400’ to waterplaygrounds, gathering areas

site section, ~ 1” = 200’


unemployment

industrial + agricultural

vacant commercial spaces

historic district + sprawl

flood protection

transportation

unemployment




flood protection

transportation

i n v e s t i g a t i n g g r e e n v i l l e

65investigations

m.s. highway 1

us route 1

city roads

lake ferguson

railroads

flood protection

alluvial plain

flood protection

transportation


historic downtown

suburban sprawl

vacant commercialspaces, sale+rent



67investigations

4.2 %

11 % 32 %

15 %

18 % 5.3 %

agricultural zones

industrial zones

unemployment



m i s s i s s i p p i r i v e r d e v e l o p m e n t

new orleans, la180.6 sqmi1904 people/sqmi+11’ sea level[ c i t y - d a t a . c o m ]

natchez, ms13.2 sqmi1196 people/sqmi+230’ sea level

vicksburg, ms32.9 sqmi725 people/sqmi+200’ sea level

greenville, ms26.9 sqmi1280 people/sqmi+125’ sea level

levee

flood wall

levee

loess bluff

69development

highway 1

walnu

t + po

plar s

treets

washington ave + main street

alexander street

highway 82

oldest commerce axis, high vacancies

current commerce axis, low vacancies

Mississippi River towns expand and develop due to a number of factors; yet by understanding the patterns between flood protection systems and community axes, a common spatial strategy develops. Rather than following angle of the given flood system (levee, flood wall or geological loess bluff), economic and communal spaces pivot and intersect the river. Flood systems hinder parallel expansion and point to perpendicular arteries for economic development with no room for community gathering. Flood systems then act as a jarring stop to the city promenade, forcing an unresolved experience with the Mississippi.

shifting commercial axes over time, downtown vacancies

highway 1

walnu

t + po

plar s

treets

washington ave + main street

alexander street

highway 82

oldest commerce axis, high vacancies

current commerce axis, low vacancies

parallel perpendicular

70

m.r.

levee

urban catfish fishery

71

p r o g r a m m i n g

At mile 537 of the Mississippi River, the city of Greenville grapples with challenges of a post-industrialized economy: up to 19% unemployment, vacant main streets and decaying infrastructures. To support a sustainable economy, this urban program uses a fishery - a successful, agrarian, regional economic model on the river banks. Productive fishery spaces will also serve to educate students and feed locals while civic spaces solve issues of disconnect and strive to replace the few decaying community landmarks. Sited to bridge the city’s downtown over and across the levee to the waterfront, this program de-constructs the visual barrier created by flood protection systems. Using the existing levee as a fulcrum, the program will extend out into both the historic downtown and towards the river, balancing existing conditions and innovative techniques. The siting will need to address traffic patterns on the street and river but will need to address and mitigate the city’s proclivity for extreme flooding, as seen in 1927 and 2011. The nature of the program should be conceived with prototypical ideas for implementation along the Mississippi River.

The program heavily relies on the relationship between river and city - and therefore the spaces will blur the thresholds between inside/outside. The building will need to conform to the zoning restrictions for the historic downtown, while creating open and inviting spaces - the structure will need to adequately support long spans in a light fashion. Most of the program should be visible to guests for transparency and education, however the employees and visitors will be physically separated to avoid contamination and ensure productivity. There are no specific or noteworthy proportions or dimensions, but there are hierarchies in access to the waterfront, access to the street(s) and the sequencing of visitors versus employees.

project description

spatial qualities

72 programming

p r o g r a m m i n g

Programmatic considerations (types and sizes) were determined from combining typical marine research centers with marine laboratories and marine hatcheries (Humbolt State University, Auburn University). Community centers and museums (in Jackson, MS) contributed to the sizing of the civic spaces, with direct input from Greenville residents - who requested adding in space for the city to gather for small events due to the independent book store’s closing last month, a noted hub of the area. Restaurant and small food shops were researched as well. The Urban Fishery is an amalgamation of multiple programs tailored to suit Greenville, Mississippi. The three sites in consideration will fit the program.

a note on sizing

s p a c e s lobby 500 sq feet interior primaryfishery beds 150,000 sq feet interior primary [approx. 35 10,000 tanks]small lab 2,000 sq feet interior primaryobservation [a] 1,500 sq feet interior primaryobservation [b] 1,500 sq feet exterior primaryoffice 10 @ 250 sq feet interior secondaryemployee break room 250 sq feet interior secondaryloading dock 500 sq feet exterior secondary

gross: 158,250 sq feet

processing 35,000 sq feet interior primaryrestaurant [a] 2,000 sq feet interior primaryrestaurant [b] 1,000 sq feet exterior primarykitchen 1,000 sq feet interior secondarysales 1,500 sq feet interior primaryrefrigerators 1,500 sq feet interior secondaryoffice 2 @ 250 sq feet interior secondary gross: 42,500 sq feet

education 2,000 sq feet interior primarygathering [a] 2,000 sq feet interior primarygathering [b] 2,000 sq feet exterior primarygathering [c] 4,000 sq feet interior primaryoverlook 2,000 sq feet interior primary gross: 12,000 sq feet

[total program area + 30%]rest rooms interior secondarycirculation interior secondarymechanical interior secondary

gross: 276,575 sq feet net: 212,750 sq feet

f i s h e r y

d i s t r i b u t i o n

c o m m u n i t y s p a c e s

s u p p o r t

73defining the project

[ p r o g r a m m a t i c p r e c e d e n t ]

n . e . e . d . f i s h w o r k sn e w y o r k c i t y2 0 0 8

74 programming

m.r.

levee

[ p r o g r a m m a t i cr e l a t i o n s h i p s , s e q u e n c i n gg u e s t s +e m p l o y e e s ]

75 programmatic diagram

[ v i e w s +v i s i b i l i t yin te rna l+ex te rna l ]

76 programming

m.r.

levee

[program’s proximity to water or levee]

77programmatic diagram

[ u n d e r s t a n d i n g p r o g r a m s y s t e m a t i c a l l y ]

78 programming

TANKPUMPCTRLFILTER

AIR PUMP

RIVER WATER

WASTE

[ s e c t i o n a ldynamics, fishery p r o c e s s e s ]

79diagram of key spaces

[ p r o g r a mconnectivity, section]

80

mississippi river’s levees + flood walls

81

a p p e n d i x

catfish farming

flood protection

site strategies

82 appendix

APPENDIX: c a t f i s h f a r m i n g

in 2005, mississippi p r o d u c e d

350 million pounds of catfish

[ that’s 55% of US production, over only 100,000 acres ]

400,000 sq feet

4-6 feet

constructed levee walls

alluvial clay

groundwater

mating pond

hatchery

nursery

production

freeze-40F

pro-cessclean

processing

distribution

30 m

inut

es18

mon

ths

typical inland farming configuration

farming cycles

7,000 sq feet

4-6 feet

jumbo tank barge

lake ferguson

1 iteration, proposed waterfront farming configuration

83catfish farming

75% of world’s fish species are over exploited / depleted[food and agriculture o r g a n i z a t i o n ]

farm grows corn + beans

corn + beansprocessed

catfish fed corn + beans

catfishprocessed

alluvial plain riverside industrial

export

farm grows corn + beans

corn + beansprocessed

catfish fed corn + beans

catfishprocessed

alluvial plain riverside industrial

export

proposed cultivation, continuous loop and locallzed efficiencies

typical cultivation, circuitous routes and backtracking

84 appendix

APPENDIX: f l o o d p r o t e c t i o n

steep slope with limited pathways

no sight line to water by foot

no sight line to water from homes

typica

lly pla

nted

for

incre

ased

sta

bility

slurry

wall

pre

vent

s se

epag

erock

soil cobble

levee foundation

clay + gravel[compacted, impervious soils]

no sight line to water by foot

no sight line to water from homes

patrol road

city road

concrete revetment

drain

reinf

orce

d co

ncre

te

concrete parking lot, unused interstitial spacerail

silts + sands

~25’ wide base spans 100’15’-40’ tall

~2’ wide buildings set back 1/2 -1 city blockheight to withstand project flood levels

Current levee and flood wall systems function as divisions between town and waterfront. The disconnect created by strategic water protection methods creates a fundamental disconnect between people and place, denying citizens comprehension of their landscapes.

The design of levees and flood walls are consistently monitored and patrolled, yet rarely spatially questioned. Society’s understanding of ‘levee failure’ is functional, as an unusual event due to flooding. Architecturally, levees fail daily, blocking visual and physical connection between city and its siting.

85flood protection

examples of mississippi river flood walls

examples of mississippi river levees

86 appendix

APPENDIX: s i t e s t r a t e g i e s

dissolving barriers

87site strategiesbarge typology as spatial form

88 appendixstriations as circulation routes

89site strategiesperpendicular “levee” as vantage point over river

thesis book

Documents

d e v e

mississippi river communities

p e rresearch paper

u n i t i e s figure

i n i n g c o

b s t r

r y d e c

state of mississippi