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The Urban Hydrosphere Elie BouZeid Princeton University Civil & Environmental Engineering Lecture 6

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Page 1: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

The  Urban  Hydrosphere

Elie  Bou-­‐Zeid Princeton  University

   Civil  &  Environmental  Engineering Lecture  6

Page 2: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

The  Hydrologic  Cycle  Slide  2  

Page 3: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Quick  recap  

  Over  a  watershed:            Precipita=on  =  Evapotranspira=on  +  Runoff  +  Infiltra=on  +  Storage  (at  the  surface)  +  Transfer  from  other  watersheds  

P  =  ET  +  R  +  I  +  S  +  T  

  Hydrograph:  Plot  of  discharge/flow  rate  (y-­‐axis)  in  a  river,  ouOall,  etc.  versus  =me  (x-­‐axis)  

  Hyetograph:  Plot  of  Rainfall  (y-­‐axis),  as  a  cumula=ve  volume  or  a  rate,  versus  =me  (x-­‐axis)  

Slide  3  

Page 4: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Main  water  problems  related  to  urbaniza=on  

 Water  supply:  large  use  of  water  in  small  area,  water  has  to  be  imported  from  other  watersheds,  some=mes  far  away  

 Water  quality:  Agricultural  produc=on  around  urban  areas  to  feed  the  large  popula=on,  runoff  from  dirty  and  hot  streets  with  heavy  metals  and  other  pollutants,  and  sewers  pollute  local  water  bodies  

 Hydrology:  large  changes  in  water  cycle  that  are  very  difficult  to  control

Slide  4  

Page 5: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Urban  hydrology  Vs.  natural  hydrology  Impervious  surfaces  AND  engineered  drainage  systems  combine  to    Drain  water  rapidly  causing  more  “flashy”  streamflows  and  

floods    Reduce  infiltra=on  and  ground  water  recharge  and  evapora=on    Increase  runoff  since  most  precipita=on  is  intercepted  and  

cannot  infiltrate  or  evaporate  later    Reduce  baseflow  of  local  stream  that  usually  drain  the  areas,  

also  drained  water  to  these  streams  will  be  ho^er  and  more  polluted  

  Generally,  reduce  water  quality  

Same  data  is  needed  for  studies:  precipita=on,  catchment  characteris=cs,  drainage  system,  etc  

Slide  5  

Page 6: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Engineering  Challenge  

 How  to  control  peak  flows  and  the  water  levels  in  drainage  system  to  reduce  flood  damage  at  all  points?  (very  demanding)  

 How  to  predict  peak  flow  and/or  runoff  volumes?  (less  demanding)  

 How  to  design  a  system  that  will  work  well  when  the  popula=on  dras=cally  increases  or  when  climate  changes?  

Slide  6  

Page 7: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Meted:  Weather  and  the  built  environment  

  h^p://www.meted.ucar.edu/   Meted:  Great  resource  for  interac=ve  educa=onal  modules  in  meteorology  from  the  US  Na=onal  Center  for  Atmospheric  Research  

  Free,  but  you  have  to  register   We  will  now  see  the  “impacts  on  the  watershed”  part  of  one  module  on  “Weather  an  the  built  environment”  

  Interac=ve  modules  at:  h^p://www.meted.ucar.edu/broadcastmet/wxbuiltenv/    

Slide  7  

Page 8: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Changes  in  P  

  Urban  areas  are  rough,  almost  act  like  one  building    reduce  wind  speed  and  deflect  flow  upward  

  They  are  hot    produce  buoyant  upflows    Both  effects  tend  to  produce  a  rise  in  the  air  mass,  <w>    >  0,  i.e.  convergence  and  liiing  

Slide  8  

Page 9: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Changes  in  P  Slide  9  

Page 10: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Changes  in  P  

  Urban  areas  are  rough,  almost  act  like  one  building    reduce  wind  speed  and  deflect  flow  upward  

  They  are  hot    produce  buoyant  upflows    Both  effects  tend  to  produce  a  rise  in  the  air  mass,  <w>    >  0,  i.e.  convergence  and  liiing  

  When  a  passing  storm  experiences  this  addi=onal  liiing    precipita=on  will  increase,  mainly  downwind  of  the  city  …  it  seems

  Historic  storm  data  and  hyetographs  might  not  be  valid  anymore  for  design,  also  a  problem  with  climate  change

Slide  10  

Page 11: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Water  import/export    Water  brought  from  other  watersheds  or  drained  to  other  

watershed  can  be  very  significant.  

  Imported  water  can  recharge  groundwater  though  pipe  leakage  and  irriga=on  

  Otherwise  imported  water  for  domes=c  use  goes  to  wastewater  treatment  plants,  then  its  fate  depends  on  where  the  treatment  plant  usually  send  it.  

Slide  11  

Page 12: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Water  import  in  Tel  Aviv  >  P  (Hoang  Duong  et  al.  2011)  

Slide  12  

Page 13: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Changes  in  Storage  

 Natural  terrain  stores  water  in  surface  ponds  due  to  the  topography:  li^le  depressions  in  the  surface,  etc.  

 Urbaniza=on  fla^ens  the  terrain,  removing  any  natural  storage  sites  

  In  many  places  in  the  US  and  many  countries,  all  new  development  or  construc=ons  must  have  a  reten=on  basin  or  pond  :  which  is  an  ar=ficial  lower  area/hole  that  can  hold  water  during  high  rain  events  

Slide  13  

Page 14: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Reten=on/Deten=on  basin  Slide  14  

Page 15: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Change  in  Infiltra=on  

  Change  in  infiltra=on  is  almost  propor=onal  (a  bit  simplis=c)  to  the  impervious  frac=on:  a  50%  impervious  surface  frac=on  means  50%  of  the  surface  cannot  allow  infiltra=on  

  But  it  could  be  more  if  a  lot  of  ar=ficial  soils  are  used:  they  tend  to  be  compacted  and  have  lower  hydraulic  conduc=vity    

  In  addi=on,  water  wells  are  dug  in  many  ci=es  to  extract  groundwater,  this  can  lead  to  a  lowering  of  the  water  table  

  In  coastal  ci=es,  lowering  of  the  water  table    salt  water  intrusion  leading  to  the  groundwater  becoming  brackish  (salty)  

  Sea  level  rise  can  exacerbate  the  problem  

Slide  15  

Page 16: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Simple  models:  Richards  equa=ons  (diffusivity  form)  for  soil  water  content  θnat  

  D  is  the  soil  water  diffusivity  (needed  in  unsaturated  soil  only,  since  the  gradient  of  soil  moisture  would  be  zero  in  saturated  soils)  

  K  is  the  hydraulic  conduc=vity    Fθ  represents  source  and  sink  terms,  at  the  surface  

Fθ    =  P  +  QF  –  R  –  ET,      anthropogenic  water  QF  is  the  transferred  water  applied  at  that  loca=on  

  Underground  Fθ  can  represent  leaking  pipes    D  and  K  are  altered  in  urban  areas,  usually  reduced,  and  Fθ  

has  mainly  anthropogenic  sources  

∂θnat∂t

= ∂∂z

D∂θnat∂z

+ K + Fθ⎛⎝⎜

⎞⎠⎟

Slide  16  

Page 17: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Changes  in  Runoff:  more  intercep=on    Slide  17  

Page 18: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Frac=on  of  impervious  terrain  Slide  18  

Page 19: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Changes  in  runoff:  faster  surface  drainage  over  smooth  asphalt  streets  

Slide  19  

…  and  compacted  soils  

Page 20: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Changes  in  runoff:  faster  subsurface  drainage  in  storm  drainage  system  

Slide  20  

Page 21: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Changes  to  the  Hydrograph  Leopold,  1968  Slide  21  

Page 22: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Runoff    Hydrograph  construc=on  requires  high  =me  resolu=on  (whether  with  models  or  measurements)  since  runoff  in  urban  terrain  happens  fast  

  Spa=al  variability  of  P  is  higher  than  in  natural  terrain    more  rain  gages  needed,  also  to  catch  storm  direc=on  

  Flow  rou=ng  now  is  in  drainage  network  (pipes  and  channels)  and  overland    many  models  are  available,  see  Bedient  and  Hubert  chapter  6  for  a  list  or  see  h^p://www.hydrocad.net/tr-­‐55.htm  

Slide  22  

Page 23: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Runoff  

  Completely  impervious      :          P=R+S+T    E=I=0  

  During  storms  T<<P,  aier  some=me  in  the  storm  S≈0    P=R  

  Par=ally  impervious,  need  to  take  into  account  E  and  I  

Slide  23  

Page 24: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Runoff,  as  in  natural  terrain    We  need  to  characterize:  drainage  area,  roughness,  slope,  

land-­‐use,  soil  types,  frac=on  of  impervious  surfaces,  storage  characteris=cs.  

  Connec=vity  of  impervious  areas  is  also  important.  A  roof  that  stores  water  does  not  contribute  to  flood  peak.  

  Simplest  ra=onal  methods  to  predict  peak  flow  at  last  outlet:  

  Q=C  I  A    (only  if  flow  is  at  equilibrium)    Q  =  peak  flow  (m3/s)  

  C=runoff  coefficient  ≈  runoff/rainfall  (calibra=on  parameter,  but  variable;  variability  for  urban  surface  is  actually  lower)  

  I  is  rainfall  intensity  for  the  design  storm  (has  to  be  in  m/s)  

  A  is  catchment  area  m2  

Slide  24  

Page 25: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Runoff  Coefficient  (Bedient  and  Huber,  1990)  Slide  25  

Page 26: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Measures  to  control  urban  runoff  (Bedient  and  Huber,  1990)  

Slide  26  

Page 27: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Measures  to  control  urban  runoff  (Bedient  and  Huber,  1990)  

Slide  27  

Page 28: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Porous  asphalt  Slide  28  

Page 29: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Inlet  restric=on  

 Blocking  the  inlet  of  storm  water  drainage  pipes  to  get  water  to  flow  on  the  street  instead  of  in  the  stormwater  drainage  network  

 Useful  in  combined  wastewater/rainwater  network  because  it  prevents  water  from  backing  up  and  going  out  in  residences  (basement  flooding)  

Slide  29  

Page 30: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Changes  in  Evapora=on  

  Impervious  surfaces  have  a  small  water  reten=on  capacity,  but  all  water  lei  there  evaporates  quickly  usually  

 Evapora=on  then  occurs  from  the  vegetated/soil/waterbody  frac=on  of  the  surface  

 Ho^er  and  drier  city  air  enhances  evapora=on  

  Increased  turbulence  increases  evapora=on  

 Building  shading  reduces  evapora=on  

Slide  30  

Page 31: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Aerodynamic  evapora=on  models  

Eddy covariance E w qρ ′ ′=

MOST model E =ku*! qs ! q( )

ln z ! dz0v

"

#$%

&'!! v

z ! dL

"#$

%&'

z0v (z010

Bulk model E = Ce!u (qs " qa ) H = Ch!cpu (Ts " Ta ) Which can also be formulated as

8

( )( ) where ( ) ( ) is called the wind function

when u is in m/s, a good function is ( ) 1.25.10e s a eE f u e e f u a bu

f u u−

= − = +

=

Slide  31  

Page 32: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Aerodynamic  formula=ons  

 Purely  fluid  mechanical   No  considera=on  of  energy  or  water  budgets    

 Problema=c  if  we  are  relying  on  mean  measurement  and  just  using  some  turbulence  transfer  func=on  

 Great  if  we  have  fast  sensors  that  can  measure  turbulence  (eddy  covariance)  

 But  what  if  we  are  in  a  model  or  with  slow  sensors  that  cannot  capture  turbulence?  

Slide  32  

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Energy  Budget  evapora=on  models,  more  widely  used  in  environmental  models  

 Based  on:  Rn  =  H+LE+G   Penman  for  wet  surfaces:  poten=al  E  

Ep =Δ

Δ + γQnLv

+ γΔ + γ

EA OR Ep =ΔγHLe

+ EA

Qn = Rn −G

EA = f (u)(ea* − ea ) (e : water vapor pressure, * for saturation)

γ ≈cp p

0.622Le= 67 hPa K−1 is called the psychrometric constant

Δ = de* / dT

Slide  33  

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Energy  Budget  evapora=on  models  

 Reduced  Penman  for  unsaturated  soils  E = βeEp

Slide  34  

Brutsaert  et  al.,    Hydrology:  An  Introduc=on,  2005  

Page 35: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Energy  Budget  evapora=on  models  

  Penman-­‐Mon=eth  for  vegeta=on  

  In  urban  terrain,  Qn,  EA,  <u>  and  Ce  and  rs  are  all  changed  

  Also  historic  data  of  evapora=on  parameters    runoff,  and  even  rainfall,  should  be  treated  with  care  since  urbaniza=on  changes  the  catchment  

E = ΔΔ + γ 1+ rsCeu( )

QnLv

⎝⎜⎞

⎠⎟+ γ

Δ + γ 1+rsρ

⎛⎝⎜

⎞⎠⎟

EA

Slide  35  

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h^p://www.toolkit.net.au/tools/Aquacycle  Slide  36  

Page 37: TheUrbanHydrosphere - Princeton Universityefm.princeton.edu/UrbanCourse/Lecture 6.pdf · Slide36$ Urbanizaonofmodels,moreinthe nextlecture Slide37$ Slide37$ Author: Elie Bou-Zeid

Urbaniza=on  of  models,  more  in  the  next  lecture  

Slide  37  

Slide  37