Thirty Years' WarFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaFor other uses, seeThirty Years War (disambiguation).Thirty Years' War

Les Grandes Misres de la guerre(The Great Miseries of War) byJacques Callot, 1632

Date161848

LocationEurope (primarily present day Germany)

ResultPeace of Westphalia Protestantprinces allowed to continue religious practices Habsburg supremacy curtailed Decline of theSpanish Empirein Europe Recognition of the independence of theDutch Republicby Spanish Empire Rise of France as Europe's strongest nation and theBourbon dynasty Rise of theSwedish Empire Decline offeudalism[8] Further decentralization of theHoly Roman Empire Franco-Spanish Waruntil 1659 Substantial decline in the power and influence of the Catholic Church Devastation of many German states, 33% - 66% population decline in Germany

Belligerents

Anti-Habsburg States and AlliesSweden(from 1630)France(from 1635)Denmark-Norway(16251629)Bohemia(16181620)United ProvincesSaxonyElectoral Palatinate(until 1623)Brandenburg-PrussiaBrunswick-LneburgEngland(162530)[1]Scotland(162538)[2]TransylvaniaHungarian Anti-Habsburg Rebels[3]Supported byOttoman EmpireRussian Tsardom[4]Habsburg States and AlliesHoly Roman Empire Catholic League Austria Bohemia(after 1620)Spanish EmpireHungary[5]Kingdom of Croatia[6]Denmark-Norway(16431645)[7]Supported byPoland

Commanders and leaders

Gustavus II AdolphusAxel OxenstiernaJohan BanrLennart TorstensonGustav HornCarl Gustaf WrangelCharles X GustavJames SpensAlexander LeslieJames 3rd Marquis HamiltonLouis XIII of FranceCardinal RichelieuMarquis de FeuquieresLouis II de BourbonVicomte de TurenneJohn HepburnFrederick V, Elector PalatineJindrich Matyas ThurnChristian I of Anhalt-BernburgChristian IV of DenmarkRobert Maxwell, 1st Earl of NithsdaleBernhard of Saxe-WeimarJohann Georg I of SaxonyMaurice of NassauPiet Pieterszoon HeinWilliam of NassauFrederik Hendrik of OrangeMaarten TrompErnst CasimirHendrik Casimir IDuke of BuckinghamSir Horace VereGabriel BethlenErnst von MansfeldChristian of BrunswickPhilip IV of Spain

Count-Duke of OlivaresGonzalo Fernndez de CrdobaAmbrosio SpinolaCardinal-Infante FerdinandDuke of FeriaFadrique de ToledoAntonio de OquendoCarlos ColomaFrancisco de MeloDiego Felipez de GuzmnAlbrecht von WallensteinJohann Tserclaes, Count of TillyFerdinand IIFerdinand IIIFranz von MercyJohann von WerthGottfried Heinrich Graf zu PappenheimMaximilian I of Bavaria

Strength

149,000 Swedish (1632)[9]

35,000 Danish & Norwegian (1625)[10]77,000 Dutch (1629)[11]Approx: 100150,000 Germans[citation needed]150,000 French[citation needed]3040,000 Bohemian Estates[citation needed]30,000 Hungarians (Anti-Habsburg Hungarian rebels)[citation needed]6,000 Transylvanians[12]60,000 Ottoman cavalry(as support toFrederick V, Elector Palatine)300,000 Spanish (includes soldiers from theSpanish Netherlandsand Italy)[citation needed]

100200,000 Germans[citation needed]Approx: 20,000 Hungarian and Croatian cavalry[13]

Casualties and losses

8,000,000including civilian casualties[14]

[show] v t eThirty Years' War

[show] v t ePalatinate campaign

[show] v t eAnglo-Spanish War(16251630)

[show] v t eTorstenson War

TheThirty Years' Warwas a series of wars inCentral Europebetween 16181648.[15]It was one of themost destructive conflictsinEuropean history, and one of the longest.Initially a war betweenProtestantandCatholicstates in the fragmentingHoly Roman Empire, it gradually developed into a more general conflict involving most of the great powers of Europe,[16]becoming less about religion and more a continuation of theFranceHabsburg rivalryfor European political pre-eminence.[17]The Thirty Years' War saw the devastation of entire regions, with famine and disease significantly decreasing the population of the German and Italian states, theKingdom of Bohemia, and theLow Countries. The war also bankrupted most of the combatant powers. Both mercenaries and soldiers in armies were expected to fund themselves by looting or extortingtribute, which imposed severe hardships on the inhabitants of occupied territories.The Thirty Years' War ended with the treaties ofOsnabrckandMnster, part of the widerPeace of Westphalia.[18]Contents[hide] 1Origins of the War 2The Bohemian Revolt 2.116181621 2.2Ottoman support 2.316211625 2.4Huguenot rebellions (16201628) 3Danish intervention (16251629) 4Swedish intervention (16301635) 5French intervention and continued Swedish participation (16351648) 6Peace of Westphalia 7Casualties and disease 8Witch hunts 9Political consequences 10Involved states (chart) 11Fiction 12Gallery 13See also 14References 15Further reading 15.1Primary sources 16External linksOrigins of the War[edit]ThePeace of Augsburg(1555), signed byCharles V, Holy Roman Emperor, confirmed the result of the 1526Diet of Speyer, ending the war between GermanLutheransand Catholics, and establishing that:[19] Rulers of the 224 German states could choose the religion (Lutheranism or Catholicism) of their realms according to their consciences, and compel their subjects to follow that faith (the principle ofcuius regio, eius religio). Lutherans living in aprince-bishopric(a state ruled by a Catholic bishop) could continue to practice their faith. Lutherans could keep the territory they had taken from the Catholic Church since thePeace of Passauin 1552. Thoseprince-bishopswho had converted to Lutheranism were required to give up their territories (the principle calledreservatum ecclesiasticum).Although the Peace of Augsburg created a temporary end to hostilities, it did not resolve the underlying religious conflict, which was made yet more complex by the spread ofCalvinismthroughout Germany in the years that followed.[20]This added a third major faith to the region, but its position was not recognized in any way by the Augsburg terms, to which only Catholicism and Lutheranism were parties.[21][22]The rulers of the nations neighboring the Holy Roman Empire also contributed to the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War: Spain was interested in the German states because it held the territories of theSpanish Netherlandsin the western part of the Empire and states within Italy that were connected by land through theSpanish Road. The Dutch revolted against Spanish domination during the 1560s, leading to aprotracted war of independencethat led to a truce only in 1609. France was nearly surrounded by territory controlled by the two Habsburg states - Spain and the Holy Roman Empire (the leader of which wasFerdinand IIof house Habsburg), and feeling threatened, he was eager to exert its power against the weaker German states. This dynastic concern overtook religious ones and led to Catholic France's participation on the otherwise Protestant side of the war. Sweden and Denmark were interested in gaining control over northern German states bordering theBaltic Sea.

Ferdinand I, Holy Roman EmperorandKing of Bohemia. He urged theCouncil of Trentto approveCommunion in Both kindsfor German and Bohemian Catholics.TheHoly Roman Empirewas a fragmented collection of largely independent states. The position of theHoly Roman Emperorwas mainly titular, but the emperors, from theHouse of Habsburg, also directly ruled a large portion of Imperial territory (theArchduchy of Austriaand theKingdom of Bohemia) as well as theKingdom of Hungary. The Austrian domain was thus a major European power in its own right, ruling over some eight million subjects. The House of Habsburg, under a second king, also ruled Spain, including the Spanish Netherlands, south Italy, the Philippines and most of the Americas. The Empire also contained several regional powers, such as theDuchy of Bavaria, theElectorate of Saxony, theMargraviate of Brandenburg, theElectorate of the Palatinate,Landgraviate of Hesse, theArchbishopric of Trierand theFree Imperial City of Nuremberg. A vast number of minor independent duchies,free cities, abbeys, prince-bishoprics, and petty lordships (whose authority sometimes extended to no more than a single village) rounded out the Empire. Apart from Austria and perhaps Bavaria, none of those entities were capable of national-level politics; alliances between family-related states were common, due partly to the frequent practice of splitting a lord's inheritance among the various sons.Religious tensions remained strong throughout the second half of the 16th century. The Peace of Augsburg began to unravel: some converted bishops refused to give up theirbishoprics, and certain Habsburg and other Catholic rulers of the Holy Roman Empire and Spain sought to restore the power of Catholicism in the region. This was evident from theCologne War(158388), a conflict initiated when the prince-archbishop of the city,Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, converted to Calvinism. As he was an imperial elector, this could have produced a Protestant majority in the College that elected the Holy Roman Emperor, a position that Catholics had always held.In the Cologne War, Spanish troops expelled the former prince-archbishop and replaced him withErnst of Bavaria, a Roman Catholic. After this success, the Catholics regained peace, and the principle ofcuius regio, eius religiobegan to be exerted more strictly in Bavaria,Wrzburgand other states. This forced Lutheran residents to choose between conversion or exile. Lutherans also witnessed the defection of the lords of the Palatinate (1560), Nassau (1578), Hesse-Kassel (1603) and Brandenburg (1613) to the new Calvinist faith. Thus, at the beginning of the 17th century, theRhinelands and those south to theDanubewere largely Catholic, while Lutherans predominated in the north, and Calvinists dominated in certain other areas, such as west-central Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands. Minorities of each creed existed almost everywhere, however. In some lordships and cities, the number of Calvinists, Catholics and Lutherans were approximately equal.Much to the consternation of their Spanish ruling cousins, the Habsburg emperors who followedCharles V(especiallyFerdinand IandMaximilian II, but alsoRudolf II, and his successorMatthias) were content to allow the princes of the Empire to choose their own religious policies. These rulers avoided religious wars within the empire by allowing the different Christian faiths to spread without coercion. This angered those who sought religious uniformity.[23]Meanwhile, Sweden and Denmark, both Lutheran kingdoms, sought to assist the Protestant cause in the Empire, and wanted to gain political and economic influence there as well.

Ferdinand II, Holy Roman EmperorandKing of Bohemia.Religious tensions broke into violence in the Germanfree cityofDonauwrthin 1606. There, the Lutheran majority barred the Catholic residents of theSwabiantown from holding an annualMarkus procession, which provoked a riot. This prompted foreign intervention by DukeMaximilian of Bavaria(15731651) on behalf of the Catholics. After the violence ceased, Calvinists in Germany (who remained a minority) felt the most threatened. They banded together and formed theLeague of Evangelical Unionin 1608, under the leadership of theElector PalatineFrederick IV(15831610), whose son,Frederick V, marriedElizabeth Stuart, the Scottish-born daughter ofJames VI and I of Great Britain.[24]The establishment of the League prompted the Catholics into banding together to form theCatholic Leaguein 1609, under the leadership of Duke Maximilian.Tensions escalated further in 1609, with theWar of the Jlich succession, which began whenJohn William, Duke of Jlich-Cleves-Berg, the ruler of the strategically importantUnited Duchies of Jlich-Cleves-Berg, died childless.[25]Two rival claimants vied for the duchy. The first wasDuchess Anna of Prussia, daughter of Duke John William's eldest sister,Marie Eleonore of Cleves. Anna was married toJohn Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg. The second wasWolfgang William, Count Palatine of Neuburg, who was the son of Duke John William's second eldest sister,Anna of Cleves. Duchess Anna of Prussia claimed Jlich-Cleves-Berg as the heir to the senior line, while Wolfgang William, Count Palatine of Neuburg, claimed Jlich-Cleves-Berg as Duke John William's eldest male heir. Both claimants were Protestants. In 1610, to prevent war between the rival claimants, the forces ofRudolf II, Holy Roman Emperoroccupied Jlich-Cleves-Berg until theAulic Council(Reichshofrat) resolved the dispute. However, several Protestant princes feared that the Emperor, a devout Catholic, intended to keep Jlich-Cleves-Berg for himself to prevent the United Duchies falling into Protestant hands.[25]Representatives ofHenry IV of Franceand theDutch Republicgathered forces to invade Jlich-Cleves-Berg, but these plans were cut short by the assassination of Henry IV by the Catholic fanaticFranois Ravaillac.[26]Hoping to gain an advantage in the dispute, Wolfgang William converted to Catholicism; John Sigismund, on the other hand, converted to Calvinism (although Anna of Prussia stayed Lutheran).[25]The dispute was settled in 1614 with theTreaty of Xanten, by which the United Duchies were dismantled:JlichandBergwere awarded to Wolfgang William, while John Sigismund gainedCleves,Mark, andRavensberg.[25]TheSpanish FuryatMaastrichtin 1579.The background of theDutch Revoltis also necessary to understanding the events leading up to the Thirty Years' War. It was widely known that theTwelve Years' Trucewas set to expire in 1621, and throughout Europe it was recognized that at that time, Spain would attempt to reconquer theDutch Republic. At that time, forces underAmbrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases, theGenoesecommander of the Spanish army, would be able to pass through friendly territories to reach the Dutch Republic. The only hostile state that stood in his way was theElectorate of the Palatinate.[27](Spinola's preferred route would take him through theRepublic of Genoa, theDuchy of Milan, through theVal Telline, around hostile Switzerland bypassing along the north shore ofLake Constance, then throughAlsace, theArchbishopric of Strasbourg, then through theElectorate of the Palatinate, and then finally through theArchbishopric of Trier,JlichandBergand on to the Dutch Republic).[27]The Palatinate thus assumed a strategic importance in European affairs out of all proportion to its size. This explains why the ProtestantJames VI and Iarranged for the marriage of his daughterElizabeth StuarttoFrederick V, Elector Palatinein 1612, in spite of the social convention that a princess would only marry another royal.By 1617, it was apparent thatMatthias, Holy Roman Emperorand King ofBohemia, would die without an heir, with his lands going to his nearest male relative, his cousinArchduke Ferdinand II of Austria, heir-apparent and Crown Prince of Bohemia. With theOate treaty,Philip III of Spainagreed to this succession.Ferdinand, educated by theJesuits, was a staunch Catholic who wanted to impose religious uniformity on his lands. This made him highly unpopular in Protestant (primarilyHussite) Bohemia. The population's sentiments notwithstanding, the added insult of thenobility's rejection of Ferdinand, who had been elected Bohemian Crown Prince in 1617, triggered the Thirty Years' War in 1618, when his representatives werethrown out of a windowand seriously injured. The so-calledDefenestration of Pragueprovoked open revolt in Bohemia, which had powerful foreign allies. Ferdinand was upset by this calculated insult, but his intolerant policies in his own lands had left him in a weak position. The Habsburg cause in the next few years would seem to suffer unrecoverable reverses. The Protestant cause seemed to wax toward a quick overall victory.The war can be divided into 4 major phases: The Bohemian Revolt,the Danish intervention,the Swedish interventionandthe French intervention.The Bohemian Revolt[edit]Main article:Bohemian Revolt16181621[edit]

Contemporary woodcut depicting theSecond Defenestration of Prague(1618), which marked the beginning of the Bohemian Revolt, which began the first part of the Thirty Years' War.Without heirs,Emperor Matthiassought to assure an orderly transition during his lifetime by having his dynastic heir (the fiercely Catholic Ferdinand ofStyria, laterFerdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor) elected to the separate royal thrones ofBohemiaand Hungary.[28]Some of the Protestant leaders of Bohemia feared they would be losing the religious rights granted to them byEmperor Rudolf IIin hisLetter of Majesty(1609). They preferred the ProtestantFrederick V, elector of the Palatinate(successor ofFrederick IV, the creator of theProtestant Union).[29]However, other Protestants supported the stance taken by the Catholics,[30]and in 1617, Ferdinand was duly elected by the BohemianEstatesto become the Crown Prince, and automatically upon the death of Matthias, the nextKing of Bohemia.The king-elect then sent two Catholic councillors (Vilem Slavata of ChlumandJaroslav Borzita of Martinice) as his representatives toHradanycastlein Prague in May 1618. Ferdinand had wanted them to administer the government in his absence. On 23 May 1618, an assembly of Protestants seized them and threw them (and also secretary Philip Fabricius) out of the palace window, which was some 21 metres (69ft) off the ground. Remarkably, although injured, they survived. This event, known as the(Second) Defenestration of Prague, started the Bohemian Revolt. Soon afterward, the Bohemian conflict spread through all of theBohemian Crown, includingBohemia,Silesia,UpperandLower Lusatia, andMoravia. Moravia was already embroiled in a conflict between Catholics and Protestants. The religious conflict eventually spread across the whole continent of Europe, involving France, Sweden, and a number of other countries.[29]

Historical re-enactment of theBattle of White MountainHad the Bohemian rebellion remained a local conflict, the war could have been over in fewer than thirty months. However, the death of Emperor Matthias emboldened the rebellious Protestant leaders, who had been on the verge of a settlement. The weaknesses of both Ferdinand (now officially on the throne after the death of Emperor Matthias) and of the Bohemians themselves led to the spread of the war to western Germany. Ferdinand was compelled to call on his nephew, KingPhilip IV of Spain, for assistance.The Bohemians, desperate for allies against the Emperor, applied to be admitted into theProtestant Union, which was led by their original candidate for the Bohemian throne, theCalvinistFrederick V, Elector Palatine. The Bohemians hinted Frederick would become King of Bohemia if he allowed them to join the Union and come under its protection. However, similar offers were made by other members of the Bohemian Estates to theDuke of Savoy, theElector of Saxony, and thePrince of Transylvania. The Austrians, who seemed to have intercepted every letter leaving Prague, made these duplicities public.[31]This unraveled much of the support for the Bohemians, particularly in the court of Saxony. In spite of these issues surrounding their support, the rebellion initially favoured the Bohemians. They were joined in the revolt by much ofUpper Austria, whose nobility was then chiefly Lutheran and Calvinist.Lower Austriarevolted soon after, and in 1619,Count Thurnled an army to the walls ofViennaitself. Moreover, within the British Isles, Frederick V's cause became seen as that of Elizabeth Stuart, described by her supporters as "The Jewell of Europe"[32]leading to a stream of tens of thousands of volunteers tohercause throughout the course of the Thirty Years' War. In the opening phase this saw an Anglo-Dutch regiment underHorace Verehead to the Palatinate, a Scots-Dutch Regiment under Colonel John Seton move into Bohemia, and that to be joined by a mixed "Regiment of Brittanes" (Scots and English) led by the Scottish Catholic Sir Andrew Gray.[33]Seton's regiment was the last of the Protestant allies to leave the Bohemian theatre after tenaciously holding the town of Tebo until 1622, and only departing once the rights of the citizens had been secured.[34]Ottoman support[edit]

Frederick V, Elector Palatineas King of Bohemia, painted byGerrit von Honthorstin 1634, two years after the subject's death.In the east, the Protestant Hungarian Prince ofTransylvania,Gabriel Bethlen, led a spirited campaign into Hungary with the support of theOttomanSultan,Osman II. Fearful of the Catholic policies ofFerdinand II, Gabriel Bethlen requested a protectorate by Osman II, so "the Ottoman Empire became the one and only ally of great-power status which the rebellious Bohemian states could muster after they had shaken off Habsburg rule and had electedFrederick Vas a Protestant king".[35]Ambassadors were exchanged, withHeinrich BittervisitingConstantinoplein January 1620, andMehmed Agavisiting Prague in July 1620. The Ottomans offered a force of 60,000 cavalry to Frederick and plans were made for an invasion of Poland with 400,000 troops in exchange for the payment of an annual tribute to the Sultan.[36]These negotiations triggered thePolishOttoman Warof 162021.[37]The Ottomans defeated the Poles, who were supporting the Habsburgs in the Thirty Years' War, at theBattle of Cecorain SeptemberOctober 1620,[38]but were not able to further intervene efficiently before the Bohemian defeat at theBattle of the White Mountainin November 1620.[39]Later Poles defeated the Ottomans at theBattle of Chocimand the war ended with status quo.[40]The emperor, who had been preoccupied with theUskok War, hurried to muster an army to stop the Bohemians and their allies from overwhelming his country.Count Bucquoy, the commander of theImperial army, defeated the forces of theProtestant Unionled byCount Mansfeldat theBattle of Sablat, on 10 June 1619. This cut off Count Thurn's communications with Prague, and he was forced to abandon his siege of Vienna. The Battle of Sablat also cost the Protestants an important allySavoy, long an opponent of Habsburg expansion. Savoy had already sent considerable sums of money to the Protestants and even troops to garrison fortresses in theRhineland. The capture of Mansfeld's field chancery revealed the Savoyards' involvement, and they were forced to bow out of the war.16211625[edit]

Contemporary painting showing theBattle of White Mountain(1620), where imperial forces underJohan Tzerclaes, Count of Tillywon a decisive victory.TheSpanishsent an army from Brussels underAmbrosio Spinolato support the Emperor. In addition, the Spanish ambassador to Vienna,Don igo Vlez de Oate, persuaded ProtestantSaxonyto intervene against Bohemia in exchange for control over Lusatia. The Saxons invaded, and the Spanish army in the west prevented the Protestant Union's forces from assisting. Oate conspired to transfer the electoral title from the Palatinate to the Duke of Bavaria in exchange for his support and that of the Catholic League.The Catholic League's army (which includedRen Descartesin its ranks as an observer) pacified Upper Austria, while Imperial forces underJohan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly, pacified Lower Austria. The two armies united and moved north into Bohemia. Ferdinand II decisively defeated Frederick V at theBattle of White Mountain, nearPrague, on 8 November 1620. In addition to becoming Catholic, Bohemia would remain in Habsburg hands for nearly three hundred years.This defeat led to the dissolution of theLeague of Evangelical Unionand the loss of Frederick V's holdings despite the tenacious defence of Trebon, Bohemia (under Colonel Seton) until 1622 and Frankenthal (under Colonel Vere) the following year.[41]Frederick was outlawed from the Holy Roman Empire, and his territories, the Rhenish Palatinate, were given to Catholic nobles. His title of elector of the Palatinate was given to his distant cousin, Duke Maximilian of Bavaria. Frederick, now landless, made himself a prominent exile abroad and tried to curry support for his cause in Sweden, the Netherlands and Denmark.This was a serious blow to Protestant ambitions in the region. As the rebellion collapsed, the widespread confiscation of property and suppression of the Bohemian nobility ensured the country would return to the Catholic side after more than two centuries ofHussiteand other religious dissent. The Spanish, seeking to outflank the Dutch in preparation for renewal of theEighty Years' War, took Frederick's lands, theElectorate of the Palatinate. The first phase of the war in eastern Germany ended 31 December 1621, when the Prince of Transylvania and the Emperor signed thePeace of Nikolsburg, which gave Transylvania a number of territories inRoyal Hungary.

Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly, commander of the Bavarian and Imperial armies.Some historians regard the period from 1621 to 1625 as a distinct portion of the Thirty Years' War, calling it the "Palatinate phase". With the catastrophic defeat of the Protestant army at White Mountain and the departure of the Prince of Transylvania, greater Bohemia was pacified. However, the war in the Palatinate continued: Famous mercenary leaders such as, particularly, CountErnst von Mansfeld[42] helped Frederick V to defend his countries, the Upper and the Rhine Palatinate. This phase of the war consisted of much smaller battles, mostly sieges conducted by the Spanish and the Imperial armies.MannheimandHeidelbergfell in 1622, andFrankenthalwas finally transferred two years later,thus leaving the Palatinate in the hands of the Spanish.The remnants of the Protestant armies, led by CountErnst von Mansfeldand DukeChristian of Brunswick, withdrew into Dutch service. Although their arrival in the Netherlands did help to lift the siege ofBergen-op-Zoom(October 1622), the Dutch could not provide permanent shelter for them. They were paid off and sent to occupy neighboring East Frisia. Mansfeld remained in the Dutch Republic, but Christian wandered off to "assist" his kin in theLower Saxon Circle, attracting the attentions of Count Tilly. With the news that Mansfeld would not be supporting him, Christian's army began a steady retreat toward the safety of the Dutch border. On 6 August 1623, ten miles short of the border, Tilly's more disciplined army caught up with them. In the ensuingBattle of Stadtlohn, Christian was decisively defeated, losing over four-fifths of his army, which had been some 15,000 strong. After this catastrophe, Frederick V, already in exile in The Hague, and under growing pressure from his father-in-law, James I, to end his involvement in the war, was forced to abandon any hope of launching further campaigns. The Protestant rebellion had been crushed.Huguenot rebellions (16201628)[edit]Main article:Huguenot rebellions

Cardinal Richelieuat theSiege of La Rochelleagainst theHuguenots(byHenri Motte, 1881).Following theWars of Religionof 15621598, the ProtestantHuguenotsof France (mainly located in the southwestern provinces) had enjoyed two decades of internal peace underHenry IV, who, originally a Huguenot before converting to Catholicism, had protected Protestants through theEdict of Nantes. His successor,Louis XIII, under the regency of his Italian Catholic mother,Marie de' Medici, was much less tolerant. The Huguenots responded to increasing persecution by arming themselves, forming independent political and military structures, establishing diplomatic contacts with foreign powers, and finally, openly revolting against the central power. The revolt became an international conflict with the involvement of England in theAnglo-French War (1627-1629). The House of Stuart in great Britain had been involved in attempts to secure peace in Europe (through theSpanish Match), and had intervened in the war against bothSpainand France. However, defeat by the French (which indirectly led to the assassination of the English leader theDuke of Buckingham), lack of funds for war, and internal conflict betweenCharles Iand his Parliament led to a redirection of English involvement in European affairs much to the dismay of Protestant forces on the continent. This saw the continued reliance on the Anglo-Dutch brigade as the main agency of English military participation against the Habsburgs, though regiments also fought for Sweden thereafter.[43]France remained the largest Catholic kingdom unaligned with the Habsburg powers, and would later actively wage war against Spain. The French Crown's response to the Huguenot rebellion was not so much a representation of the typical religious polarization of the Thirty Years' War, but rather of an attempt at achieving national hegemony by an absolutist monarchy.Danish intervention (16251629)[edit]

Catholic GeneralAlbrecht von Wallenstein.Peace following the Imperial victory at Stadtlohn (1623) proved short-lived, with conflict resuming at the initiation of Denmark. Danish involvement, referred to as theLow Saxon WarorKejserkrigen("the Emperor's War"),[44]began whenChristian IV of Denmark, a Lutheran who also ruled asDuke of Holstein, a duchy within the Holy Roman Empire, helped the Lutheran rulers of neighbouringLower Saxonyby leading an army against the Imperial forces in 1625.[45]Denmark had feared that the recent Catholic successes threatened itssovereigntyas a Protestant nation. Christian IV had also profited greatly from his policies in northern Germany. For instance, in 1621, Hamburg had been forced to accept Danish sovereignty. Christian IV had obtained for his kingdom a level of stability and wealth that was virtually unmatched elsewhere in Europe[citation needed]. This stability and wealth was paid for by tolls on theOresundand also by extensive war-reparations from Sweden.[46]Denmark's cause was aided by France which, together with Charles I, had agreed to help subsidize the war. not least because Christian was a blood uncle to both the Stuart king and his sisterElizabeth of Bohemiathrough their mother,Anna of Denmark. Some 13,700 Scottish soldiers were to be sent as allies to help Christian IV under the command of GeneralRobert Maxwell, 1st Earl of Nithsdale.[47]Moreover, some 6000 English troops under Charles Morgan also eventually arrived to bolster the defence of Denmark though it took longer for these to arrive than Christian hoped, not least due to the ongoing British campaigns against France and Spain. Thus Christian, as war-leader of the Lower Saxon Circle, entered the war with an army of only 20,000 mercenaries, some of his allies from Britain and a national army 15,000 strong, leading them as Duke of Holstein rather than as King of Denmark.

Map of the Thirty Years' WarTo fight Christian, Ferdinand II employed the military help ofAlbrecht von Wallenstein, a Bohemian nobleman who had made himself rich from the confiscated estates of his countrymen.[48]Wallenstein pledged his army, which numbered between 30,000 and 100,000 soldiers, to Ferdinand II in return for the right to plunder the captured territories. Christian, who knew nothing of Wallenstein's forces when he invaded, was forced to retire before the combined forces of Wallenstein and Tilly. Christian's poor luck continued when all of the allies he thought he had were forced aside: France was in the midst of a civil war, Sweden was at war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and neither Brandenburg nor Saxony were interested in changes to the tenuous peace in eastern Germany. Unfortunately neither of the substantial British contingents arrived in time to prevent Wallenstein defeating Mansfeld's army at theBattle of Dessau Bridge(1626) or Tilly's victory at theBattle of Lutter(1626).[49]Mansfeld died some months later of illness, apparently tuberculosis, inDalmatia.Wallenstein's army marched north, occupyingMecklenburg,Pomerania, andJutlanditself, but proved unable to take the Danish capitalCopenhagenon the island ofZealand. Wallenstein lacked a fleet, and neither theHanseaticports nor thePoleswould allow the building of an Imperial fleet on theBalticcoast. Hethen laid siegetoStralsund, the only belligerent Baltic port with sufficient facilities to build a large fleet; it soon became clear, however, that the cost of continuing the war would far outweigh any gains from conquering the rest of Denmark.[50]Wallenstein feared losing his North German gains to a Danish-Swedish alliance, while Christian IV had suffered another defeat in theBattle of Wolgast(1628); both were ready to negotiate.[51]Negotiations concluded with theTreaty of Lbeckin 1629, which stated that Christian IV could retain control over Denmark if he would abandon his support for the Protestant German states. Thus in the following two years the Catholic powers subjugated more land. At this point the Catholic League persuaded Ferdinand II to take back the Lutheran holdings that were, according to the Peace of Augsburg, rightfully the possession of the Catholic Church. Enumerated in theEdict of Restitution(1629), these possessions included two Archbishoprics, sixteen bishoprics, and hundreds of monasteries. In the same year Gabriel Bethlen, the Calvinist Prince of Transylvania, died. Only the port ofStralsundcontinued to hold out against Wallenstein and the Emperor, having been bolstered by Scottish 'volunteers' wo arrived from the Swedish army to support their countrymen already there in the service of Denmark. These men were led by ColonelAlexander Lesliewho became governor of the city.[52]As Colonel Robert Monro recorded:"Sir Alexander Leslie being made Governour, he resolved for the credit of his Country-men, to make an out-fall upon the Enemy, and desirous to conferre the credit on his own Nation alone, being his first Essay in that Citie"[53]Leslie held Stralsund until 1630, using the port as a base to capture the surrounding towns and ports in order to provide a secure beach-head for a full scale Swedish landing underGustavus Adolphus.Swedish intervention (16301635)[edit]Main article:Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War

The victory ofGustavus Adolphusat theBattle of Breitenfeld (1631).Some within Ferdinand II's court did not trust Wallenstein, believing that he sought to join forces with the German Princes and thus gain influence over the Emperor. Ferdinand II dismissed Wallenstein in 1630. He was later to recall him, after the Swedes, led by KingGustavus Adolphus, had successfully invaded the Holy Roman Empire and turned the tables on the Catholics.[54][55]Like Christian IV before him, Gustavus Adolphus came to aid the German Lutherans, to forestall Catholic suzerainty in his back yard, and to obtain economic influence in the German states around the Baltic Sea; he was also concerned about the growing power of the Holy Roman Empire, and, like Christian IV before him, was heavily subsidized byCardinal Richelieu, the Chief Minister ofLouis XIII of France, and by the Dutch.[56]From 1630 to 1634, Swedish-led armies drove the Catholic forces back, regaining much of the lost Protestant territory. During his campaign he managed to conquer half of the Imperial kingdoms, making Sweden the continental leader of Protestantism until theSwedish Empireended in 1721.Swedish forces entered theHoly Roman Empirevia theDuchy of Pomerania, which served as the Swedishbridgeheadsince theTreaty of Stettin (1630). After dismissing Wallenstein in 1630, Ferdinand II became dependent on the Catholic League. Gustavus Adolphus allied with France in theTreaty of Brwalde(January 1631). France and Bavaria signed the secretTreaty of Fontainebleau (1631), but this was rendered irrelevant by Swedish attacks against Bavaria. At theBattle of Breitenfeld (1631), Gustavus Adolphus's forces defeated the Catholic League led by Tilly.[57][58]A year later they met again in another Protestant victory, this time accompanied by the death of Tilly. The upper hand had now switched from the league to the union, led by Sweden. In 1630, Sweden had paid at least 2,368,022dalerfor its army of 42,000 men. In 1632, it contributed only one-fifth of that (476,439daler) towards the cost of an army more than three times as large (149,000 men). This was possible due to subsidies from France, and the recruitment of prisoners (most of them taken at theBattle of Breitenfeld) into the Swedish army.Before that timeSwedenwaged war withPoland-Lithuaniaand couldn't support the Protestant States properly. By that reason the kingGustav IIenlisted support of the tsarMichael Iwho also supported the Habsburgs and had an intention to get backSmolensk. TheSmolensk Warbecame a separate conflict but an integral part of Thirty Years' confrontation.[59]

Scottish soldiers, identified asDonald Mackay Lord Reay's regiment, in service of Gustavus Adolphus, 163031.The majority of mercenaries recruited by Gustavus II Adolphus were German[60]but Scottish soldiers were also very numerous. These were composed of some 12,000 Scots already in service before the Swedes entered the war under the command of General SirJames Spensand colonels such as SirAlexander Leslie, SirPatrick Ruthvenand SirJohn Hepburn. These were joined by a further 8,000 men under the command of James Marquis Hamilton. The total number of Scots in Swedish service by the end of the war is estimated at some 30,000 men,[61]no less than 15 of whom served with the rank of major-general or above.[62]With Tilly dead, Ferdinand II returned to the aid of Wallenstein and his large army. Wallenstein marched up to the south, threatening Gustavus Adolphus's supply chain. Gustavus Adolphus knew that Wallenstein was waiting for the attack and was prepared, but found no other option. Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphus clashed in theBattle of Ltzen (1632), where the Swedes prevailed, but Gustavus Adolphus was killed.Ferdinand II's suspicion of Wallenstein resumed in 1633, when Wallenstein attempted to arbitrate the differences between the Catholic and Protestant sides. Ferdinand II may have feared that Wallenstein would switch sides, and arranged for his arrest after removing him from command. One of Wallenstein's soldiers, Captain Devereux, killed him when he attempted to contact the Swedes in the town hall of Eger (Cheb) on 25 February 1634. The same year, the Protestant forces, lacking Gustav's leadership, were defeated at theFirst Battle of Nrdlingenby the Spanish-Imperial forces commanded byCardinal-Infante Ferdinand.

The Spanish relief ofBreisachby theDuke of Feriain 1633.By the Spring of 1635, all Swedish resistance in the south of Germany had ended. After that, the Imperialist and the Protestant German sides met for negotiations, producing thePeace of Prague (1635), which entailed a delay in the enforcement of the Edict of Restitution for 40 years and allowed Protestant rulers to retain secularized bishoprics held by them in 1627. This protected the Lutheran rulers of northeastern Germany, but not those of the south and west (whose lands had been occupied by the Imperial or League armies prior to 1627).The treaty also provided for the union of the army of the Emperor and the armies of the German states into a single army of the Holy Roman Empire (althoughJohn George I of SaxonyandMaximillian I of Bavariakept, as a practical matter, independent command of their forces, now nominally components of the "Imperial" army). Finally, German princes were forbidden from establishing alliances amongst themselves or with foreign powers, and amnesty was granted to any ruler who had taken up arms against the Emperor after the arrival of the Swedes in 1630.This treaty failed to satisfy France, however, because of the renewed strength it granted the Habsburgs. France then entered the conflict, beginning the final period of the Thirty Years' War. Sweden did not take part in the Peace of Prague and it continued the war together with France.Initially after the Peace of Prague, the Swedish armies were pushed back by the re-inforced Imperial army up north into Germany.French intervention and continued Swedish participation (16351648)[edit]

TheBattle of Lens, 1648.France, although Roman Catholic, was a rival of the Holy Roman Empire and Spain.Cardinal Richelieu, the Chief Minister of KingLouis XIII of France, considered the Habsburgs too powerful, since they held a number of territories on France's eastern border, including portions of the Netherlands. Richelieu had already begun intervening indirectly in the war in January 1631, when the French diplomat Hercule de Charnac signed theTreaty of Brwaldewith Gustavus Adolphus, by which France agreed to support the Swedes with 1,000,000livreseach year in return for a Swedish promise to maintain an army in Germany against the Habsburgs. The treaty also stipulated that Sweden would not conclude a peace with the Holy Roman Emperor without first receiving France's approval.After the Swedishrout at Nrdlingenin September 1634 and thePeace of Prague in 1635, in which the Protestant German princes sued for peace with the German emperor, Sweden's ability to continue the war alone appeared doubtful, and Richelieu made the decision to enter into direct war against the Habsburgs. France declared war on Spain in May 1635 and the Holy Roman Empire in August 1636, opening offensives against the Habsburgs in Germany and the Low Countries.[63]France aligned her strategy with the allied Swedes inWismar (1636)andHamburg (1638).After the Peace of Prague, the Swedes reorganised the Royal Army underJohan Banrand created a new one, the Army of the Weser under the command ofAlexander Leslie. The two army groups moved south from spring 1636, re-establishing alliances on the way including a revitalised one with Wilhelm of Hesse-Kassel. The two Swedish armies combined and confronted the Imperialists at theBattle of Wittstock. Despite the odds being stacked against them, the Swedish army won.[64]This success largely reversed many of the effects of their defeat at Nrdlingen, albeit not without creating some tensions between Banr and Leslie.

Soldiers plundering a farm during the thirty years' warbySebastian Vrancx.Emperor Ferdinand II died in 1637 and was succeeded by his sonFerdinand III, who was strongly inclined toward ending the war through negotiations. His army did however win an important success at thebattle of Vlothoin 1638 against a combined Swedish-English-Palatine force. This victory effectively ended the involvement of the Palatinate in the war.French military efforts met with disaster, and the Spanish counter-attacked, invading French territory. The Imperial generalJohann von Werthand Spanish commanderCardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Spainravaged the French provinces of Champagne, Burgundy and Picardy, and even threatened Paris in 1636. Then the tide began to turn for the French. The Spanish army was repulsed byBernhard of Saxe-Weimar. Bernhard's victory in the Battle ofCompignepushed the Habsburg armies back towards the borders of France.[65]Then, for a time, widespread fighting ensued until 1640, with neither side gaining an advantage.However, the war reached a climax and the tide of the war turned clearly toward the French and against Spain in 1640 starting with the siege and capture of the fort atArras.[66](This is the battle mentioned inEdmond Rostand's play,Cyrano de Bergerac, as being the battle in which Rostand's fictional character Cyrano fought.) The French conquered Arras from the Spanish following a siege that lasted from 16 June to 9 August 1640. When Arras fell, the way was opened to the French to take all of Flanders.[67]The ensuing French campaign against the Spanish forces in Flanders culminated with a decisive French victory atRocroiin May 1643.[68]News of these French victories provided strong encouragement to separatist movements in the Spanish provinces ofCataloniaandPortugal.[67]The Catalonian revolt had sprung up spontaneously in May 1640.[69]Since that time it had been the conscious goal of Cardinal Richelieu to promote a "war by diversion" against the Spanish.[70]Richelieu wanted to create difficulties for the Spanish at home which might encourage them to withdraw from the war. To fight this war by diversion Cardinal Richelieu had been supplying aid to the Catalonians.[68]

A landscape with travellers ambushed outside a small town, painted by VrancxIn December 1640, the Portuguese rose up against Spanish rule and once again Richelieu supplied aid to the insurgents.[68]The war by diversion had its intended effect.Philip IV of Spainwas reluctantly forced to divert his attention from the war in northern Europe to deal with his problems at home.[68]Indeed, even at this time, some of Philip's advisers, including theCount of Oate, were recommending that Philip withdraw from overseas commitments.[68]With bothTrier,AlsaceandLorraineall in French hands and the Dutch in charge ofLimburg, the Channel and theNorth Sea, the "Spanish Road" connecting Habsburg Spain with the Habsburg possessions in the Netherlands and Austria was severed. Philip IV could no longer physically send reinforcements to the Low Countries.[68]On 4 December 1642, Cardinal Richelieu died. However, his policy of war by diversion continued to pay dividends to France. Spain was unable to resist the continuing drumbeat of French victories--Gravelineswas lost to the French in 1644, followed byHulstin 1645 andDunkirkin 1646.[68]The Thirty Years' War would continue until 1648[71]and the conflict between France and Spain until 1659, but in the end a new order on the continent was established. This new order was embodied in the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659 which finally ended the war between France and Spain.[72]Meanwhile, an important act in the war was played out by the Swedes. After the battle of Wittstock, the Swedish army regained the initiative in the German campaign. In theSecond Battle of Breitenfeldin 1642, outside Leipzig, the Swedish Field MarshalLennart Torstensondefeated an army of the Holy Roman Empire led byArchduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austriaand his deputy, Prince-GeneralOttavio Piccolomini, Duke of Amalfi. The Imperial army suffered 20,000 casualties. In addition, the Swedish army took 5,000 prisoners and seized 46 guns, at a cost to themselves of 4,000 killed or wounded. The battle enabled Sweden to occupy Saxony and impressed on Ferdinand III the need to include Sweden, and not only France, in any peace negotiations.

The Battle of Rocroi, byAugusto Ferrer-Dalmau.In 1643, Louis XIII died, leaving his five-year-old sonLouis XIVon the throne. Mere days later, French GeneralLouis II de Bourbon, 4th Prince de Cond, Duc d'Enghien, The Great Conddefeated the Spanish army at theBattle of Rocroiin 1643. The same year, however, the French were defeated by the Imperial and Catholic League forces at thebattle of Tuttlingen. The chief minister of Louis XIII,Cardinal Mazarin, facing the domestic crisis of theFrondein 1645, began working to end the war.

The Swedishsiege of Praguein 1648.In 1643, Denmark made preparations to again intervene in the war, but on the Imperial side (against Sweden). The Swedish marshalLennart TorstensonexpelledDanish prince FrederickfromBremen-Verden, gaining a stronghold south of Denmark and hindering Danish participation as mediators in thepeace talks in Westphalia.[73]Torstensson went on to occupyJutland, and after theRoyal Swedish NavyunderCarl Gustaf Wrangelinflicted a decisive defeat on theDanish Navyin the battle of Fehmern Belt in anaction of 13 October 1644forcing them to sue for peace. With Denmark out of the war, Torstenson then pursued the Imperial army underGallasfromJutlandin Denmark down to Bohemia. At theBattle of Jankaunear Prague, the Swedish army defeated the Imperial army under Gallas and could occupy Bohemian lands and threatenPragueas well asVienna.

Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648.In 1645, a French army under Turenne was almost destroyed by the Bavarians at theBattle of Herbsthausen. However, reinforced byLouis II de Bourbon, Prince de Cond, it the defeated its opponent in theSecond Battle of Nrdlingen. The last Catholic commander of note, BaronFranz von Mercy, died in the battle.[74]On the other hand, the French army's effort on the Rhine had little result, in contrast to its string of victories in Flanders and Artois[75]. The same year, the Swedes entered Austria and besieged Vienna, but they could not take the city and had to retreat. The siege of Brnn in Bohemia proved as fruitless as the Swedish army met with fierce resistance from the Habsburg forces. After five months, the Swedish army, severely worn out, had to withdraw.On 14 March 1647Bavaria,Cologne, France and Sweden signed theTruce of Ulm. In 1648 the Swedes (commanded by MarshalCarl Gustaf Wrangel) and the French (led by Turenne and Cond) defeated the Imperial army at theBattle of Zusmarshausenand the Spanish atLens. TheBattle of Praguein 1648 became the last action of the Thirty Years' War. The generalHans Christoff von Knigsmarck, commanding Sweden's flying column, entered the city and capturedPrague Castle(where the event that triggered the war theDefenestration of Prague took place, 30 years before). There they captured many valuable treasures, including theCodex Gigaswhich is still today preserved inStockholm. However they failed to conquer the right-bank part of Prague, which resisted until the end of the war. These results left only the Imperial territories of Austria safely in Habsburg hands.Peace of Westphalia[edit]Main article:Peace of WestphaliaOver a four-year period, the parties (Holy Roman Emperor, France and Sweden) were actively negotiating at Osnabrck and Mnster in Westphalia.[76]The end of the war was not brought about by one treaty but instead by a group of treaties such as theTreaty of Hamburg. On 15 May 1648, thePeace of Mnsterwas signed ending the Thirty Years' War. Over five months later, on 24 October, the Treaties of Mnster and Osnabrck were signed.[76][77][78]Casualties and disease[edit]

Marauding soldiers. Vranx, 1647,Deutsches Historisches Museum Berlin

A peasant begs for mercy in front of a burning farm.So great was the devastation brought about by the war that estimates put the reduction of population in theGerman statesat about 25% to 40%.[79]Some regions were affected much more than others.[80]For example,Wrttemberglost three-quarters of its population during the war.[81]In the territory ofBrandenburg, the losses had amounted to half, while in some areas an estimated two-thirds of the population died.[82]The male population of the German states was reduced by almost half.[83]The population of theCzech landsdeclined by a third due to war, disease, famine and the expulsion of Protestant Czechs.[84][85]Much of the destruction of civilian lives and property was caused by the cruelty and greed of mercenary soldiers.[86]Villages were especially easy prey to the marauding armies. Those that survived, like the small village ofDraisnearMainz, would take almost a hundred years to recover. TheSwedisharmies alone may have destroyed up to 2,000 castles, 18,000 villages and 1,500 towns in Germany, one-third of all German towns.[87]The war caused serious dislocations to both the economies and populations of central Europe, but may have done no more than seriously exacerbate changes that had begun earlier.[88][89]Also, some historians contend that the human cost of the war may actually have improved the living standards of the survivors.[90]According to Ulrich Pfister, Germany was one of the richest countries in Europe per capita in 1500 but ranked far lower in 1600. Then, it recovered during the 1600-1660 period, in part thanks to the demographic shock of the Thirty Years War.Pestilenceof several kinds raged among combatants and civilians in Germany and surrounding lands from 1618 to 1648. Many features of the war spread disease. These included troop movements, the influx of soldiers from foreign countries, and the shifting locations of battle fronts. In addition, the displacement of civilian populations and the overcrowding ofrefugeesinto cities led to both disease and famine. Information about numerous epidemics is generally found in local chronicles, such as parish registers and tax records, that are often incomplete and may be exaggerated. The chronicles do show that epidemic disease was not a condition exclusive to war time, but was present in many parts of Germany for several decades prior to 1618.[91]When the Danish and Imperial armies clashed inSaxonyandThuringiaduring 1625 and 1626, disease and infection in local communities increased. Local chronicles repeatedly referred to "head disease", "Hungarian disease", and a "spotted" disease identified astyphus. After theMantuan War, between France and the Habsburgs in Italy, the northern half of the Italian peninsula was in the throes of abubonic plagueepidemic (seeItalian Plague of 16291631). During the unsuccessfulsiege of Nuremberg, in 1632, civilians and soldiers in both the Swedish and Imperial armies succumbed to typhus andscurvy. Two years later, as the Imperial army pursued the defeated Swedes into southwest Germany, deaths from epidemics were high along theRhineRiver.Bubonic plaguecontinued to be a factor in the war. Beginning in 1634,Dresden, Munich, and smaller German communities such asOberammergaurecorded large numbers of plague casualties. In the last decades of the war, bothtyphusanddysenteryhad become endemic in Germany.Witch hunts[edit]

A 1627engravingof theBambergMalefizhaus, where suspected witches were held and interrogated.Among the greattraumasabetted by the war was a major outbreak ofwitchcraft persecutions. This violent wave ofwitch-huntingfirst erupted in the territories ofFranconiafollowing the first phase of the war. However, the hardship and turmoil forced on the population by the conflict enabled thehysteriato spread quickly to other parts ofGermany. Residents of areas that had been devastated not only by the conflict itself, but also by the numerouscrop failures,faminesandepidemicsthat came with it, were quick to attribute these calamities to varioussupernaturalcauses. In this tumultuous and highlyvolatile environmentallegations ofwitchcraftagainst neighbors and fellow citizens flourished.[92]The sheer volume of trials and executions during this time would mark the period as the peak of theEuropean witch-hunting phenomenon.[93]The persecutions began in theBishopric of Wurzburg, under the leadership ofPrince-BishopPhillip Adolf von Ehrenberg. An ardent devotee of theCounter-Reformation, Ehrenberg was eager to consolidateCatholicpolitical authority in the territories he administered.[94]Beginning in 1626, Ehrenberg staged numerousmass trials for witchcraftin which all levels of society, including thenobilityand theclergy, found themselves targeted in a relentless series ofpurges. By 1630 it is estimated that 219 men, women and children wereburned at the stakein the city ofWurzburgitself, while elsewhere an additional 900 people were believed to have been killed in the rural areas of the province.[93]Concurrent with the events inWurzburg,Prince-BishopJohann Georg Fuchs von Dornheimwould embark upon a similar series oflarge-scale witch trialsin the nearbyterritory of Bamberg. A specially designedMalefizhaus(witch house) was erected containing atorture chamberwhose walls were adorned withBibleverses, in which to interrogate the accused. TheBamberg witch trialswould drag on for years and claimed between 300 and 600 lives before culminating in the infamous 1628tortureanddeath by burningofBamberg'slong-timemayor(Brgermeister),Johannes Junius.[95]Meanwhile, inUpper Bavaria, 274 suspected witches were put to the torch in theBishopric of Eichstattin 1629 while another 50 perished in the adjacentDuchy of Palaitinate-Neuburgthe same year.[96]Elsewhere, the persecutions arrived in the wake of the earlyImperialmilitary successes. The witch hunts would expand intoBadenfollowing its reconquest byTilly, while the defeat ofProtestantismin thePalatinateopened the way for their eventual spread to theRhineland.[93]TheRhenish electoratesofMainzandTrierwould both witnessmass-burningsof suspected witches during this time. InCologne, that territory'sprince-archbishop,Ferdinand of Bavaria, presided over a particularly infamous persecution that included the notorious trial and execution ofKatharina Henotin 1627.[93]During this time thewitch-huntsalso continued their unchecked growth, as new and increased incidents of allegedwitchcraftbegan surfacing in the territories ofWestphalia.Thewitch-huntsreached their peak around the time of theEdict of Restitutionin 1629. Much of thepoliticalandpopular enthusiasmfor them faded quickly afterSweden's entry into the warthe following year. However, inWrzburgthe persecutions would continue until the death ofEhrenbergin 1631.[93]The excesses of this period would inspire theJesuit scholarandpoet(and formerwitch-confessor)FatherFriedrich Speeto author his scathinglegalandmoralcondemnation of the witch trials, theCautio Criminalis. This influential work would later be credited with bringing an end to the practice ofwitch-burningin some areas ofGermanyand its gradual abolition throughout Europe.[97]Political consequences[edit]

Central Europe at the end of the Thirty Years' War, showing the fragmentation that resulted in decentralization.One result of the war was the division of Germany into many territories all of which, despite their membership in the Empire, wonde factosovereignty. This limited the power of theHoly Roman Empireand decentralized German power.The Thirty Years' War rearranged the European power structure. The last decade of the conflict saw clear signs of Spain weakening. While Spain was fighting in France, Portugal which had been underpersonal unionwith Spain for 60 years acclaimedJohn IV of Braganzaas king in 1640, and theHouse of Braganzabecame the new dynasty of Portugal (seePortuguese Restoration War, for further information). Meanwhile, Spain was forced to accept the independence of theDutch Republicin 1648, ending theEighty Years' War. Bourbon France challenged Habsburg Spain's supremacy in theFranco-Spanish War (163559); gaining definitive ascendancy in theWar of Devolution(166768), and theFranco-Dutch War(167278), under the leadership ofLouis XIV.For Austria and Bavaria, the result of the war was ambiguous. Bavaria ended up defeated, devastated and occupied but it won some territories at the peace of Westphalia. Austria, on the other hand, had utterly failed in reasserting its authority in the empire but it had successfully suppressed protestantism in its own dominions. Compared to large parts of Germany, its territory was not significantly devastated, and its army remained stronger after the war than it was before[98]. This allowed it to play an important role in the following decades and to regain some authority on the other German states in order to face the growing threat of the Ottoman Empire and France.From 164345, during the last years of the Thirty Years' War, Sweden and Denmark fought theTorstenson War. The result of that conflict and the conclusion of the great European war at thePeace of Westphaliain 1648 helped establish post-war Sweden as a major force in Europe.The edicts agreed upon during the signing of thePeace of Westphaliawere instrumental in laying the foundations for what are even today considered the basic tenets of thesovereignnation-state. Aside from establishing fixed territorial boundaries for many of the countries involved in the ordeal (as well as for the newer ones created afterwards), the Peace of Westphalia changed the relationship of subjects to their rulers. In earlier times, people had tended to have overlapping political and religious loyalties. Now, it was agreed that the citizenry of a respective nation were subjected first and foremost to the laws and whims of their own respective government rather than to those of other entities, be they religious or secular.

Reduction in population of Holy Roman Empire as a percentageThe war also had a few more subtle consequences. The Thirty Years' War marked the last major religious war inmainland Europe, ending the large-scale religious bloodshed accompanying theReformation, which had begun over a century before. There were other religious conflicts in the years to come, but no great wars.[99]Also, the destruction caused bymercenarysoldiers defied description (seeSchwedentrunk). The war did much to end the age ofmercenariesthat had begun with the firstLandsknechts, and ushered in the age of well-disciplined national armies.

Siege of Breda, 1624-25 byDiego Velzquez

A cavalry battle circa 1640, by Flemish painterSebastian VrancxThe war also had consequences abroad, as the European powers extended their fight via naval power to overseas colonies. In 1630, a Dutch fleet of 70 shipshad taken the rich sugar-exporting areas of Pernambuco (Brazil) from the Portuguesethough it would lose them by 1654. Fighting also took place in Africa and Asia. The destruction of theKoneswaram templeofTrincomaleein 1624 andKetheeswaram templeaccompanied an extensive campaign of destruction of five hundred Hindu shrines, theSaraswathi Mahal Libraryand forced conversion to Roman Catholicism in the Tamil country conducted by thePortuguese upon their conquestof theJaffna kingdom. The country witnessed battles of the Thirty Years' War and general hostilities of theEighty Years' War;Phillip IIandIIIof Portugal and later the Dutch and English used forts built from the destroyed temples, includingFort Fredrickin Trincomalee, to fight sea battles with the Dutch, Danish, the French and English which saw the beginning of the loss of the sovereign Tamil nation-state on the island.[100][101]