threatened species scientific committee

TTHHRREEAATTEENNEEDD SSPPEECCIIEESS SSCCIIEENNTTIIFFIICC CCOOMMMMIITTTTEEEE Established under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999

The Minister’s delegate approved this conservation advice on 01/10/2015

Megaptera novaeangliae (humpback whale) conservation advice

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Conservation Advice

Megaptera novaeangliae humpback whale

Conservation Status Megaptera novaeangliae (humpback whale) is listed as Vulnerable under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cwlth) (EPBC Act). The species is eligible for listing as Vulnerable as, prior to the commencement of the EPBC Act, it was listed as Vulnerable under Schedule 1 of the Endangered Species Protection Act 1992 (Cwlth).

Humpback whales were listed as Vulnerable due to their small population size following unsustainable industrial whaling last century.

Woinarski, Burbidge and Harrison (2014) reviewed the conservation status of the humpback whale and considered it to be of Least Concern. The Threatened Species Scientific Committee is using the findings of Woinarski et al., (2014) to consider whether reassessment of the conservation status of each of threatened mammals listed under the EPBC Act is required.

Description

Humpback whales have a near global distribution and are characterised by high latitude feeding areas and low latitude breeding and calving areas with annual migrations between them. Two populations of humpback whales calve in Australian waters and migrate along the east and west coasts from May to November each year. Humpback whales are also known to migrate past Norfolk Island but it is not known if this is a distinct population, part of the East Australian population, or part of the New Caledonia population.

Humpback whales can be distinguished by their long pectoral fins (up to 5 m in length), tail fluke shape and pigmentation patterns (Winn & Reichley 1985). The tail fluke shape and pigmentation pattern are unique to each individual and are used by researchers to reliably identify individuals for studies of population distribution, migratory patterns and population structure.

Mature humpback whales are between 15-18 m and can weigh up to 40 tonnes (Winn & Reichley 1985). Humpback whales are filter feeders and have 14-22 widely spaced throat grooves and 270-400 baleen plates that enable effective prey capture (Clapham & Mead 1999). Another characteristic of humpback whales are the protuberances or tubercles on the head, jaws and flippers. Core calving areas have been identified on both the east and west coast of Australia, with gestation generally taking 11.5 months (Clapham 2009), and the average inter-birth interval being 2.36 years (Taylor et al., 2007). Calves start to wean at approximately 6 months and are independent from their mothers after their first year (Clapham 1996).

The pre-exploitation population estimates for the eastern and western Australian populations are 22,000 – 25,000 and 16,000-30,000 but by the 1960s, shore-based and pelagic whaling severely depleted both populations to a few hundred animals (Bannister & Hedley 2001), (Chittleborough 1965).

Population Structure, Abundance and trend The International Whaling Commission (IWC) currently recognizes seven distinct breeding stocks of humpback whales in the southern hemisphere (Groups A-G). The Australian populations are designated Group D (western Australia) coast and Group E1 (eastern Australian). Genetic


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research has identified low-levels of genetic differentiation between the western and eastern Australian Humpback Whale breeding populations (Schmitt et al., 2014). Both the western and the eastern Australian populations are recovering, and the rate of population increase for these two populations is thought to be between 10.9-11% per year for the eastern Australian population (Noad et al., 2011a; Noad et al., 2011b, Paton & Kniest 2011), and between 9.7-13% for the western Australian population (Hedley et al., 2009; Hedley et al., 2011a; Salgado et al., 2012).

Population abundance for the west coast Australian D population estimates in 2008 were between 26,100 (CI = 20,152–33,272) (Salgado Kent et al., 2012) and 28,830 (95% CI 23,710-40,100) (Hedley et al. 2011b). Although the relative abundance estimates from these studies are generally well received the absolute abundance estimates are considered unreliable due to the difficulties in obtaining conclusive data on whale numbers due to varied whale behaviour (IWC 2006). The east coast E1 population is slightly smaller with absolute abundance in 2010 estimated at about 14,522 whales (95% CI 12,777 – 16,504) (Noad et al. 2011b).

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) status of humpback whales in 2012 was downgraded to Least Concern for the global range of the species; however the Oceania subpopulation (consisting of East Australia (E1), New Caledonia (E2), Tonga (E3), Cook Islands (F1) and French Polynesia (F2) populations) and the Arabian Sea subpopulation were assessed as Endangered.

The Action Plan for Australian Mammals 2012 by Woinarski et al., 2014, and a recent paper from Bejder et al., 2015 recommend that humpback whales no longer meet any criteria for listing as threatened under the EPBC Act. Foraging

Humpback whales in the southern Hemisphere primarily feed on Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) (Chittleborough 1965). Feeding humpback whales are widely distributed along the Antarctic ice-edge (Chittleborough 1965), and the Australian Antarctic Territory waters are important feeding grounds for both Australian populations of humpback whales (Thiele et al., 2000). Feeding has been observed in Australia’s coastal waters but this is thought to primarily be opportunistic and forms only a small portion of their nutritional requirements (Thiele 2004). Feeding has regularly been observed on the southern migration off the coast of Eden in New South Whales (Stockin & Burgess 2005; Stamation et. al. 2007) and off Tasmania’s east coast (Gill et. al. 1998). Feeding has also been observed off South Australia (Gill et. al. 2015), Fraser Island, Queensland (Vang 2002), and may also occur in northern waters of the Great Barrier Reef (Chaloupka & Osmond 1999; Warnecke 1995).

Humpback Whale Distribution Map (pg 3) – Description of Identified Ares Core Calving Area where the majority of humpback whale calving occurs

Feeding Area where humpback whales are regularly observed feeding around Australia (excluding Antarctic waters)

Resting Sheltered area where humpback whales are known to rest during the southern migration

Species Core Range Humpback whales travel through this area on a seasonal basis as part of their migratory movements

Likely Species Range Humpback whales may be present on a seasonal basis Note: While these described areas are indicative of these behaviours, these behaviours are not restricted to these areas and may occur elsewhere


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Australian Distribution The distribution, core calving, resting and feeding areas for humpback whales in Australian waters are illustrated in the humpback whale Distribution Map (pg 3). The indicative migratory pathways and times of peak migration through Australian waters are presented in the humpback whale Migration Routes Map (pg 6).

Both the west and east coast populations of humpback whales migrate along the Australian coast from May to November each year. Cow and calf migration can occur up to four weeks after the southern peak migration period.

Calving

Known calving areas (based on observations of mothers with very young calves) for Australian humpback whales include:

• Western Australia - Southern Kimberley between Broome and the northern end of Camden Sound;

• Queensland - Great Barrier Reef between approximately 14° S and 27° S; and • less frequently, along the migratory pathways.

Major calving areas have been identified for the western Australian population in the Kimberley region and particularly between Lacepede Islands (16°8S) and Camden Sound (15°38S) (Jenner et al., 2001). There is a migration path between Point Cloates and North West Cape and high concentrations of humpback whales are observed in Camden Sound and Pender bay between June and September each year (DEWHA 2008b). Humpback whales migrate north from their Antarctic feeding grounds around May each year, reaching the waters of the north-west marine region in early June. Immature individuals and lactating females arrive first, followed by non-pregnant females arriving last. Breeding and calving takes place between mid-August and early September when the southern migration starts. Females with calves are the last to leave the breeding grounds stopping to rest in Exmouth Gulf and Shark Bay.

The calving area for the eastern Australian humpback whale population is presumed to be off the coast between central and northern Queensland (Chittleborough 1965; Smith et al., 2012). Although the exact location is still unknown, recent research using a predictive habitat model, has isolated two core areas for humpback whale distribution in the southern Great Barrier Reef region east of Mackay and further south in the Capricorn and Bunker island groups off Gladstone (Smith et al., 2012). Further research is required to conclusively identify breeding habitats for humpback whales, although this research has identified key areas on which to focus future surveys.

After spending the winter months to breed and calve in the Great Barrier Reef east coast humpback whales migrate south, stopping for variable resting periods in areas with shallow waters such as Hervey Bay, Queensland (Franklin et al., 2011) and Jervis Bay, NSW (Bruce et al., 2014).

Resting

Resting areas are used by cow-calf pairs and attendant males during the southern migration. These whales appear to use sheltered bays to opportunistically rest during migration to the feeding grounds and include:

• Western Australia - southern Kimberley region, Exmouth Gulf, Shark Bay, Geographe Bay, and Augusta;

• Queensland - the Whitsundays, Hervey Bay, Moreton Bay, the Swain Reefs complex, Bell Cay, and the Palm Island Group; and

• NSW - Twofold Bay and Jervis Bay


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In Western Australia there are additional areas of potential importance around Houtman Abrolhos, Montebello and Barrow islands although further research is needed to conclusively determine these as resting areas. Areas such as Shark Bay may also provide resting areas during the northern migration (Jenner et al., 2001). It is also possible that the resting area in Kimberley region may extend further south towards Broome.

Migration

During winter months, humpback whales migrate from their polar summer feeding grounds to their tropical winter breeding grounds (Clapham 2000; Clapham & Mead 1999; Dawbin 1966), an annual migration of up to 10 000 km (DEWR 2007).

Humpback whales migrate between May and November each year. Peak migration times for both populations occur between June and July each year (Northern migration). There has been no such peak observed during the southern migration with more diffuse and irregular movements of whales. Predominantly humpback whales migrate within 50km of the coast of mainland Australia.

In addition, whales are known to travel widely through the waters to the south of Australia during migrations to and from Antarctic feeding areas.

The migration pathway for the western Australian population was found to be within the continental shelf boundary or 200 m bathymetry (Jenner et al., 2001). The eastern Australian humpback whales also migrate in close proximity to the coast of Australia on their way to and from their winter breeding areas. As with the western Australian population, the eastern Australian population tend to migrate further offshore during their northward migration (Paterson et al., 1994; Noad & Cato 2001).

Along parts of the migratory route there are narrow corridors and bottlenecks resulting from physical and other barriers where the majority of the population passes close to shore (within 30 km of the coastline). These habitat areas are important during the time of migration and include:

• Western Australia - Geraldton/Abrolhos Islands, and Point Cloats to North West Cape • Queensland – east of Stradbroke Island, and east of Moreton Island; and • NSW - Cape Byron

Anthropogenic disturbances in migratory routes have unpredicted consequences as overcoming such disturbances depends on whether humpback whales have the ability to adapt their migratory routes. Additionally, migratory routes include other biologically important areas such as resting areas and feeding areas that are essential for whales during migration. There is likely to be considerable individual site fidelity in migratory routes, and changes in usage of migratory routes depending on yearly changes in primary productivity at feeding aggregations, or differences in sex or cohort migration timing or migratory route choice.


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Threats Threats to humpback whales include: A. Whaling - The impacts from commercial whaling on the Australian humpback whale populations have been well documented and commercial whaling ceased on humpback whales in 1963, and they were protected worldwide in 1965 after recognition of a dramatic global decline in numbers. Illegal unreported and unregulated hunting may have continued through to the early 1970’s. There is currently a suspension of commercial whaling under the IWC although as populations recover there may be increased pressure to resume whaling. Whaling for the purposes of scientific research is currently allowed under Article VIII of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. That provision allows member states to issue special permits to kill, take and treat whales for purposes of scientific research. Since 1986 special permits have been issued for minke, fin, sei, sperm, Bryde’s and humpback whale species as part of scientific whaling research programs undertaken by IWC members, including Iceland, Japan, Norway and the Republic of Korea. To date, humpback whales have not been caught under Special Permit whaling. B. Climate and Oceanographic Variability and Change – Potential impacts of climate change include increasing sea surface temperatures, decreasing sea ice cover, rising sea levels, changes to ocean circulations, ocean acidification and changes in salinity (Learmonth et al., 2006). Climate change may lead to changes in species abundance, migration timing and range, species distribution, changes to prey/predator relationships, prey availability and reproductive timing and success, which could impact on the health and survival of species (IWC 2006). Ocean acidification is of concern for marine species with the increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide leading to increased absorption of carbon dioxide into the ocean and a subsequent decrease in the pH of sea water (Levitus et al., 2000). Research has shown that ocean acidification can be detrimental to Antarctic krill reproduction (Kawaguchi et al., 2011). C. Overharvesting of Prey - Depletion of Antartic krill through over-harvesting may be a potential future threat. The abundance of krill is affected by many key factors including: fisheries, predator-prey nutrient cycling, and climate change. Antarctic krill is the primary Southern Hemisphere species of krill harvested by the krill fishery. The Commission established under the Convention of the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) manages the krill fishery catch limits using a precautionary, ecosystem-level sustainable approach that aims to prevent or minimise negative impacts of the krill fishery on natural krill predators.

D. Noise Interference – The impacts of anthropogenic noise sources on marine mammals is an area of increasing concern. Anthropogenic noise sources identified as potential problems include seismic exploration, industrial noise (pile driving, some forms of dredging, use of explosives, blasting and drilling), shipping noise, and sonar systems. The potential impacts of increasing anthropogenic ocean noise can include hearing impairment, organ damage or mortality, masking of vocalisations, change in call frequency or amplitude and behavioural disturbance (Nowacek et al., 2007; Southall et al., 2007). Underwater noise can act as a stressor to marine mammals, which may impact on individual health, and population viability (Wright et al., 2007). The extent to which behaviour is impacted may depend on a number of factors such as distance from the source, prior exposure (habituation), behavioural state, health, gender and age (Nowacek et al., 2007).


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Australian humpback whale populations are facing a projected increase in coastal development and shipping traffic (Bureau of Resources and Energy Economics, 2012; Clifton et al., 2007); particularly due to increasing oil and gas exploration and new port developments. These activities will undoubtedly increase the levels of noise in the marine environment and may have adverse effects on the seasonal use, displacement from these areas, or the alteration of behaviour by humpback whales.

E. Habitat degradation including coastal development and port expansion – Habitat degradation and modification to the coastal region in areas of importance to humpback whales may result in reduced occupancy, compromised reproductive success and even mortality. If there are enough habitats impacted there may be wider reaching implications for the health and growth of populations. This would be more likely to arise where activities that cause habitat degradation occurred cumulatively or intensively. At this time, both populations of humpback whales using Australian waters are increasing at, or close to, the maximum biological rate (Salgado et al., 2012; Hedley et al., 2011a; Noad et al., 2011b). This suggests that to date habitat degradation has not had a negative impact on population or species recovery. Nevertheless, as the population grows and competition for habitat increases this may become a greater issue, and ongoing monitoring and management are required.

Coastal development often includes dredging, blasting, alteration and removal of sediments and alteration to local currents when building or decommissioning structures such as ports, marinas, aquaculture facilities and mining or drilling infrastructure (Bannister et al., 1996). These activities may impact species in the short term through increased acoustic noise, sedimentation or pollution during construction, and in the long term through degradation of habitat suitability or availability. F. Entanglement – An entanglement occurs when a whale is caught in fishing equipment, shark nets, or marine debris and is unable to free itself. Entanglements can cause serious injury and distress to whales, and in some cases lead to the death of the animal. The increased reports of entanglements in Australian waters coincide with an increase in humpback whale populations. Currently eastern and western Australian populations are increasing strongly and therefore the impacts from these factors may be minor in terms of overall species recovery. Nonetheless, as humpback whale populations and coastal development increases, and fisheries activities continue around Australia, there will be an increased chance for negative impacts on individuals.

Commercial fisheries or aquaculture equipment Many of the commercial fisheries (pot / trap) and aquaculture farming sites around Australia are a potential threat to large whales as the nets, cages and lines used for fishing provide opportunities for entanglements. The Australian government is working closely with commercial fishing industries to ensure that all equipment used limits the risk of entanglements of whales. There have been an increased number of entanglements reported in rock lobster pot lines, and the Commonwealth, state agencies and industry are working to reduce whale entanglements through changes to fishing gear and practices.

Shark Safety Equipment A number of States use shark safety equipment at popular swimming beaches to reduce the number of large sharks present in the area. This equipment can consist of both drumlines and/or nets depending on local tidal and marine conditions. There have been a number of whales, including humpback whales, entangled in shark nets over the past few years.


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Marine Debris Marine debris is of human origin and includes plastic garbage such as bags, bottles, ropes etc., derelict fishing gear and non-biodegradable floating materials lost or disposed of at sea. The interaction between marine species and marine debris is listed as a key threatening process under the EPBC Act. Marine debris has the potential to cause negative impacts through entanglement or ingestion. There have been 104 records of cetaceans in Australian waters impacted by plastic debris through entanglement or ingestion since 1998. The vast majority (92.2%) of cetacean incidents relate to entanglement (Ceccarelli 2009), and humpback whales dominated the available records, with around 48 entanglement incidents recorded. G. Vessel disturbance and strike – Collisions with vessels are one of the main (known) causes of mortality to baleen whales (Vanderlaan & Taggart 2007). There has been a significant increase in the number of commercial, industrial and recreational vessels in coastal waters. Thus, the threat of ship strikes to whales may also increase. Laist et al. 2001 showed that high speed vessels, travelling faster than 14 knots, were involved in 15% of the 40 accounts of ship strikes reported worldwide. Humpback whales are one of the most frequently reported whale species involved in vessel strikes worldwide (Laist et al., 2001; Jensen & Silber 2003). The increase in vessel numbers (Silber & Bettridge 2012) is not only a threat to humpback whales in relation to vessel strikes but also in disturbance and displacement from key habitats.

Whale watching – Commercial and Recreational The popularity of the whale watching industry has steadily increased in recent years and is of growing economic importance worldwide. The whale watching operators are focused seasonally on humpback whales between June and November on the east and west coasts of Australia. Although states actively manage whale watching and have adopted the national standards developed in 2005 (the Australian National Guidelines for Whale and Dolphin Watching 2005), management arrangements and additional management considerations differ depending on the jurisdiction. The Australian National Guidelines for Whale and Dolphin Watching 2005 are currently being reviewed to ensure they represent best practice. Whale watching in general is beneficial for the conservation of species through education and observation of animals in their natural habitat, however, there is increasing concern about the number of whale watch operators and recreational vessels interacting with whales within certain times and areas, and the potential for cumulative impacts on individuals as the whales migrate. Conservation Actions

Conservation and Management Actions

Maintain and improve existing legal and management protection • Continue or improve existing legislative management actions under the EPBC Act,

including the Australian Whale Sanctuary provisions. • Australia should maintain its position on promoting high levels of protection for

humpback whales in all relevant international agreements including the IWC, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Spieces of Wild Flora and Fuana (CITES), Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), fisheries related agreements, and the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM).

Understanding impacts of climate variability and change • Continue to meet Australia’s international commitments to reduce greenhouse gas

emissions and regulate the krill fishery in Antarctica.


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Assessing and addressing anthropogenic noise; shipping, industrial and seismic surveys • All seismic surveys must be undertaken consistently with the EPBC Act Policy

Statement 2.1 – Interaction between offshore seismic exploration and whales. Should a survey be undertaken in or near a calving, resting, foraging area, or a confined migratory pathway then Part B. Additional Management Procedures must also be applied.

• For actions involving acoustic impacts (example pile driving, explosives) on humpback whale calving, resting, feeding areas, or confined migratory pathways site specific acoustic modelling should be undertaken (including cumulative noise impacts).

• Should acoustic impacts on humpback calving, resting, foraging areas, or confined migratory pathways be identified a noise management plan should be developed. This can include: o the use of shutdown and caution zones, o pre and post activity observations, o the use of marine mammal observers and / or Passive Acoustic Monitoring

(PAMS), and o Implementation of an adaptive management program following verification of the

noise levels produced from the action (i.e. if the noise levels created exceed original expectations).

Addressing infrastructure and coastal development impacts • Environmental assessment processes must ensure that existing information about

coastal habitat requirements of humpback whales, environmental suitability of coastal locations, historic high use and emerging areas are taken into consideration.

• Environmental assessment and approval processes must ensure that the impacts of coastal development on humpback whales are addressed and minimised. Mitigation and management measures for the construction stage and the ongoing operational impacts are to be included in any plans of management. Significant residual impacts must be offset.

Reducing commercial fishing entanglements • Commonwealth and state governments with the pot and set net fishing industries to

develop and implement codes of conduct to minimise interactions between commercial fishers and humpback whales.

• Investigate alternative fishing techniques and technologies to reduce the risk of entanglement.

Minimising vessel collisions • Develop a national vessel strike strategy that investigates the risk of vessel strikes on

humpback whales and also identifies potential mitigation measures to reduce the risk of collision.

• Maximise the likelihood that all vessel strike incidents are reported in the National Ship Strike Database. All cetaceans are protected in Commonwealth waters and, the EPBC Act requires that all collisions with whales in Commonwealth waters are reported. Vessel collisions can be submitted to the National Ship Strike Database at https://data.marinemammals.gov.au/report/shipstrike

• Ensure the risk of vessel strike on humpback whales is considered when assessing actions that increase vessel traffic in areas where humpback whales occur and, if required appropriate mitigation measures are implemented to reduce the risk of vessel strike.

• Enhance education programs to inform vessel operators of best practice behaviours and regulations for interacting with humpback whales.

https://data.marinemammals.gov.au/report/shipstrike


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Survey and Monitoring priorities Measuring and monitoring population recovery

• Continue long-term monitoring of east and west coast populations at appropriate multi-annual intervals to quantify rates of population increase, abundance, migratory interchange and population structure

Information and research priorities

• Assess impacts of increasing anthropogenic threats and undertake a risk assessment to determine the increased exposure of these expanding populations to entanglement, ship strike and acoustic noise.

• Expand genetic analyses to better define population structure and extent of interchange between subpopulations. In particular the genetic structure of the east coast population and interchange with Pacific humpback whale populations.

• Assess the impact of whale watching on humpback whales detailing the benefits and negatives of human interactions and the potential for cumulative impacts on the species as they migrate along the coast.

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