thesis chapters 1 3 edited resubmitted (1) task 2
TRANSCRIPT
7/25/2019 THESIS Chapters 1 3 Edited Resubmitted (1) TASK 2
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
This chapter includes the review of related literature and studies which the
researchers have perused in order to shed light to the topic under study.
Foreign Literature
Managing water resource sustainability requires considering water in all
states and forms as potential resources for use and reuse. Improving use
efficiency, capture, and reuse of these non-traditional water resources is more
critical in water stressed regions, and those which are expected to become
stressed due to climate change or population growth. Treating wastewater is a
key part of solving water scarcity !usso, "lfredo, #isher, $%&'(. "s climate
change makes dry regions drier, the need for water capture and reuse intensifies
in areas with increasing water stress.
There are two key points when considering all water as resources) first,
not all applications require the same quality water, and second, not all *used+
water requires the same level of treatment before it can be reused. Treatment
before and treatment after of the combined water stream uses unnecessary
amounts of energy and effort iemcynowic, $%%(. Incentiviing a selective
system of treatment and reuse requires that water be priced appropriately. /ater
must be considered an economic good to account for its competing uses
Mwana, $%%(, where the price depends on availability and quality. To
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encourage treatment and reuse, the value of water should equal the cost of
treating source water to necessary standards.
0xcess water during rain events can be harvested and stored for use in
dry periods. 1epending on the level of existing infrastructure and water
application purposes, the scale of water capture and distribution can range from
household to neighborhood to city. In many developing regions, small scale
capture is recommended at the household level using storage tanks or infiltration
ponds in con2unction with hand pumps for recovery Malley, Taeh, Matsumoto,
$%%3(. Increased capture and use of all available water resources will
significantly reduce water stress, especially during dry seasons and periods of
drought.
4rban water and resource management involves the following steps5
collecting water in sufficient quantities to meet needs throughout the urban area)
treating collected water to achieve the quality required for specific purposes)
distributing water to end users) collecting used water) treating used water for
reuse, including for environmental enhancement) managing residuals from
treatment processes) and extracting useful materials, such as heat, energy,
organic matter, and nutrients, from the used water stream.1aiger, $%&&(
" key component of the evolving urban water and resource management
infrastructure paradigm includes hybrid systems.
In hybrid systems, enabled by improved treatment technologies, local
water resources are becoming increasingly usable, and treatment systems are
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being distributed throughout service areas. The resulting hybrid systems include
both centralied and decentralied components like green infrastructures, 4sed-
/ater !eclamation and !euse 6ystems and in home treatment devices.
Traditional, centralied storm water-management systems generally
consist of drains and collection points that direct rainwater into pipes that convey
it to existing streams and waterways. 1istributed storm water management and
rainwater harvesting systems collect rainwater and direct it either to storage
areas for later use or to natural systems that reduce the velocity of the water,
infiltrate rainwater into the ground, and thereby remove pollutants. 6uch systems
are often referred to as *green infrastructure+.
"nother hybrid system is the distributed used-water reclamation and reuse
system 7imene and "sano, $%%8(. 1riven by the increasing scarcity of water
and enabled by modern treatment technology, used water is increasingly being
reclaimed and reused in a variety of ways. In-home devices can also be used to
provide potable water. 9enerally purchased and installed on an elective basis by
individual homeowners, these devices provide good quality water for most
purposes, thereby reducing the amount of water that must be treated to a higher
standard for truly potable purposes.
6ustainable development in urban areas requires reliable, equitable, and
easily accessible water. :roviding water to the rapidly growing urban populations
in developing nations creates a complex logistic and economic problem. This is
exacerbated in areas where urban expansion is largely informal an unplanned,
as demand is difficult to pro2ect and consumption is difficult to monitor.
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Indicator methods are commonly used for evaluating urban water
management. 1eveloping successful indicator methods requires continued
efforts to quantify the relationships between urban water management and
environmental sustainability, which groups including the 4 ;entre for <uman
6ettlements and the 4 0nvironmental :rogram are currently pursuing.
Monitoring and evaluation of urban water systems in developing regions will help
improve current conditions and inform future development. =ne assessment
evaluated $ indicators in four criteria groups5 technical, social>environmental,
financial, and institutional kambule, $%&$(. They found that technical design
flow and the functionality of the system( and social criteria status of use, equity,
decision making in operations and maintenance( are more crucial to sustaining a
water system than financial and institutional criteria, although all are necessary.
4rban water system sustainability faces challenges emerging from
physical resource, infrastructure, and socioeconomic conditions. In water rich
regions, water distribution systems are optimied to meet a specified minimum
pressure, whereas in water stressed regions equal water distribution among
users is the goal. In the latter case, distribution systems should be designed with
the expectation of intermittent operation rather than assuming continuous supply,
thus reducing pressure problems and inequities in distribution ?airavamoorthy,
$%%@(. Aoth water rich and poor regions are faced with the infrastructure design
and water supply challenges of meeting demands associated with population
growth 7iang, $%%3(. Infrastructure and operation problems include leaking pipes
and *stolen+ water in water scarce regions. Material and construction failures,
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electricity supply or operation and maintenance issues all affect water
distribution. Thirty percent of water supply systems serving rural sub-6aharan
communities are non-functioning at any given time. ;hallenges include
infrastructure issues, however their origins may include socio-institutional
problems involving responsibility, knowledge, and coordination.
Increasingly, sustainability solutions include participatory planning and
water capture and reuse. 6ustaining a water system requires personnel training,
monitoring, health and safety regulations, and communication with users.
6ustainable water utilities should involve the population which they serve, and
utilie the local knowledge of water resources and traditional management
practices. The inclusion of women in water management decisions is particularly
important in cultural contexts where women are traditionally charged with
collecting water for domestic consumption and use, as water management can
have immediate and long-term impacts on gender equality.
In order to solve this ongoing problem of water scarcity and improve
sustainable water management in urban and rural locations, the government and
all private and public bodies needs to understand the importance and benefit that
could be given by public participation in achieving the goal of an integrated water
management.
In the study made by the 0uropean 4nion /ater #ramework 1irective,
public participation ::( have been increasingly integrated into the international
agenda on environment and sustainability. The concept has been introduced as a
tool to improve resource management and promote more democratic decision-
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making. In the 04, policymakers and social scientists are familiar with ::,
especially within the realm of water, where specific provisions have been
included in "rticle &' of the 04 /ater #ramework 1irective /#1(, 1irective
$%%%>@%>0;. 4nder the /#1, Member 6tates must encourage active
involvement of all interested parties, and ensure consultation and access to
background information used for the development of !iver Aasin Management
:lans !AM:s(. "rticle &' defines the following three stages for stakeholder and
public consultation, with each stage requiring at least @ months for feedback5
• timetable and work program for the production of the !AM:s at
least B years before the plan begins()
• overview of the significant water management issues identified in
the river basin at least $ years before the plan begins()
• 1raft of the !AM: at least & year before the plan begins(.
Indeed, most of the planned /#1 measures to improve water quality and
resource management need to be supported, implemented or even initiated by
actors other than environmental and water authorities, in areas like agriculture,
energy, and transport. The most appropriate measures for achieving !AM:
ob2ectives will involve balancing the interests of various groups of stakeholders.
"t the same time, the protection and rehabilitation of 0uropean waters also calls
for the involvement of citiens, interested parties and non-governmental
organiations 9=s( C not only to ensure the legal implementation and
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integration of regional expertise in the process, but also to guarantee the buy-in
by key influential actors.
"nother key factor in sustainable water management nowadays is the
emergence of new technology and one of key challenges now is to attract new
technologies. The matter is that the ma2ority of know-hows and best practices in
water treatment are concentrated in transnational corporations. In order to solve
this problem authorities have to attract foreign companies. Aut here we face
another problem5 water industry by its very nature has direct impact on people. It
means that distinct from new oil refinery pro2ect, this industry provides basic
human needs and this service is irreplaceable. It implies additional responsibility
on water-providers that shuts out an idea of full liberaliation, but rigorously
regulated moderniation seems also inefficient and unrealistic.
6cientific and technological innovation will drive increased efficiency,
increased productivity and reduction in the environmental impact of the water
sector D and will underpin sustainable water management into the future. 6ome
of this technology will be developed locally through !E1 and innovation
programs and this will offer export potential(, while the remainder of the
technology will be imported. This also requires excellent education and research
systems to support the training of engineers and scientists with the
understanding and know how to exploit these technologies.
Local Literature
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"s part of its natural resource management function under the :hilippine
bureaucracy, the 1epartment of 0nvironment and atural !esources 10!( is
the lead government agency in charge of water resource management. <owever,
the responsibility of planning and managing the countryFs water resources is
shared with several government departments, bureaus and attached agencies
concerned with different aspects of water resource management Table &(. In
addition, local government units G94s( are required to provide water supply
subsystems, communal irrigation facilities, and implement social forestry and
local flood control pro2ects, sub2ect to the supervision and control of the 10!.
(Retrieved on July 08, 2015: http://www.senate.gov.ph/publiations/!"
#20201108#20#20$urning#20the#20$ide.pd%&
"ccording to !oel 0spiritu, <ead of Gabor !elations of Maynilad /ater
6ervices, Inc., =ne of the top priority programs of Maynilad is focused on
ensuring business viability and sustainability by reducing chronic water losses or
on-!evenue /ater !/(. !/ is defined as the difference between the
amount of water put into the distribution system and the amount of water billed to
consumers. !/, which is often defined in terms of percentages, is considered
as the best over-all indicator of the quality of the water utility management) high
levels of !/ lead to low levels of efficiency.
In $%%H, the !/ of Maynilad reached @@ which is a very high rate. This
means that &,%% million liters of water per day were wasted. #urthermore, water
of this quantity, if not lost, could supply an additional &,$%,%%% households with
potable water. /hen lost, this volume of treated water remains unaccounted for
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and does not translate to revenue for the company and adversely impacts water
supply.
10:"!TM0T GI0 "90;J #4;TI=6
ational 0conomic and
1evelopment "uthority 01"(
;oordinates the preparation of
national>regional>sectorial development policies and
investment programs
1epartment of
0nvironment
and atural
!esources
10!(
ational /ater
!esources Aoard
/!A(
"dministers>enforces the /ater ;ode and serve as the
lead coordinator for water resources management
programs.
0nvironmental
Management
Aureau 0MA(
6ets and enforces water quality and effluent standards,
criteria, and guidelines for all aspects of water quality
management.
1epartment of
"griculture
ational Irrigation
"dministration
I"(
4ndertakes water resource pro2ects for agricultural
irrigation and other purposes, such as flood control and
drainage, hydropower development, etc.
Aureau of 6oil
and /ater
Management
#ormulates>implements policies and programs for the
protection of existing and potential sources of soil and
water for agricultural development.
1epartment of
<ealth 1=<(
0nvironmental
<ealth 6ervice
0<6(
!esponsible for water supply and sanitation programs
and strategies to forestall the spread of water borne
diseases.
Metropolitan /aterworks and
6ewerage 6ystem M/66(
!egulates water concessionariesF rates and service
standards in Metro Manila and maintains existing assets
and infrastructure.
Gocal /ater 4tilities "dministration
G/4"(
:romotes>finances>regulates the construction and
operation of local water utilities outside Metro Manila.
Table &5 Key ational 9overnment "gencies Involved in /ater Management0laegui, $%%(, :hilippine /ater 6upply 6ector !oadmap $%&%(
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!/ may be categoried into physical or real loss) commercial or
apparent loss and loss of water for operational purposes. <igh physical losses or
real losses allude to the loss of real water as an aftereffect of spillages in
channels, 2oints and fittings, flood at the utilityLs stores created by poor operations
and framework upkeep. ;ritical commercial losses or apparent losses, then
again, allude to loss of income exemplified by unbilled water because of
information or meter errors and framework flushing and robbery. "nother reason
for water loss is for operational purposes) for instance because of the way that
the circulation lines of the organiation were acquired and go back to when the
organiation was set up and was poor upkeep of the network.
6till in the :hilippines, $%&% data from the ational 6tatistical ;oordination
Aoard 6;A( revealed that &@ percent of all households remain without access
to clean and portable water. This situation is expected to worsen in the near
future given the rising population that results in an increasing demand for the
countryFs already dwindling water supply.
The :hilippines has an extensive body of water and water-related
legislations that provide the legal bases for policies and regulations concerning
water resource management in the country. These include the /ater ;ode of
&3H@, !evised #orestry ;ode of &3H, :rovincial /ater 4tilities "ct of &3HB, and
the ational Integrated :rotected "reas 6ystem "ct of &33$, among others. It
must be stressed that all of these laws will be for naught if they are not
implemented consistently and effectively. It may be surmised that the formulation
and passage of these laws have done little to stem the steady degradation of the
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countryFs water resources. 9iven the importance of water as a basic requirement
for human life and a vital input for socioeconomic progress, the ;ongress must
use its significant oversight functions to regularly monitor water agenciesF
performance and hold them accountable for their actions www.senate.gov.ph(.
The goal of the water use and supply management program is to increase the
amount of water available to users while protecting water resources, water-
dependent natural systems and interrelated habitats. The ecosystem-based
management approach ensures an integrated and holistic approach to the
management of river basins down to the coastal and marine areas. This involves
protection of forests, watersheds, wetlands, surface water rivers, lakes, streams(
and groundwater aquifers to ensure adequate water supply and acceptable water
quality. 9reater attention is also given to the promotion of water reuse, recycling
and other conservation measures as well as the upgrading of water supply and
distribution systems to reduce losses, and improving cost-effective technology
such as in desalination of seawater to increase available water supply. "ccess to
safe water at a convenient distance and at an affordable price provides a boost
to human health and productivity. !etrieved on "ugust ', $%&5
http5>>www.pemsea.org>topics>water-use-and-supply-management(
/hile :hilippines a country located in comparatively water-rich 6outheast
"sia, unfortunately face the same problem of water shortage due to decades of
water misuse, destruction of tropical rainforest especially catchment areas,
severe water pollution, excessive extraction of groundwater, and poor and
unregulated land resource management.
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Table $5 /ater Gegislations
9iven the many agencies involved in water management and with overlapping
functions, institutional arrangements have to be streamlined, with proper
delineation of roles and responsibilities. :olicies and programs are also needed
to be set in place for the regulation of use and extraction, including proper
allocation among various users) pollution reduction to mitigate contamination of
surface water and groundwater) water tariff restructuring and application of
market-based instruments, such as user fees, to reflect the full value of water as
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a resource) and regular monitoring of surface water and groundwater quality and
quantity
/ith urbaniation, water governance has to cope with increasing demands
for steady supply and access to potable water, both for the immediate and long
term. ational institutions usually manage water supply>quality and sanitation.
<owever, local governments still lack the ability to ensure efficient and sustained
delivery of basic water services. Thus, some institutional development
interventions among local governments were initiated to monitor, improve and
sustain water quality and conservation for domestic, industrial, agricultural and
other uses. 6trengthening the local governmentLs mechanism is important for
integrating efforts, coordinating and managing integrated water resources and
related water operations in the area and driving the different sectors involved to
treat water resource in an integrated manner. 6uch initiatives hopes to shift from
fragmented to integrated local water agenda and action, to be catalyed by an
integrated management scheme at the local government level. 6pecific targets
for capacity-building are the strategic planning and development of the
localgovernment and the public utilities sector that manages the water treatment
facility. :ascual, "badilla, "cedebo , $%%8(
Ma2or water quality challenges that the country needed to improve the
quality of its surface, ground, and coastal waters. The government should pursue
aggressive strategic plans to address the seemingly decreasing trend of the
quality of our water bodies. This implies safe drinking and bathing waters and
water bodies that foster production of our aquatic resources. The active
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involvement and participation of stakeholders should be enhanced in
implementing water quality management programs. It should promote a
sustainable proactive approach to managing water quality particularly at the local
level. 6uccessful water quality management requires a strong community-based
effort with diverse stakeholder involvement, good partnership building with
consensus, and effective and collaborative decision making on best management
practices. The challenge is to internalie the message that water is an important
resource and that everyone has to play a role in the conservation and
management of our water resources.
=n another case study, discussed about the privatiation of water
resources here in the :hilippines. /ater privatiation is not the bitter pill that
some make it out to be, nor is it the panacea to all the governmentFs woes in
water provision. /hile privatiation can indeed generate significant welfare gains
to people by tapping on the private sectorFs know-how and efficiency, it is
extremely difficult to navigate the multitude of challenges to achieve a successful
privatiation. "s we learn from the successes and failures of past privatiation
experiences, we are seeing a trend where privatiation works best if the three
key stakeholders of the process play their part5 The government provides good
policies and transparent regulatory frameworks, the people understand the
importance of cost reflective prices to ensure quality and sustainability of water
infrastructure, and the private enterprises implement best business practices to
increase efficiency, and to seek opportunities in bottom or pyramid strategy to
service the poor. !etrieved on "ugust ', $%&5
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http5>>www.circleofblue.org>waternews>wp-
content>uploads>$%&$>%@>Insead/ater:rivatiationManila:hilippines.pdf(
Foreign Studie
Niao Giang in his thesis entitled * The 0conomics of 6ustainable /ater
Mangement5 The ;ase of Aei2ing+ said " rapidly growing urban population leads
to the dramatic increase of water consumption in the world. The water resources
available to the human being are limited. Meanwhile climate variability and
environmental pollution decrease the quantity of water resources available for
human use. It is a significant challenge to provide sufficient water to urban
residents in a sustainable and effective way. #acing urban water crisis,
researchers point out a paradigm shift in urban water management for
sustainable water supply and services. This requires multi-disciplinary
approaches, including technical improvements and economic evaluations.
"dvanced technology can contribute to the solution of problems physically, but it
may not ensure sustainable operation of water systems. The obstacles to
sustainable water supply and services often are from non-technical problems
such as low cost recovery, lack of sound pricing systems and sustainable
financing for increasing service coverage. The financial and economic factors
could be a large barrier to the operation of water systems. This research aims to
use economics to assess water systems for sustainable urban water
management. <ow to use economics on urban water systems and what
contributions can economics bring to sustainable water management are the two
main research questions in the thesis. 6ince the existing systems are insufficient
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to achieve the ob2ective of sustainable urban water management, many new
systems are being proposed and implemented recently. There are two kinds of
water systems5 traditional or existing systems, and new or alternative systems.
The alternative systems may be technologically feasible to increase water supply
or save water consumption, but they may not be financially and economically
feasible. Gack of financial and economic viability makes alternative systems less
attractive than traditional systems. It is important to know whether the new
systems can operate long term and whether the new systems are suitable
alternatives to existing systems if one wants to promote sustainable urban water
management. The thesis carries out economic and financial analysis of
traditional and alternative urban water systems. " comparative analysis between
the traditional and alternative water systems is presented. Through the
comparative analysis, the thesis shows whether the alternative system is an
economically viable alternative to the traditional system. The case of Aei2ing is
chosen for the study. The main technological measures of water saving in Aei2ing
include wastewater reuse and rainwater harvesting. There are centralied and
decentralied wastewater reuse systems. ;entralied wastewater reuse systems
represent the traditional systems while decentralied systems represent the
alternative systems. 9roundwater is the main and traditional water resource for
agricultural irrigation, and rainwater harvesting is an alternative method to get
more water. The main economic method in the thesis is cost benefit analysis,
which is an accepted method to evaluate the environmental pro2ects. "dditionally,
the thesis employs the methods of linear programming and rough set analysis. In
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the cost benefit analysis, the concern of different stakeholders having different
viewpoints is taken into consideration. "ccordingly, an integrated financial and
economic analysis is carried out, in which financial analysis is implemented from
the point of view of individual participants, while the economic analysis is from
the point of view of society. The financial analysis aims to 2udge whether the
individual investor could afford the water system, and the economic analysis is to
determine the contribution of the water system to the development of society. The
research shows that the alternative water systems are economically feasible
while they are not financially feasible. <owever, the traditional water systems are
both economically and financially feasible. ;omparing the economic and financial
feasibility between the traditional and alternative water systems, the traditional
water systems are better than the alternative systems. It implies that the new
water systems are not viable alternatives to the traditional water systems
because the new systems are not financially feasible. Through the case of
Aei2ing, the thesis demonstrates how to use economics in managing urban water
systems. This is the first integrated and quantitative analysis of the economic,
environmental and social effects of new water systems. The economic,
environmental and social effects are all determined by monetary values, which is
rare in the existing literature.
Local Studie
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" three year study of provincial water systems then had shown that the
needs of our growing communities were not met by existing water systems. The
facilities of most water systems are mismanaged and most water systems had
become dumping grounds for relatives and protOgOs. It is one of the reasons the
Gocal /ater 4tilities "dministration was established. Garge amounts of money
have not been utilied for public use and benefit rather for selfish ends.
;orruption has always been connected to transactions entered into by the
government. It is therefore operative that there is strict compliance with internal
control procedures and policies to ensure that public funds, resources and other
matters do not go to waste and be able to present reliable data. Aut still, strong
internal controls is affected by the non-implementation by management and
human error as to compliance. 1e Gara, Gim, =gbac , $%&%(.
Puality management is becoming increasingly important to the leadership
and management of all organiations, not 2ust of water management. Maynilad
as perceived by its personnel and the general public has obtained full compliance
of I6= 3%%&5$%%8 implementation and compliance in relation to quality
management system, management responsibility, resource management,
product realiation and measurement analysis and improvement. Puality
management does not focus solely on the product quality but also the means of
achieving such. #or an organiation to function properly it has to determine and
manage numerous linked activities. ;ardoa, ;hua, ;oncento, $%&%(
#inancial aspect as well plays a big role in different organiations,
including the water industry. "s a result, many institutions have closed and many
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workers lose their source of living. This global phenomenon creates a big impact
to different organiations, in a recent study, management of their resources
including their working capital is essential in these times. "lthough working
capital is only composed of the current assets, this short term assets play a big
part for the entity to perform effectively while facing a crisis. 0nrique, Mendoa,
;antillon, $%%3(
"nother important concept when dealing with water management is the
treatment of wastewater. The overall ob2ective of wastewater treatment are
associated with the removal of pollutants and the protection and preservation of
our natural water resources. =f specific concern of human health by the
destruction of pathogenic organisms present in wastewater prior to treated
effluent being discharged to receiving water. Gike any business, utilities must
recover their costs if they are to sustain their operations. Tariffs are the most
common way of doing so. Aut tariffs serve other goals beyond raising revenues
to cover all or part of costs. They also are used to ensure access across
socioeconomic groups to send price signals to users about the relationship
between water use and water scarcity, and to ensure fairness in the water
industry. 6alvacion, 6o, 6orel, $%&$(.
:rotecting water resources from pollution and people from water
contamination are two of the most pressing challenges facing the :hilippines
today. The national government has an ob2ective to decrease our polluted water
resources so that in the future we have water to use. The wastewater managers
should formulate programs which will favor what the national government wants.
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The desludging of septic tanks of different private and public sectors must be
rigid on their procedures. The management of these water companies should
think of ways to comply and at the same time, should also be favorable to their
customer. There must be a futuristic beneficial outcome to the people, not only in
their vicinity but the entire society. 7aca, 6abando, E 6olisa, $%%3(
S!NTHESIS
The related local and foreign literatures that were cited discussed about
the role of government, public as well as the private companies in achieving
sustainable water management. It is also mentioned in this studies, the important
factors such as public participation, education, technology and others and their
roles in better achieving sustainability of water resources. Most researches that
were done before takes on the view of the government and how much their
policies, procedures and actions greatly affect the success of sustainable water
management. Aut unlike in previous studies and literatures, our study would
focus on the part of water companies and their stakeholders specifically the
employees and how can they impact success and failure of sustainale water
management. " lot of these studies highlights the importance of cooperation not
2ust of the government and the private sector but also cooperation with the public
and the stakeholders which is in line with our study which tackles the idea of the
participation of stakeholders- specifically the employees in the decision making of
Maynilad as a means of improving water management through better planning
and more informed decision-making. The active involvement of all interested
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parties and influencers in the deliberation and decision-making process is
generally expected to foster an environment of accessibility, receptiveness and
mutual respect that ultimately promotes transparency and trust among
participants and can then increase the success rate of policies due to better
acceptance by stakeholders. 1ifferences with the related local studies and
literature is that the past studies conducted focus more on the part of the
government in achieving sustainable water management which is contrary to our
study which takes on the view of Maynilad and its employees in helping achieve
sustainable water management.