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TI-63-04-771-EN-C

EN

Europe 123, GR-570 01 Thessaloniki (Pylea)

Postal address: PO Box 22427, GR-551 02 Thessaloniki

Tel. (30) 23 10 49 01 11, Fax (30) 23 10 49 00 20

E-mail: [email protected]

Homepage: www.cedefop.eu.int

Interactive website: www.trainingvillage.gr

European Centre for theDevelopment of Vocational Training

Free of charge 4041 EN

This report puts together the main findings of a study (Maastrichtstudy, Leney et al. 2004) examining developments in VET andprogress towards the Lisbon and Copenhagen goals in 31 Europeancountries.

The report considers key challenges facing VET and looks at effortsmade at national and European levels. It compares and contraststhe state of VET in Europe with that of competitor countries, suchas Australia, Canada and the US.

The report puts forward conclusions and recommendations forfuture action to improve the contribution of VET to meeting theLisbon goal. This is for the EU to become the most dynamic andcompetitive knowledge-based economy in the world, deliveringsustainable growth, generating more and better jobs and creatingmore social cohesion.

The report is intended to inform reflection and act as a stimulusfor debate. It includes examples of practice and data on keyindicators to enable policy-makers to benchmark their own systemsin relation to others.

Manfred TessaringJennifer Wannan

Cedefop Synthesis Report

Vocational educationand training –key to the futureLisbon-Copenhagen-Maastricht:mobilising for 2010

9 789289 603294

ISBN 92-896-0329-1

Cedefop synthesis of the Maastricht StudyLuxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2004

Vocational education and training –

key to the futureLisbon-Copenhagen-Maastricht:

mobilising for 2010

Manfred Tessaring

Jennifer Wannan

A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet. It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa.eu.int).

Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication.

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2004

ISBN 92-896-0329-1

© European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, 2004All rights reserved.

Designed by Colibri Ltd. – GreecePrinted in Greece

The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) is the European Union'sreference Centre for vocational education and training.

We provide information on and analyses of vocational education and training systems,

policies, research and practice.Cedefop was established in 1975

by Council Regulation (EEC) No 337/75.

Europe 123GR-570 01 Thessaloniki (Pylea)

Postal address: PO Box 22427GR-551 02 Thessaloniki

Tel. (30) 23 10 49 01 11, Fax (30) 23 10 49 00 20E-mail: [email protected]

Homepage: www.cedefop.eu.intInteractive website: www.trainingvillage.gr

Project manager: Manfred Tessaring, Jennifer Wannan, Cedefop

Published under the responsibility of: Johan van Rens, DirectorStavros Stavrou, Deputy Director

Table of contents

Summary and main conclusions 3

Introduction 10

Section A Context and key challenges 14

A1 Image, attractiveness and participation in VET 15

A2 Labour market and demographic change 19

A3 Low skilled people 22

Section B Achievements and priorities at national level 24

B1 Implementation of agreed reforms and practices 25

B2 Training expenditure and incentives 29

B3 Economic performance – the contribution of education and training 33

B4 Social cohesion and people at risk 35

B5 Learning pathways and guidance in a framework of lifelong learning 40

B6 Involvement of stakeholders and partnerships 46

B7 Innovative pedagogies and learning-conducive environments 48

B8 The role of teachers and trainers in assuring quality in VET 51

Section C The contribution of the Copenhagen process to achieving the Lisbon goals 53

Annexes 56

References 66

Vocational education and training – key to the futureLisbon-Copenhagen-Maastricht: mobilising for 2010

List of Tables and FiguresTables 1 Competitiveness indicators for selected OECD countries 16

2 Pupils in upper secondary education enrolled in vocational stream (%) 19

3 Population scenario for EU15 until 2050 21

4 Educational attainment of adults in selected OECD countries, 2000-2003 23

5 The relationship between national and EU policies for VET 24

6 Public and private expenditure on education and training institutions (excluding tertiary education) in OECD countries as a percentage of GDP 2001 and change 1995-2001 30

7 Employment and unemployment rates by sex and educational attainment, EU25, 2003 38

A1 Population aged 26-64 years by highest level of education attained 2003 (%) 64

Figures 1 Education and training 2010 -European strategies 10

2 Upper secondary graduation rates in selected European countries, Japan and the US; 1998, 2002 18

3 Unemployment rates of the population by level of education, 2003, EU25 (%) 20

4 Public expenditure on all levels of education and training as percent of GDP, 1995,1998, 2001 29

5 Population aged 20-24 with at least upper secondary education and training (ISCED 3-6), 1995, 1999, 2003 (%) 35

6 Early school leavers (a) in Europe, 1996, 2000, 2003 (%) 37

7 Participation of the European population aged 25 to 64 in lifelong learning; 1996, 2000, 2003 (%) 43

8 Participation in continuing vocational training courses; 1993, 1999; EU25 (% of employees, all enterprises) 43

A1 Pupils in upper secondary education enrolled in vocational stream, 1998, 2002 (%) 63

2

Summary and mainconclusions

A. Progress towards the Lisbon goals?

1. Over the last four years the overall performance of the Europeaneconomy has been disappointing, and the gap with North America andsome Asian countries has widened. This has been caused mainly bystructural weaknesses in the European economy. Few Europeancountries score high on competitiveness and performance.Three clusters of competitive countries can be identified: the ‘corecountries’, including Germany and France, with high labour productivity,social spending, and well-developed social partnership; the ‘Nordicgroup’, including Finland, Norway, Sweden and partly Denmark, withhigh economic performance and participation in the labour market andeducation and training, and a pronounced social partner approach; andthe United Kingdom (together with the US) with high employment rates,sufficient economic performance, lower social spending and lessdeveloped social partnership.

2. In Lisbon in 2000, the European Council set the ambitious goal of makingEurope the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy inthe world by 2010. All Member States are responsible for ensuring thatadequate attention is given to the achievement of the Lisbon goals andrelated benchmarks within their national contexts. They have madeconsiderable effort but, at this halfway stage, progress is mixed. Thisreflects the varied starting positions of countries, their differentcircumstances and specific challenges. Competitor countries are movingforward in modernising their economies as well as their education andtraining systems.

3. In Barcelona in 2002, the European Council set an additional objective ofmaking education and training a world quality reference by 2010, inparticular through better insight into learning demand as the basis for alifelong learning strategy. Member States have agreed that coherentlifelong strategies be developed by 2006; VET should form a key element.Although many countries have initiated measures to promote lifelonglearning, coherent structures are generally lacking. Many fundamental


elements of quality – including strengthening the status and roles ofteachers and trainers, quality assurance systems, information, adviceand guidance systems, and increased permeability between pathways –have not been implemented on a large scale in most European countries.

4. Vocational education and training is an integral part of promoting theachievement of the Lisbon and Barcelona goals. The Copenhagenprocess (2002) provides the overall framework for European VETdevelopment. It has raised awareness of key issues and has acceleratedcooperation, comparison and compatibility of VET policies in Europe.However, there is much need for further action strengthening especiallyat national level, implementation, cooperation and coordination with allstakeholders, and further developing the open method of coordination.

B. Key challenges

1. Europe has committed itself to becoming a knowledge society,combining economic performance with social inclusion. However, atpresent 80 million EU citizens are low skilled. It is estimated that by 2010almost half of the net additional jobs will require people with tertiary levelqualifications; just under 40 % will require upper secondary level andonly 15 % of jobs will be for those with basic schooling. This means adramatic decline in job prospects for the low skilled. Therefore, betteracknowledgement of the importance and value of learning, knowledgeand competences is required. More participation in education andtraining and acquisition of at least basic skills and a good literacy levelshould be top of the European agenda.

2. The workforce is both shrinking and ageing owing to the effects ofdemographic change. Urgent action is needed to integrate those who arecurrently inactive into the labour force. Europe cannot afford to waste itsmost precious asset, its human resources. The unemployed and thehidden labour force represent 33 million people in the EU25. It is not onlynecessary to help more people – especially women – into jobs, we mustalso help people to remain in jobs for a full working life. It is essential thatmeasures are taken to address structural unemployment, to increase skilllevels and to provide better access to, and delivery of, learning for all.

3. Employment and productivity growth are increasingly driven byinnovation. To harness the full potential of the new economy for higherskilled, more stable and more rewarding jobs, Europe’s workforce must

4

be skilled and trained to meet modern labour market needs, and thedemands of new and rapidly changing technologies. Between 1995-20001.5 million jobs were created in the EU in the high-tech sector and 5.5million in high education sectors. Highly-skilled occupations accountedfor over 60 % of jobs created. Skills and competences strongly influencecreativity, innovation and adaptability. Academic excellence and researchare crucial but the transfer and application of knowledge in companiesand organisations also require skilled workers with job-relatedcompetences, acquired through initial vocational training and updated bycontinuing training within a lifelong learning perspective. VET has animportant role to play in raising the quality of work, increasing jobsatisfaction and motivating workers as well as enhancing productivity.

4. The low level of transnational mobility hampers achieving a trueEuropean labour market. Having the right skills in the right place at theright time is essential for labour markets to operate more effectively on aEuropean scale and help even out skills bottlenecks. In many areasdemand for skilled workers already outstrips supply and skillsmismatches are limiting the EU’s capacity for growth. Selectiveimmigration to attract new talent and to offset labour market shortages,demographic decline and brain-drain is also needed. Education andtraining can help reduce barriers to mobility by recognising skills andcompetences acquired abroad and making people, especially youngpeople, more familiar with training and work in other countries.

5. It is vital that skills and training do not become the preserve of the elitefew but are open to everyone. Social cohesion and inclusion are not onlysocial goals, but also economic ones. A high number of socially excludedpeople is a burden on economies and limits growth and investment ininnovative and future-oriented areas and sectors. Raising skills andliteracy levels of low performers can yield large economic gains. Tailor-made measures for disadvantaged and at risk groups are needed toincrease their participation in training and employment and to preventhigh social costs in the longer term.



C. Priorities for VET

To meet the policy goals and respond to the challenges outlined above, VETin Europe needs to address five main priorities.

1. Tackling the large number of low skilled people. Although Europeancountries have made some progress in raising the skill levels of theirpopulations, and the benchmark set by the Council of increasingcompletion of upper secondary education and training to at least 85 %is likely to be reached, the number of people with low skills remains toohigh and jeopardises social cohesion, competitiveness and futuregrowth. Canada, the US, Japan and others, all have higher skills levels,especially at tertiary level. Barriers to access and take up of VET need tobe removed and provision made more flexible and attractive, includingentry routes to higher education and training as well as the labour market.A thorough analysis of the characteristics of the low skilled and otherdisadvantaged groups is needed to develop more learner-centredtargeted measures to increase their participation in, and completion of,VET. Action to combat early school leaving (ESL) has an important role toplay in reducing the number of people with low skills. The Councilbenchmark of reducing ESL to 10 % is in sight if efforts are reinforced.Strengthening vocational streams and work-based learning helps preventschool dropout. Lifelong guidance and counselling support increasedparticipation and completion rates by helping younger and older peopleto find the most appropriate pathways. Countries should strive to put inplace more coherent and pro-active career guidance systems whichensure access for all and which develop career and learningmanagement skills.

2. Promoting continuing vocational training (CVT). CVT is the weakest link inlifelong learning (LLL). The number of companies in the EU providingtraining remains low and participation of adults in LLL is still below 10 %.All stakeholders, including the social partners, have to act to developlifelong learning in practice. Measures are needed, in particular, toencourage companies to train more, to support the development ofprovision for SME employees and to encourage the participation of non-traditional learners, including women returning to the labour market andolder workers. In addition to financial and time incentives, moresystematic recognition of non-formal and informal learning is required.LLL pacts in collective agreements between the social partners at alllevels, and more learning conducive environments in vocational schools

6

and enterprises, more flexible learning provision – including work-based,open and distance learning and e-learning – represent importantpractical ways of making progress. If efforts are reinforced andaccelerated, the Council benchmark to increase participation in lifelonglearning to 12.5 % is not impossible to reach.

3. Increasing mobility to promote the development of a European labourmarket. The lack of mutual recognition of qualifications and competencesis a major obstacle to mobility within the EU. The European QualificationsFramework, together with the new Europass system and moretransnational placements, as foreseen in the new generation of educationand training programmes, are essential tools for achieving this goal.These tools have to be reinforced and implemented on a large scaleunder the particular responsibility of countries and social partners. Mostcountries have not yet given sufficient attention to these issues. Regularmonitoring, evaluation and feedback are needed to measure progressand improve the effectiveness of measures. To promote a closer matchbetween education and training supply and labour market demand,strong links between VET institutes and the world of work are requiredand should be complemented by European approaches for earlyidentification of new and changing skill needs. Strengthening training forentrepreneurship can also reduce high failure rates of business start-upsand contribute to job creation.

4. Investing in quality VET systems. The EU average public and privateexpenditure for primary, lower and upper secondary education andtraining is below that of competitors such as Australia and the US. Moreinvestment is needed to close this gap and raise the skill levels ofEurope’s population. Despite the importance of skills and competences,expenditure on training is often regarded as an immediate cost ratherthan a longer-term investment. All actors must accept their responsibilityto raise the level and efficiency of spending on initial and continuing VET.European and national budgets should also reflect the Lisbon priorities,in particular education and training and R&D to promotecompetitiveness. It is necessary to improve data and indicators on VET.Quality assurance (QA) is a pre-requisite in ensuring a better return oninvestment and more efficient and effective VET systems. Few countrieshave implemented quality assurance systems. Training departmentshave lagged behind production and marketing departments in adoptinga quality assurance approach. Steps need to be taken to ensure that QAapproaches are widely applied by public and private organisationsinvolved in VET.



5. Ensuring high quality and appropriately skilled VET professionals. VETteachers and trainers are pivotal in promoting the Lisbon andCopenhagen goals. The quality of VET depends primarily on the qualityof its teachers and trainers. VET has to keep pace with rapid changes inwork processes and content. The role of VET professionals is shiftingfrom pure instruction to encompass learning facilitation and innovation.VET teaching is an ageing profession and in many countries the pay andimage of vocational teachers/trainers are low and shortages exist. As amatter of urgency countries need to improve the status andattractiveness of the VET profession. The right balance needs to be foundbetween further professionalisation of VET teachers/trainers and moreflexibility in policies for their recruitment. Special attention should begiven to their continuing training, including in how to exploit the learningand innovation potential of ICTs as well as content specific training.

D. Making change happen

In the first phase of the Lisbon and Copenhagen processes, much has beenachieved at EU level, many agreements have been reached, conceptsclarified, common aims/principles and frameworks established and practicaltools developed to support EU education and training policy goals. In thecoming period up to 2010, to achieve real impact, the emphasis has to beon moving to concrete action at national and regional levels. Because of itsclose links to employment and the economy, VET policy has to be conceivedas an integral part of a wider policy framework, including all relevantministries and stakeholders from the education, social, employment,finance, justice and other relevant domains. Moreover, to address effectivelythe priorities outlined above, all the actors – from the public, private andcommunity sectors – need to mobilise and work together in partnership.

The EU will continue to provide support, both in the form of joint financingand of exchange of experience, mutual learning and peer review. In turn,Member States need to ensure that the financial possibilities for thedevelopment of VET offered by the Structural Funds and by the neweducation and training programmes are used to the full.

8

To move closer to a knowledge-based society, Europe needs aninnovation strategy to foster investment in, and the quality of, human capital.More effective use of resources, a future-oriented design of VET and newapproaches to learning in schools and at work are essential ingredients ofsuch a strategy. Special attention needs to be given to the development ofkey competences, including ICT literacy, learning partnerships (in particularat local and regional levels) and the creation of learning-conduciveenvironments in all settings. To move forward, governments should identifythe key issues of such an innovation strategy, supported by public-privatepartnerships and agreements on innovation pacts with social partners andother stakeholders. Setting benchmarks and regular assessments ofprogress made should become a joint activity for all those concerned.


Introduction

The Lisbon European Council in 2000 agreed a strategy to transform Europeby 2010 into the most dynamic and competitive knowledge-based economyin the world, delivering sustainable growth, generating more and better jobsand creating greater social cohesion. Implementing lifelong learning has akey role in achieving these goals. The Lisbon process was enhanced inBarcelona and Copenhagen in 2002 as part of the ‘Education and training2010’ strategy (Figure 1).

In Copenhagen, 31 ministers from the EU Members States, the EEA/EFTAand candidate countries, the European social partners and the European

LISBON EU COUNCIL

Strategic goal for the EU to become by 2010 ‘themost competitive anddynamic knowledge-basedeconomy in the world,capable of sustainableeconomic growth with moreand better jobs and greatersocial cohesion’.

STOCKHOLM EU COUNCIL

Three strategic objectives ofET systems and 13 associatedobjectives:1. Improving quality and

effectiveness of ETsystems in the EU

2. Facilitating access of allto ET systems

3. Opening up ET systemsto the wider world

BARCELONA EU COUNCIL

ñ Working programme forimproving ET systems inEurope

ñ Strategic framework of aEuropean lifelong learningsystem

ñ Calls for an 'insight intodemand for learning'approach as the basis oflifelong learning strategy.

ET should become a worldquality reference.

Lifelong learning processOctober 2000: Commission's Memorandum on lifelong learningfollowed by Europe-wide consultation, resulting in the CommunicationMaking a European area of lifelong learning a reality, November 2001: Priorities for action: valuing learning, information,guidance and counselling, investing time and money, bringingtogether learners and learning opportunities, basic skills, innovativepedagogy.

November 2002: The CopenhagenDeclaration calls for

enhanced cooperation invocational education andtraining.

2000 2001 2002

Figure 1: Education and training 2010 - European strategies

Commission agreed on the Copenhagen Declaration. It calls for enhancedcooperation in vocational education and training (VET), prioritising theEuropean dimension; transparency, information and guidance; recognition ofcompetences and qualifications; quality assurance and teachers andtrainers. The Maastricht Communiqué (December 2004) calls for anassessment of progress towards the Lisbon/Copenhagen goals for VET atnational and EU level and sets new priorities.

This synthesis report draws mainly on the Maastricht study (1) and aims tohelp policy makers situate the Maastricht Communiqué in context andstimulate debate.

Introduction 11

(1) This study was commissioned by the European Commission in early 2004 (Leney et al., 2004) toassess progress in VET. It covered EU Member States, EFTA and candidate countries (including Turkey)and it included a survey of Directors-general for vocational training (DGVT) and country reports.

Priorities:ñ European dimension in VETñ Transparency, information,

guidanceñ Recognition of competences

and qualificationsñ Quality assurance, teachers

and trainers.

May 2003: The Education Council agrees on European benchmarksfor the improvement of ET systems until 2010, concerning:ñ Reduce early school leavers ñ Increase graduates in mathematics, science and technologyñ Improve basic skillsñ Completion of upper secondary educationñ Decrease low-achieving youth in reading literacyñ Higher participation in lifelong learningñ Investment in human resources.

BRUSSELS EU COUNCIL

ñ Implementation of a 10-yearprogramme on the objectivesfor ET systems, ensuringefficient and effectiveinvestments in humanresources

ñ Foster transparency,recognition and qualityassurance of qualificationsacross the EU

ñ Put emphasis on basic skills,languages, digital literacy andlifelong learning in ET systems.

BRUSSELS EDUCATIONCOUNCIL

Resolution on guidanceConclusions on:ñ Quality assurance in VETñ Identification and validation

of non-formal andinformal learning

ñ Decision on Europass.

MAASTRICHT

The Maastricht Communiquétakes stock of progress madeon the Lisbon/ Copenhagenstrategy and sets newpriorities and strategiesunder the Copenhagenprocess on EnhancedEuropean Cooperation in VET.

2003 2004 Dec. 2004

ET: education and training


The report is in three parts:Part A provides a brief overview of the major challenges facing VET in

Europe today, including improving the image and attractiveness ofVET (A1); adapting to labour market needs and the impact ofdemographic change (A2); and responding to the needs of lowskilled and disadvantaged groups for social cohesion and labourmarket participation (A3).

Part B reviews progress achieved by Member States to date and nationalpriorities. Issues include implementing reforms and practices (B1);training expenditure and incentives (B2); economic performance andthe contribution of education and training (B3); social cohesion andpeople at risk (B4); open learning pathways and guidance (B5);involvement of stakeholders and partnerships (B6); innovativepedagogies and learning-conducive environments (B7); and the roleof teachers and trainers in assuring quality in VET (B8).

Part C summarises the contribution, at European level, of the Copenhagenprocess in achieving the Lisbon goals.

Data and examples from Europe’s main competitors are in parts A and B.A few examples of Member State actions are included in part B. A thematicsummary of the main measures taken by European countries to promoteVET under the Lisbon and Copenhagen processes, further references andmore detailed tables and figures are provided in Annex.

12

Introduction 13

(2) More information on countries can be obtained from Cedefop which has publishedcomprehensive monographs for all European countries.

VET comprises all more or less organised or structured activities that aim to provide people withthe knowledge, skills and competences necessary to perform a job or a set of jobs, whether ornot they lead to a formal qualification. VET is independent of venue, age or other characteristicsof participants and previous level of qualifications. VET may be job-specific or directed at abroader range of occupations. It may also include elements of general education. The majorimportance of VET for individuals, enterprises and society is widely acknowledged, and isperceived as a key element of lifelong learning.

VET takes a variety of forms in different countries and also within a given country. It can beorganised as prevocational training to prepare young people for transition to a VET programmeat upper secondary level. Initial VET normally leads to a certificate at upper secondary level. Itcan be school-based, enterprise-based, or a combination of both (as in the dual system).Completion of initial VET qualifies for access to a skilled job, and gives access to post-secondary, and sometimes higher education. VET at post-secondary level provides access tohigher skilled jobs (e.g. master or technician) and can also open the way to higher education.Continuing vocational training (CVT) takes multiple forms, ranging from short training coursesto participation in advanced and longer programmes. CVT can be organised by companies ornetworks of companies, social partner organisations, and local, regional and state bodies.Participants include employees, unemployed people or those returning to the labour market.

This report aims to provide a selective overview of developments in key aspects of VET (2).

Defining VET

�SECTION A

Context and key challenges

Competitiveness – is Europe catching up?Estimates are that up to 30 % of workers in future will work directly inproducing and diffusing knowledge (Kok, 2004, p. 19). It is evident thatindustrialised countries are transforming themselves into knowledge-basedeconomies. ‘If Europe is to compete in the global knowledge society, it mustalso invest more in its most precious asset – its people. The productivity andcompetitiveness of Europe are directly dependent on a well-educated,skilled and adaptable workforce.’ (ibid., p. 33)

In its paper on Canada's innovation strategy (Knowledge matters, 2002), the Canadiangovernment emphasises that, by 2004, around 70 % of all new jobs will require someform of post-secondary education, and another 25 % of new jobs a university degree.Only 6 % of new jobs will be held by those who have not finished high school.

Competitiveness is a major Lisbon goal and includes economic andemployment performance, social cohesion and sustainable economicgrowth. Competitiveness ‘analyses the facts and policies that shape theability of a nation to create and maintain an environment that sustains morevalue creation for its enterprises and more prosperity for its people.’ (IMD,2004, p. 740). To assess competitiveness a number of indicators, includinginvestment in education and training, are required to rank countries.Although subject to criticism, rankings – if based on reliable data andmethods – can show a country’s position in a comparative context.

How competitive is Europe today? Table 1 provides some indicatorsbased on detailed data from the OECD, the World Bank, the ILO, the UNOand others.

Some European countries, especially Denmark, Ireland, Luxembourg and Finland areamong the top 10 on economic performance, government and business efficiency.Most EU countries, however, are less competitive than Australia, Canada and the USin relation to economic and technological advancement.

The Maastricht study (2004) identifies three clusters of competitiveeconomies:1. ‘core countries’ (Germany, France) characterised by high productivity

(GDP/working hour), high social spending and an inclusive social partnerapproach;

2. the ‘Nordic group’ (Finland, Norway, Sweden and partly Denmark) withthe best economic performance such as growth and productivity inEurope, high labour market and education-training participation, highsocial spending and a pronounced social partner approach;

3. the Anglo-Saxon countries (the UK, the US) with high employment ratesand economic performance (but low productivity in the UK), lower socialspending and less developed social partnership.

Insufficient data and indicators for VET hamper assessment of progressIt is difficult to assess the contribution of education and training tocompetitiveness, even harder to calculate the specific impact of VET. Datafrom national systems differ in their characteristics and are hard to compare,especially over time. Similar constraints are faced by all countries. In theUS, for example, the reliability and validity of much of the data on VET ispoor (NAVE, 2004). There is a need to improve information and provide abetter picture of comparative trends for VET across European countries tohelp policy makers monitor and evaluate policies.

A1. Image, attractiveness and participation in VET

The attractiveness or image of any education or training route is subjective.Deciding factors include access to further studies, career prospects,earnings and social status. A possible indicator for the image andattractiveness of education and training is enrolment. However, data on age-specific enrolment rates in upper secondary education and trainingespecially in vocational programmes, are not available (3). Figure 2 showsthe development of graduation rates from upper secondary level over recentyears.

SECTION AContext and key challenges 15

(3) One of the reasons is that enrolment is spread over a broad range of ages years in differentcountries.


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3

6

9

8

55

27

19

1

Table 1: Competitiveness indicators for selected OECD countries

Business efficiency

RANKING


Infrastructure

RANKINGRANKINGRANKINGRANKINGper 1000

Inte

rnet

use

rs (e

)(2

003)

High

-tec

h ex

port

s(f)

(200

2)

Tota

l exp

endi

ture

on R

&D (g

) (20

02)

Hum

an d

evel

opm

ent

inde

x (h

) (20

01)

435

294

645

442

399

241

307

361

410

408

440

247

565

508

218

555

410

230

589

648

508

582

659

629

601

594

61

605

566

597

23

37

3

20

30

40

35

32

27

28

22

39

13

18

42

15

26

41

9

2

17

10

1

4

6

8

55

5

12

7

10.5

14.3

21.7

16.6

12.0

9.9

6.9

21.2

40.6

9.0

18.9

24.8

27.7

15.3

2.8

7.0

5.2

3.2

24.2

16.4

31.4

21.0

5.5

22.3

16.5

14.3

23.3

31.5

24.5

31.8

40

35

18

29

38

42

47

20

6

43

26

13

12

34

59

46

49

58

15

32

10

22

48

17

31

36

16

8

14

7

2.2

1.3

2.4

2.5

0.8

0.6

1.0

2.2

1.2

1.1

1.7

1.0

1.9

1.9

0.6

0.9

1.2

0.6

3.4

4.3

1.9

2.6

3.1

1.6

1.6

1.8

1.2

2.5

3.1

2.7

16

26

12

11

42

47

38

15

33

34

23

37

19

18

46

39

31

49

3

2

20

9

5

24

25

22

30

10

6

8

6

35

11

21

40

30

23

18

11

26

11

38

5

17

37

29

33

39

11

3

11

9

2

1

4

6

54

34

9

6

BECZDKDEEEELESFRIEITLUHUNLATPLPTSISKFISEUKCHISNOAUCACNKRJPUS

Coun

trie

s

Shaded areas: top ten

(a) Estimates: GDP (PPP) per personemployed per hour, USD

(b) Percentage change(c) Percentage of total population(d) Number of computers per 1000

people / Source: ComputerIndustry Almanac

(e) Number of internet users per1000 people / Source: ComputerIndustry Almanac

(f) Percentage of manufacturedexports

(g) Percentage of GDP(h) Combines economic - social -

educational indicators / Source:Human Development Report

Source: IMD World CompetitivenessYearbook 2004

% GDP%

�


Figure 2: Upper secondary graduation rates in selected Europeancountries, Japan and the US; 1998, 2002

Although VET contributes to individual, companies’, economic andsocietal performance, in some countries it is not as attractive as generaleducation, as reflected by participation rates in upper secondary vocationalstreams. Most European countries (except Cyprus and Hungary) have highproportions of young males in vocational pathways, while rates for femalesare lower (Table 2). The proportion of young people in initial VET, comparedwith general education is increasing in most of the ‘old’ Member States(except Germany, Italy, Luxembourg), but decreasing in most of the newones (Figure A1 in Annex). In the US, only about one quarter of students is‘occupational concentrators’ (4).

In view of the often precarious labour market situation of women, their participationin VET should be increased, through targeted courses and information campaigns toraise the image of VET, including in traditionally male-dominated occupations whichprovide clear career perspectives. Countries with decreasing participation in initialVET should take steps to counteract this trend; this applies specifically to the newMember States as well as Germany, Italy and Luxembourg.The Maastricht study identified a close association between the level of graduationrates in upper secondary vocational streams and lower rates of early school leaversin many countries. Reinforcing vocational streams therefore, can prevent and reduceschool dropout. (See also Section B4)

18

(4) ‘Occupational concentrators’ are students who participate most intensively in vocationalprogrammes (earning at least 3.0 occupational credits in one programme area). Source: NAVE, 2004.

Table 2: Pupils in upper secondary education enrolled in vocationalstream (%) (a)

Countries

Males Females

Share in 2002

70 % and more CZ, SK, AT, SI, RO, NL, BE, CH CZ, UK, SK

60 % - 69 % PL, DE, UK, LU, BG, NO, FR, FI BE, AT, NL, SI, LU

50 % - 59 % DK, SE CH, DE, RO, FI, NO, PL, FR

25 % - 49 % EE, EL, ES, IS, IT, JP, LT, LV, MT, PT BG, DK, EL, ES, IS, LV, SE

less than 25 % CY, HU PT, IT, JP, LT, EE, MT, HU, CY

Trend 1998-2002

Increasing CZ, AT, NL, UK, NO, FI, DK, SE, IS, UK, AT, NL, FI, NO, SE, DK, BG, ES,EL, ES, PT, HU EL, LV, IS, PT, HU

Decreasing SK, SI, RO, PL, DE, LU, BG, LV, CZ, SK, SI, LU, DE, RO, PL, IT, LT,EE

EE, LT, IT

(a) Percentage of all pupils in upper secondary educationSource: Eurostat

A2. Labour market and demographic change

Employment growth and creation is insufficient in some European countries.Structural unemployment caused by mismatches in the labour market, is apersistent phenomenon, with a high number of long-term unemployedpeople and simultaneously unfilled vacancies. Longer-term needs of thelabour market indicate an increasing demand for skilled and highly skilledlabour driven by the change towards knowledge-intensive services, high-tech manufacturing, globalisation and technological developments.

Structural unemployment – a challenge for the European labour marketIn 2003, the EU25 unemployment rate was 9.0 %, some 19 million people.Long-term unemployment, is a continuing challenge for most Europeancountries. After falling between 1994 and 2001, long-term unemploymentrose to 4 % of the total labour force. Half of the long-term unemployed hasbeen out of work for two years or more.


�


In addition to the registered unemployed, there are those unregistered but seeking ajob and ‘discouraged workers’, who are not actively seeking a job but would accepta suitable offer. Hidden unemployment accounts for around 14 million people in theEU. Combined with the 19 million registered unemployed, around 33 millionEuropeans are not employed (Eurostat-Labour Force Survey 2003).

An indicator for skill mismatch is the unemployment rate of people withdifferent skill levels (Figure 3). In all EU (and most other OECD) countries,higher skilled people are significantly less affected by unemployment thanthe lower skilled (5). Whereas the unemployment rate for the low skilled was11.3 %, the rate for the medium skilled was 8.3 % and for the high skilled4.7 %. These rates are clear indications of a labour market characterised byincreasing demand for higher skills and competences.

Figure 3: Unemployment rates of the total population by level ofeducation, 2003 (a), EU25 (%)

Reducing structural unemployment and skill mismatch is necessary tofoster geographical, occupational and social status mobility. This can be doneby reinforcing active labour market policies with a training component, makingeducation and training systems and policies more coherent with employmentand economic policies, and by considering the longer-term needs of thelabour market and individuals. These appear to be the most importantmeasures to achieve efficient local, regional and national labour markets.

20

(5) With a few exceptions (see Figure 3).

�

�

More targeted vocational education and training, and in particular retraining withinactive labour market policies, is urgently required to reduce the level of structuraland hidden unemployment and to raise employment rates. Integrating the ‘inactive’part of the potential labour force into employment is all the more important in viewof the ageing of the European workforce over the next decades.

Demographic change – the time bomb is tickingThe average age of the European population will increase from 39 (2000) toaround 45 by 2050. Table 3 illustrates the demographic challenge for theEU15 in the next decades (6). By 2030, the number of people aged 20-54will fall by 27.2 million. At the same time, the number of older people ofworking age (55-64) will increase by 13.5 million. As a consequence, theold-age dependency ratio will increase significantly.

Table 3: Population scenario for EU15 until 2050

Age group 2000 2020 2030 2050

Share in total population (%)

0 - 19 23 20 19 19

20 - 64 61 59 56 53

65 and older 16 21 25 28

Change since 2000 (million persons)

20 - 54 – 0.6 – 27.2 – 42.6

55 - 64 + 17.9 + 13.5 + 8.0

Source: Eurostat baseline population scenario, revision 1999.

The shrinking and ageing of the European workforce underlines the urgent need toupgrade the skills of young people and increase employment rates, particularly ofwomen. Europe cannot afford to ‘waste’ its human resources. Efforts must continueto keep older workers in employment longer, to adapt their skills, and make visiblethe competences they have acquired through non-formal and informal learning.


(6) Eurostat population scenarios for the new Member States are not yet available.

�


Transnational mobility – still some way to goGeographic mobility in the EU15 has always been low. Only around 2 % ofthe EU population work in an EU country other than that of their birth. EUenlargement has raised fears of large sudden immigration. However, theoverall volume of inward migration from the new Member States and thecandidate countries is expected to be much less than assumed in publicdebate. Immigration can improve economic performance in receivingcountries, but be detrimental to the stock of human capital of the sendingcountries (brain drain).

EU mobility policies should continue to expand options for short-termeducational activity and study mobility through European grant schemes foryoung people and through financial incentives. The social partners have akey role to play here. A major issue is to achieve negotiated mobility with fullrecognition of qualifications.

As Europe develops a more open and international labour market, VET can reducebarriers to geographic mobility for workers and learners. In view of the demographicdownturn, measures to provide more initial and continuing training should becomplemented by immigration policies for people from outside Europe, particularlyattracting skilled immigrants. This requires recognition of certificates andcompetences acquired abroad by formal and non-formal learning, legal support andfamiliarisation measures. This is a policy priority of ‘classical’ immigration countries,such as Australia, Canada and the US.

A3. Low skilled people

The vision of a Europe with a highly educated, flexible and adaptableworkforce, with a high degree of social inclusion, is far from being realised.Many groups are excluded. They have at least two things in common: a lackof basic skills and competences, and obstacles to accessing education andvocational training.

In 2003, in the EU25 the number of low and unskilled people aged 25-64years (i.e. those not having completed upper secondary education) wasalmost 80 million, some 32 % of the working age population. Thiscorresponds roughly to the total population of the EU’s largest country,Germany, and illustrates the enormous challenge facing the EU in upskillingits population.

The proportion of low and unskilled people in the EU is considerablyhigher than in competitor countries such as Canada, Japan, South Korea

22

�

and the US (Table 4). These countries and Australia have higher adulteducational levels, especially at tertiary level. However, on average,secondary and post-secondary levels, and particularly vocational training,are higher in Europe.

Table 4: Educational attainment of adults (a) in selected OECD countries,2002-2003 (b)

Low skilled Upper/post-secondary Tertiary

EU 25 32 47 21

Australia 39 30 31

Canada 18 40 43

Japan 16 47 36

South Korea 30 45 26

USA 13 49 38

(a) 25 to 64-year old population; low skilled: ISCED 0-2; upper/ post-secondary education: ISCED 3-4; tertiary education: ISCED 5-6

(b) EU: 2003 (partly estimated); other countries: 2002

Sources: EU: Eurostat-NewCronos database; OECD: Education at a glance, 2004.

The high proportion of low skilled people in the EU means that we are a long wayfrom becoming the world-leader in high-quality human capital. Our ‘competitors’ areupskilling their populations which are already among the highest skilled in the world.Europe must not only strive for academic excellence but should also strengthenwork-related skills acquired in VET and by non-formal learning.

As upgrading the (formal) qualifications of the population is mainlyachieved by increasing the skills of the younger age cohorts, this processwill take time.

Low-skilled people most often left school early or dropped out of post-compulsory education and training. Reducing the number of early schoolleavers remains an important means of upgrading the skills of populations.In 2003, the Council set benchmarks for both groups: to increasecompletion of upper secondary education for young people, and to reducethe proportion of early school leavers. Progress towards these benchmarksis summarised in Section B4.


SECTION B

Achievements and priorities at national level

National agendas are taking on board approaches and instruments definedin Lisbon and Copenhagen for lifelong learning; cooperation betweenEuropean countries in VET has increased (Table 5).

Broadly, there is coherence or compatibility between national andEuropean priorities. However, progress towards the Copenhagenrecommendations will be made according to varying sets of priorities.European countries will continue to develop reforms most appropriate totheir own diverse traditions, challenges and aims.

Table 5: The relationship between national and EU policies for VET

EU15 Belgium-WA; Denmark; Finland; Austria; Belgium-Fl; GreeceFrance; Germany; Ireland; Italy; Luxembourg; Netherlands; Portugal; Spain; Sweden; the UK

EU10 Czech Republic; Estonia; Hungary; Cyprus; Malta; Poland; SlovakiaLatvia; Lithuania; Slovenia

Candidate countries Bulgaria; Romania Turkey

EEA Iceland Norway; Liechtenstein

Source: Maastricht study, 2004 (DGVT inquiry).

Coherence exists between the EU and

national policies for VET

The Copenhagen or Lisbonprocesses do not directly

influence national policies. But they are, nevertheless,

broadly compatible

Reforms of education and training in Australia, Canada and the US

Australia has implemented major VET reforms in the last decade, including:ñ Introduction of a competence-based approach to training;ñ Implementation of the Australian qualification framework;ñ Development of the training market with a view to the needs of students and industry;ñ Mechanisms to enhance learning pathways;ñ Reform of apprenticeship training (New Apprenticeship scheme);ñ Introduction of a national framework for quality assurance and nationwide recognition

of training providers.

In its innovation strategy, the Canadian government has given priority to:ñ Building a foundation for lifelong learning for children and youth,

including fostering apprenticeship training;ñ Strengthening accessibility and excellence in post-secondary education;ñ Building a world-class workforce;ñ Helping immigrants to achieve their full potential.

A regulatory reform process will begin in 2005, focusing on sustainable funding, partnerships andinnovation-related skills, and on an inclusive and skilled workforce (Government of Canada,2002).

In the US, the national goal is for at least 14 years of education to be the norm. The Perkins IIIAct (1998) sets the following goals:ñ Integration of academic and vocational education;ñ Linking secondary and post-secondary programmes;ñ Collaboration with employers;ñ Expanding the use of technology.

The Act called for rigorous academic standards and accountability.The US ‘National assessment of vocational education’ (NAVE) is concerned about the diffusenature of federal priorities which impede efforts to develop clear focused educationalinterventions. It proposes to set clear priorities: either to put the emphasis on learning academicor occupational skills, or to focus primarily on workforce development with emphasis primarily onthe job (in particular for post-secondary vocational education).

B1. Implementation of agreed reforms andpractices

Improving transparency and fostering mobilityMore transparency of national qualification frameworks or systems in whichVET qualifications at different levels are located is important. Variouscountries (Czech Republic, Estonia, Ireland, Italy, Hungary, Malta, theNetherlands, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, the UK) are developing orimplementing such frameworks. These efforts will be linked to the European

SECTION BAchievements and priorities at national level 25

�

�


Qualifications Framework described in Part C.A key to improving transparency and fostering mobility in Europe is

Europass, a single portfolio of documents reflecting the qualifications andcompetences of citizens. The new Europass will enter into force in 2005 (seePart C) (7). Most countries have implemented Europass training (8) andothers are at the planning stage (Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia,Hungary, Latvia, Romania, Slovakia).

A mixed picture emerges. Despite a steady increase, the uptake of Europass trainingis modest (ranging from a few hundred in Ireland to just over 5 000 in France).Monitoring and feed-back mechanisms to measure progress and learn lessons forthe future direction of the Copenhagen process and measures on mobility andtransparency are required.

Mobility in education and training is a major aspect of the design of pastand current EU programmes. It will be further strengthened by the newgeneration of programmes after 2006. Although placement numbers areincreasing, more vigorous action is required, including the development ofdedicated mobility programmes to organise transnational placements andimplement Europass training.

More data is needed on how short-term work-placement mobility canfurther vocational career paths, how VET systems can support mobility ofyoung students and graduates and on the effects on their employment andemployability. Compared with universities, internationalisation strategies arenot a strong feature of VET systems.

EU initiatives relating to the Copenhagen process on credit accumulation andtransfer, and a common reference level framework are likely to promote mobility (seePart C). Qualification frameworks, credit accumulation and transfer are, however,only at the planning stage in most countries. Transnational mobility andinternationalisation of VET need to be an integrated part of VET systems. To achievea true European Labour market, barriers to transnational mobility have to beremoved, and transparency and recognition of qualifications achieved. For the nextgeneration of Europass, Member States and social partners should be mobilised toact immediately.

26

(7) The existing Europass will be replaced by Europass as a common brand name linked to theEuropean CV, including: Europass mobility (for periods of learning in other countries), EuropassDiploma Supplement (for higher education), Europass Language Portfolio and EuropassCertificate Supplement (for vocational training). These will constitute the new Europassdocuments reflecting the qualifications and competences of citizens.

(8) The European CV was downloaded from the Cedefop website around two million times(www.cedefop.eu.int/transparency/cv.asp).

�

For mobility to become an option for a wider group of VET students, itshould comprise at institutional level:ñ study visits and placements for students, teachers, social partners, and

VET graduates;ñ guest teachers from other VET systems;ñ courses offered in a language other than the native language and curricula

with an international dimension;ñ financial incentives for school administrations and disadvantaged groups;ñ virtual mobility enabling students to collaborate with VET students on joint

projects.

Quality assurance – the key to competitivenessA Common Quality Assurance Framework (CQAF) for VET, which provides ameta-framework compatible with existing quality assurance systems, wasendorsed by the Council in May 2004 (see Part C). Quality assurance in VETis on the political agenda of all European countries. However, few haveimplemented quality assurance systems (Austria, Belgium-Fl, Denmark,Ireland, and Romania). The precise instruments of quality assurance in useremain unclear in many cases and there are different concepts of quality andquality assurance. Most common methods include inspection, systemicevaluation and self-evaluation, examinations and the application of qualitystandards such as ISO 9001, awards and accreditation procedures.

To maximise the return on their investment, it is in the interest of all actorsinvolved in VET – public and private organisations as well as companies – toadopt a quality assurance approach, with clear training plans, specific goalsand measurable success criteria. However, such approaches are not yetcommonly implemented and training departments are lagging behindproduction and marketing departments in adopting a quality assuranceapproach.

To develop more coherent and systematic quality assurance in VET, it is importantthat countries implement the CQAF and reinforce their efforts, including byintegrating externally developed mechanisms for quality assurance and bystrengthening evaluation and follow-up.

Identification and validation of non-formal and informal learningThe assessment of competences is increasingly important in most Europeancountries. The realisation that knowledge and skills are also developedoutside formal education and training is leading almost all Europeancountries to formulate policies to recognise the outcomes of non-formal and


�


informal learning. The Council Conclusions of May 2004 outline a commonset of principles to support this (see Part C).

Despite the innovative character of several assessment approaches, theyfulfil the same role as other testing systems, acting as quality control for thelearning processes of individuals, learning institutions and educationalsystems.

Recognition of non-formal and informal learning: stages of development in selected countries

Experimentation and uncertainty: Germany, Italy, Austria and Sweden. These countries are still atan experimental stage (to varying degrees) but accept the need for initiatives in this field.

National systems are emerging: France, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Romania and Spain.These countries are moving towards ‘national systems’ building on a defined legal andinstitutional basis.

Permanent systems already exist: Finland, the UK. These are countries where permanentsystems have been introduced. Belonging to this category does not mean, however, that furtherpolicy development is ruled out.

Source: Bjørnåvold, 2004a.

Canada considers the recognition of prior learning as an essential element of reform. However,in 2002 it was still in the planning phase. A particular focus will be laid on the recognition offoreign credentials (immigrants).

In Australia, recognition of non-formal learning is already partly implemented.

With the exception of Norway and Portugal, relatively few people haveacquired a qualification this way.

Various approaches to recognising non-formal learning can be identified in Europe,but all aim to have non-formal and informal learning encompassed by traditional VETsystems. Problems and priorities in opening up VET systems to non-formal learningare related to the characteristics of national VET systems. For instance, dual systems(Germany and Austria) appear to be reluctant to embrace this trend as it challengesthe explicit initial VET character of the system (Bjørnåvold, 2004b).

28

B2. Training expenditure and incentives

There is a longstanding debate on who should pay for training, and why. Astraightforward solution is that training costs be borne by those who benefitdirectly: cui bono? However, this is complicated as the benefits of educationand training are difficult to measure (see also Section B3). Education andtraining have considerable external effects to the benefit of others and widereconomic and social goals.

Between 1995 and 2001 (most recent data) public expenditure oneducation and training as a percentage of GDP stabilised in most countries(Figure 4) at around 5 %. The EU25 is on an equal footing with the US(5.1 %) and scores considerably higher than Japan (3.6 %).

Figure 4: Public expenditure on all levels of education and training aspercent of GDP, 1995, 1998, 2001

Public expenditure on primary and secondary education and traininginstitutions – excluding tertiary education – as a percentage of GDP (9),remained stable in most countries or increased slightly, with the exceptionof Spain and Slovakia where it fell (Table 6). In most European countries,total public expenditure is on a par with Australia, Canada, South Korea andthe US, and higher than in Japan.


(9) Data are available only from 1999-2001.


Table 6: Public and private expenditure on education and traininginstitutions (excluding tertiary education) in OECD countries as a percentage of GDP 2001 and change 1995-2001

Shadowed fields: around or above country mean:

(i) difference to 100: (private) household expenditure

(ii) average for countries where data are available

a=data not applicable; m=data not available; n=magnitude is either negligible or zero

Source: OECD, Education at a glance, 2004 (Tables B2.1c, B2.2, B3.2a). For notes concerning the figures see this publication

Of which: expenditure of other private entities

(mostly enterprises) as % oftotal private expenditure (i)

Total private expenditureTotal publicexpenditureCountry Total public and private

expenditure as % of GDPOf which: expenditure for upper and post-secondary education

and training

30

ATBECZDKFIFRDEELHUIEITLUNLPLPTSKESSEUKISNOCHTRAUCAJPKRUS

mean (ii)

3.84.02.84.23.74.02.92.42.82.93.63.63.14.04.22.63.04.33.45.04.63.92.53.63.12.73.53.83.5

103m92

126118112108134109134110m

130140137107107124120m

10710716613999

105m

126119

0.10.20.20.1n

0.20.70.20.20.10.1n

0.1mnn

0.2n

0.50.2n

0.6m0.70.30.21.00.50.3

99m79

114m

104104m88

180mm

102m

178187m89

136mmmm

152128107m

134124

54m32mm2191m45m15m16ma

80manmm

100m22541113n

30

3.94.23.14.33.74.23.62.73.13.13.73.63.34.04.22.73.24.33.95.24.64.52.54.33.42.94.64.13.8

1.42.81.21.31.31.51.41.51.20.81.4m0.81.21.21.1m1.32.61.51.21.80.71.0m0.91.41.01.3

% of GDP % of GDP1995=100 1995=100

Total private expenditure, including that by private households (the US:0.5 %, South Korea: 1.0 %, Australia: 0.7 %) is much lower in Europe, withthe exception of Germany and the UK. If expenditure by enterprises fortraining is taken, only the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Austria andSlovakia are above average.

Little information is available on expenditure on initial VET at Europeanand international level, and there is an urgent need to rectify this. Employersfinance apprenticeship training directly or through collective funds inDenmark, Germany, France and Austria. In the Netherlands, Finland andSweden the majority of funds for apprenticeship training comes fromgovernment. Financing initial VET continues to be largely input-related,despite innovations such as output-based funding or training vouchers.

The most recent comparative data at European level on companyexpenditure on continuing vocational training (CVT) refer to 1999 (CVTS2)and show that expenditure represents around 1 % of GDP at EU15 level.Spending varies greatly between countries, ranging from 0.3 % in Romaniato 3.6 % in the UK. With the exception of Greece, spending on continuingvocational training, as a percentage of labour costs, increased between1993 (CVTS1, 1993) and 1999. This increase was most pronounced inDenmark, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands and the UK.

Countries have taken steps to provide incentives for continuing training.There are three main types of measures targeted at individuals: financialincentives encouraging participation in learning; refocusing programmestowards the individual needs of (working) adults and counselling andguidance services for adult learners. Measures encouraging companies toinvest in learning tend to be of a financial nature, such as tax incentives anddirect subsidies for training activities or obligations for employers to trainworkers. Only a few countries report the introduction of support andadvisory services for companies.



Examples of CVT measures targeted at individuals

Austria: tax incentives for employees; a fixed sum to finance educational leave/vouchersprovided by regional chambers of labour;

Estonia: the creation of a counselling system for adults; universities are obliged to develop asystem registering previous work and study experiences;

France: individual training right for each employee which can be saved up to a maximum of6 years.

Examples of CVT measures targeted at companies

Bulgaria: a financial incentive scheme for employers to maintain/enhance the vocationalqualification of employees;

Hungary: subsidies for training employees for the purpose of a higher level of working;

Romania: to stimulate more continuing training provision, up to 50 % of the employers’ costfor training can be covered by the unemployment fund under certain conditions;

Spain: a new CVT funding model making it easier for SMEs to be involved in training;simplifying and speeding up administration procedures; cofunding systems.

Source: Maastricht study, 2004 (country reports).

Most countries are concerned about inefficiencies in VET, and several areplanning or have implemented, measures to enhance efficiency. Approachesinclude:ñ reform of management;ñ involving social partners in developing VET (e.g. to support the

improvement of training quality or to enhance responsiveness to labourmarket needs);

ñ stimulation of private investment by companies and individuals throughincentives, e.g. tax relief. This is intended both to increase the budget foreducation and training and make users consider their needs morecarefully;

ñ funding arrangements with obligatory or voluntary adherence and levies,based on collective agreement or law;

ñ sharing of facilities, cooperation or merger of schools, creation of ‘trainingclusters’.

32

�

Although skills and competences of the workforce are important to companyperformance, expenditure on training is often regarded as a cost rather than as aninvestment. Increased levels of expenditure are necessary if VET is to play its full partin achieving the Lisbon goals.Governments, companies, the social partners and individuals must all accept theirresponsibilities for raising the levels and efficiency of investment in human capital.European and national budgets should reflect the priorities of the Lisbon strategy,including education and training, to promote economic competitiveness. (Kok, 2004,p. 33)

B3. Economic performance – the contribution ofeducation and training

Human capital, generated by education, training, experience and non-formallearning, has significant positive impacts on economic development. Inaddition to material benefits such as fostering sustainable economic growth,productivity and earnings, there are non-material ones such as greater socialcohesion, reduction of crime, better health and parenting. However, manyare not fully aware of these benefits.

Human capital – a lever for economic growthInvestments in education and training, and acquisition of skills are identifiedby numerous research studies (10) as key determinants of economicprosperity. Wilson (2004) summarises research on the impact of skills andqualification on growth (11): ‘Overall, these growth models demonstrate thathigher educational investments have had a significant impact on levels ofnational income growth. Broadly, the weight of evidence suggests that a onepercent increase in school enrolment rates has led to an increase in GDP percapita growth of between one and three percent. An additional year ofsecondary education, which increases the stock of human capital [...] hasled to a more than one percent increase in economic growth each year.’

A recent study (Coulombe et al., 2004) based on IALS data concludes thata rise of 1 % in literacy is associated with a 2.5 % rise in labour productivityand a 1.5 % increase of GDP per capita.


(10) These examples are taken from Cedefop’s third research report (Descy and Tessaring, 2005)which presents a detailed discussion of research on the impacts and benefits of education andtraining.

(11) The percentages indicated by Wilson refer to percentage points of the growth rates.

�

�


These findings suggest economic growth will not be fostered significantly ifinvestment is limited to elite groups. Raising general literacy levels and basic skillsyields large economic gains. Investing in programmes targeted on those with lowliteracy skills is worthwhile, not only on equity grounds but also from an economicpoint of view. Vocational training has an important role to play in acquiring basicskills.

Enterprise performance and training investmentInvestment in vocational training – both initial and continuing - generatessubstantial gains for firms (Hansson and Wagner, 2004), in terms ofproductivity, profitability, market share and stock market value, andcompetitiveness. This evidence is found for various countries includingFrance, Ireland, the Netherlands, Sweden, the UK, and the US. Increasinglyfirms are financing all types of training, general as well as specific.

However, provision of training is closely linked to enterprise size. AlthoughSMEs outside agriculture employ around two thirds of all workers in the EU,training investments by SMEs are generally far below those of larger firms.Training networks and partnerships at local and regional level, distancelearning and tax incentives can help improve training investments by SMEs.Training for entrepreneurship can also reduce high failure rates of businessset-ups and contribute to job creation (see Section B7).

Benefits of education and training for individualsResearch results on the benefits of education and training for individualssuggest that returns on investment in human capital in most countries arehigher than for investments in physical capital. Investing in human capital ‘isan attractive way for the average person to build up wealth.’ (OECD, 2003,p. 160) Individual rates of return for upper secondary and higher educationand training range between 10 and 15 % in most countries. Apart fromthese monetary returns, skilled people participate more in the labour marketand are at less risk of unemployment. Education, training and skills are alsoassociated with better quality of life, career and social status.

The benefits of education and training are strong incentives for people to acquirehigher skills and qualifications and for companies and governments to increaseinvestments in education and training. Teachers, trainers, those engaged in guidanceand counselling and the social partners should help to raise the awareness ofindividuals and companies of these benefits.

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B4. Social cohesion and people at risk

Low skilled young peopleAlmost one third of the EU25 population has not completed uppersecondary education and training. Most Member States have much higherrates of low-skilled people than the US (13 %). Only the Czech Republic,Estonia, Lithuania and Slovakia have rates of low skilled on a par with theUS. Denmark, Germany, Sweden and the UK, have proportions below 20%. Low performing countries, with proportions above 50 %, include Spain,Italy, Malta and Portugal (see Table A1 in Annex).

In 2003, the Council set the benchmark that, by 2010, the proportion of22 years old with at least upper secondary education and training should notbe less than 85 % on average across the EU. For statistical reasons the agegroup ‘20-24 years’ is used here to monitor progress.

Figure 5 shows that in 2003 around 77 % of people aged 20-24 in EU25attained an educational level at upper secondary or above. Two groups ofcountries can be distinguished: those that have reached the benchmark of85 % (12) – the Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary, Ireland, Norway, Poland,Slovenia, Slovakia and Sweden – and those that are far below thebenchmark (less than 70 %), Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal(and, outside of the EU, also Iceland).

Figure 5: Population aged 20-24 with at least upper secondary educationand training (ISCED 3-6), 1995, 1999, 2003 (%)


(12) The original benchmark was set for 22 years old, see remark above.

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Between 1999-2003, educational attainment rates fell in a number ofcountries (13) including Germany (from 74.6 to 72.5 %) and Romania (from77.8 to 73.8 %). The quality of education and training is poor in some of thenew Member States and they face particular challenges modernising theirVET systems. However, the benchmark could be reached by 2010, ifcountries do not relax their efforts.

Countries with decreasing and with below average attainment rates must review andreinforce their efforts to provide high-quality vocational education and training foryounger generations and implement measures to encourage them to complete atleast upper secondary education and training.

As the country examples show (see Annex 1), there are a number of featuresregarding initiatives for the low skilled that inform policy development,including:ñ emphasis on core skills, such as literacy and numeracy and not just work-

specific skills;ñ partnership models and a strong focus on dissemination to signal that it is

a problem for many and a joint responsibility to tackle and to establish aclimate of trust;

ñ more detailed analysis of the group of early school leavers and low skilledpeople, in order to develop targeted policies;

ñ use of varied forms of incentives;ñ a strong guidance component.

Early school leavers – not only a European phenomenonLow-skilled people are mainly those who left school early or dropped out ofpost-compulsory education and training. Reducing the number of earlyschool leavers is an important approach to upgrade the skills of populations,increase their employment rates, and promote social inclusion. There is aclear association between school dropout and the provision of VET. MostEuropean countries with high levels of VET participation have low levels ofearly school leavers. However, some countries have increasing rates of theyoung not completing upper secondary education.

In 2003, the Council set the benchmark of reducing the EU average rate ofearly school leavers to 10 % by 2010. In 2003 this rate was 16 % in EU25(Figure 6). The benchmark is possible to reach and several countries havedone so already (the Czech Republic, Denmark, Austria, Poland, Slovenia,

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(13) However, a comparison over time is hampered because several countries changed definitionsand data collection methods since 1999, leading to a break in time series.

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Slovakia, Sweden). However, Spain, Italy, Malta, Portugal (and, outside of theEU, Bulgaria, Iceland and Romania) have rates more than double thebenchmark. Most countries have reduced the share of early school leaversconsiderably, especially Estonia, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourgand Norway. However, in Belgium, Spain, France, Luxembourg, Finland,Sweden and (outside of the EU) Romania, dropout rates have increased.

Figure 6: Early school leavers (a) in Europe, 1996, 2000, 2003 (%)

The relatively high proportion of dropouts does not occur just in Europe.One in eight young Canadians does not complete high school (CanadianGovernment, 2002a). In the US, the official dropout rate in 2001 was around11 %, although the percentage of students who fail to obtain a high schooldiploma is estimated to be much higher, more than 20 % (NAVE, 2004).

Most European countries have policies to reduce the number of early school leavers(European Commission, 2004c). Measures range from increased cooperationbetween schools, companies and regions (Germany and the Netherlands), to moreadapted pedagogy and increased personalised guidance of pupils, as in France,Luxembourg and Austria. However, those countries with a high share of early schoolleavers need to substantially increase their efforts. And those countries where theshare has been increasing over the past years need to take steps to reverse thistrend. As shown in Section A1, strengthening vocational streams can help preventand reduce school dropout.



Other disadvantaged groups – need for targeted measuresEducation and training can help prevent and tackle social exclusion. Inaddition to school dropouts and people with poor levels of basic skills, groupsat risk of exclusion include women (in areas of low female employment, andlabour-market returners), the long-term unemployed, migrants, ethnicminorities and people left behind by industrial reorganisation, older workersand young people facing problems in their transition to work. Targeted andintegrated measures should be provided for these groups, particularly at localand regional levels. In the EU25, 8.6 million women of working age are not inpaid employment, although they want to work. Together with the 9.8 millionunemployed women, the scale of the untapped female labour supply isconsiderable (14). The differences in labour market participation andunemployment rates between women and men are huge (Table 7). However,as for men, prospects for women with high educational levels are much betterthan for those with upper secondary or lower levels.

Table 7: Employment and unemployment rates by sex and educationalattainment, EU25, 2003 (%)

Educational attainment of population aged 15-64

Low (ISCED 0-2) Medium (ISCED 3-4) High (ISCED 5-6) Total

Employment rates

Women 24.3 55.8 74.5 43.4

Men 45.1 68.0 78.4 59.9

Unemployment rates

Women 14.1 10.4 5.6 9.9

Men 11.0 8.9 4.4 8.4

Source: Eurostat - NewCronos database (cited 12.11.04).

The unemployment rate of non-EU nationals in 2002 was twice that of EUnationals. The Kok report (2003) cites inappropriate or low levels of skills aswell as cultural and language barriers as the main cause.

Recognition of skills and competences acquired abroad by formal andnon-formal learning (a major feature of Canada’s VET strategy), targetedintegration measures including guidance, language courses and provision ofeducation and training – preferably at the workplace – are some of themeasures already taken. However, given the scale of demographic changes,

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(14) Report of the High Level Group on the future of social policy in an enlarged European Union, 2004.

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they must be considerably reinforced and made more responsive to labourmarket, individual and societal needs.

People left behind by industrial restructuring are often helped bymeasures financed by the ESF or ERDF. Poland has established initiatives inthe coal-mining sector to improve occupational mobility, job creation,retraining, guidance and counselling, and support job creation through SMEdevelopment. Similar measures also apply to the long-term unemployedwhose skills are outdated or no longer needed in the labour market. A rangeof measures to prevent and reduce long-term unemployment has beentaken as part of the European Employment Strategy.

Numerous initiatives provide training opportunities for older workers, butthere is little evidence of constructive strategies in national lifelong learningplans. In addition to policies withdrawing early retirement schemes andraising the retirement age, initiatives should focus on adapting the labourmarket to enable older workers to remain in work. Since 1998 Finland hasimplemented a comprehensive strategy to foster employability of olderworkers and adaptation of the work environment.

The Maastricht study (2004) identifies four types of initiatives:

1. Labour market and employment related measures. Active labour market policies with atraining element, human resources policies, earnings and pensions: Austria, Belgium, theCzech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Liechtenstein, Greece, and the UK (planned);

2. Provision of training for older employees. Recognition of their non-formal and informallearning, qualification programmes, second chance schools, enterprise training, involvementof social partners: Belgium, Estonia, Greece, France, Ireland, the Netherlands, Austria,Finland;

3. Provision of wider lifelong learning to stay active. Internet access, computer literacy, adulteducation, active ageing initiatives, distance and e-learning: Austria, the Czech Republic,Estonia, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein and Sweden;

4. Provision of training or lifelong learning for non-employed people. Qualification measures,return to work for women, New Deal for 50 plus: Ireland, Austria, the UK.

Targeted measures are needed to raise the motivation and capability of disadvantagedgroups to participate in initial and continuing education and training, to recognise theirskills and competences, and to integrate or keep them within the labour market andsociety. Education and training are important for social cohesion. However, theirinfluence on the major characteristics of social cohesion – political, social and culturalparticipation, etc. – tends to be indirect through reducing poverty and raisingawareness of societal goals. A prerequisite is, that the values important for social

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cohesion and citizenship form an integral part of education and training curricula.

B5. Learning pathways and guidance in aframework of lifelong learning

VET has to cater for a variety of participant groups. Increasingly, it has toserve new target groups such as older workers, women returning to thelabour market, long-term unemployed, and immigrants. These groups differsubstantially from the traditional clientele of VET in terms of educationalbackground, experience, ambitions and preferences. Flexibility in pathwaysand delivery is essential to serving these different ‘clients’. Flexibility inlearning pathways contributes to raising the attractiveness, effectivenessand efficiency of VET, and to making lifelong learning a reality.

Open learning and individual pathwaysThe most far-reaching form of flexibilisation is tailor-made individualisedpathways, where students shape the pace and content of their owncurriculum; often this is paired with modularisation.

A number of European countries are trying to achieve this goal (15),including ‘open learning approaches’ in school-based learningenvironments. The Danish VET reform, for example, established openlearning cultures in some vocational colleges. Students were supported indefining individual learning pathways through the use of occupationallearning management systems and changes in the role of teachers.However, information is lacking on the design and outcomes of openlearning environments, which could be useful for mutual learning acrossEuropean countries and regions.

Although open learning environments offer potential for students’ self-directedlearning, some doubts persist. Open learning arrangements tend to be too demandingfor students who perform poorly or lack motivation and they tend to withdraw fromthe learning situation. The traditional role of teachers may also be challenged andsome teachers are resistant to a redefinition of their professional identity.

In combination with open learning environments and appropriateredefinitions of teachers’ roles, self-directed or project learning offers newopportunities for students. The Irish ‘Leaving certificate vocationalprogramme’ (LCVP) requires students to take three activity-driven linkmodules (enterprise education, preparation for work and work experience).

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(15) See the Maastricht study for most country examples that follow.

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Mini-company activities are supported, through which students plan,develop and manage a virtual or micro enterprise on their own. Similarapproaches are found in Danish, German and Austrian VET schools.

Attractiveness and flexibility of VETIn European countries, increasing flexibility is provided through several –often combined – actions, including: veined pathways, new pedagogy interms of teaching and learning, and in curricula adjusted to regional andindividual needs. These measures also aim to raise the attractiveness of VETand include: modularisation; implementation of national qualificationframeworks; establishing competence-based programmes; and creditaccumulation and transfer.

VET comprises various components and forms (e.g. pre-vocationaltraining, initial school- or work-based VET, post-secondary VET, shorttraining courses or labour market training for the unemployed); some formsmay be more attractive than others. This partly explains the varying degreesof participation in the different countries.

In some countries, in particular the new Member States, people can obtain both avocational qualification and a general diploma for entry into tertiary education.Similar options exist in Finland, France (BacPro), the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden,and the UK. To increase its attractiveness and status, countries shouldsystematically ensure that VET provides access to tertiary education.

Transition from VET to higher education could be facilitated by theinclusion of vocational education elements in higher education as inBelgium, Latvia, Austria and Finland.

Examples from the US and Australia

In the US, after a decade of federal promotion to integrate academic and vocational education(see introduction to Part B), there is only slight evidence of improvement. Although increasingnumbers of states include academic content in vocational curriculum guidelines, the guidelinestend to support basic skills, not higher-level academic competences, and are not necessarilylinked to academic standards (NAVE 2004).

In Australia, VET topics are increasingly made available within the school curriculum and studentscan combine general education with vocational training. Some vocational courses can be used ascredits in progressive educational routes. Initiatives include:ñ New Apprenticeship, based on the British model of master-apprentices. It foresees a

combination of work and structured training which leads to nationally recognisedqualifications;

ñ National Training Framework, including requirements, auditing, and standards and processes



for courses;

ñ Australian Qualification Framework: a national and consistent set of qualifications is issued forall post-compulsory education, from secondary school certificates to doctoral degrees.

ñ The development of learning pathways that break down the boundaries between educationalsectors is under way. Mechanisms include: recognition of prior learning based on ‘trainingpackages’, credit transfer arrangements, articulated pathways.

Imparting broad vocational skills in curricula and learning can alsoincrease flexibility, making occupational and workplace mobility easier andsupporting adaptation to changing job requirements. Belgium-Flanders,Denmark, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Austria, Slovakia and theUK have reduced the number of different qualifications or trainingoccupations in VET (see also Section B7).

Making lifelong learning a reality – the benchmarkLifelong learning is at the top of the European agenda. According to theEurobarometer on lifelong learning (2003), almost 90 % of Europeancitizens agreed that it is important for social and economic reasons(Chisholm et al., 2004). In 2003, the Council set the benchmark of raisingthe participation of the EU working age population in lifelong learning to 12.5% by 2010. Because of data constraints, the indicator for this is defined asparticipation in education and training over the four weeks prior to theEuropean labour force survey.

This benchmark is not out of reach if countries reinforce their efforts. In2003, at EU25 level, participation in lifelong learning stood at 9 % (Figure7). A number of European countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, theNetherlands, Norway, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK) havesurpassed this threshold. Some countries below the benchmark have madeconsiderable progress (16). Only in Italy and Austria has participationdropped.

Examples of specific measures to increase lifelong learning participationinclude: tax initiatives for employees and vouchers (Austria); counselling foradults (Estonia); financial incentives for employers (Bulgaria, Hungary, Spainfor SMEs). The UK and Austria have the Investors in people initiative, arecognised standard that firms achieve when putting into practice effectiveprocesses for human resource development and training.

Concerning continuing vocational training, most recent data refer to thesecond European Continuing vocational training survey (CVTS2) carried out

42

(16) However, comparison over time is hampered by a break in time series for several countries.

in 1999. Figure 8 shows that participation has increased considerablycompared with 1993 in most countries where data are available. With theexception of the Czech Republic and Slovenia, it is mainly the new MemberStates and Greece, Spain, Italy and Portugal which have rather lowparticipation rates.

Figure 7: Participation of the European population aged 25 to 64 inlifelong learning: 1996, 2000, 2003 (%)

Figure 8: Participation in continuing vocational training courses; 1993, 1999; EU25 (% of employees, all enterprises)


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Examples from Australia and Canada

In Australia, the federal and state governments have cooperated to design a comprehensive web-based career exploration and information service, the National Career Information System(www.myfuture.edu.au). The system contains information on education and training opportunitiesand on occupations, including regional information on labour-market demand and on wages andsalaries as well as opportunities for users to assess their interests and capabilities and matchthese to potential occupations.

In Canada, the Blueprint for Life and Work Design is a national framework that maps out the lifeand work competences individuals need to build their lives and careers. It helps individuals todiscover the skills, knowledge and attitudes required to design and manage life, work and career.Eleven competences are grouped into three broad areas: personal management, learning andwork exploration, and life/work. https://www.emploisetc.ca/blueprint/ drilldown.jsp?category_id=1100&root_id=1080&call_id= 127&lang=e

In Quebec schools are being encouraged to develop the concept of the guidance-oriented school.This is linked to wider competence-oriented school reforms. Personal and career planning isdefined as one of five broad areas of learning throughout schooling. The aim is to provide supportfor students’ identity development in primary school and guidance in career planning throughoutsecondary school. To implement this concept, the number of qualified guidance specialists isbeing increased and the active involvement of all stakeholders is being promoted.

Member States need to broaden access, especially for those in vocational streams,employees in SMEs and older workers. The potential of the workplace as a settingfor guidance provision should be developed and, in line with the commitment madein the Framework of actions for the lifelong development of competencies andqualifications, the social partners should make information, support and guidance apriority. More attention also needs to be given to: the development of learning andcareer management skills; the improvement of quality assurance; and thestrengthening of structures for policy and systems development at national, regionaland sectoral levels. The follow-up of the Council Resolution on lifelong guidance(2004) and the tools developed by the European Commission’s expert group onlifelong guidance will support and facilitate Member States’ and social partners’efforts and help promote more occupational mobility (see Part C).



B6. Involvement of stakeholders and partnerships

Partnerships and networks – indispensable to making lifelonglearning a realityThe Framework of actions for the lifelong development of competencies andqualifications of the European social partners (ETUC et al., 2002) has movedlifelong learning up the agenda at European sectoral level and stimulatedmany new initiatives. Examples include open learning arrangements, humanresource development, cooperation in development plans at local andregional level, work councils and information campaigns. In many countries,particularly new Member States and candidate countries, a closercollaboration with social partners and sector bodies is needed.

Many companies, especially SMEs, cannot provide sufficient learningfrom their own resources. In some cases, a common platform of workperformance cooperation has been established, based on sharedknowledge and competences. Workplace partnerships are an innovativeway of linking companies. For example, Japanese companies, organisepartnerships along supply chain networks, and include temporary personnelexchanges between companies and suppliers. The German and Britishautomotive sectors have learning networks supporting workers acrossmultiple companies and organisations.

The Copenhagen process enhances collaboration and coordination atEuropean sectoral level, building on the accumulated effect of the manysectoral projects under the Leonardo da Vinci programme.

Examples of cooperation include:

ñ Czech Republic: direct links between educational institutions and social partners in regions;

ñ France: cooperation between schools and industry aiming at local economic development;

ñ Germany: initiative to implement coaching for learners in companies;

ñ Lithuania: change of status of vocational schools into self-governing institutions to cooperatewith industry, social partners and other public institutions is under consideration;

ñ The Netherlands: proposal for cooperation between social partners and national/regionalauthorities, reduction in the number of sector councils.

The social partners have launched many initiatives for low-skilled workers especially on theaccreditation of prior learning and older people.

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A more comprehensive measure is to establish a common European qualificationreference framework (see Part C) within which sectoral efforts should focus onensuring transparency and inter-sector mobility. With such a framework, sectorinitiatives will make a significant contribution to the Europeanisation of VET. Theframework has the potential to become a common template, connecting nationalsystems and enabling horizontal and vertical cross-sector initiatives to becompatible. The mapping initiative led by Cedefop on sector initiatives is animportant first step. It is currently too early to assess how efficiently it will promotestronger dialogue and coordination between sectoral initiatives and nationalsystems.

Identification and anticipation of skill needsAs firms and sectors compete on innovation and as globalisation createsturbulence in traditional markets, new skill and competence requirementsemerge. They have to be identified and considered in reforms of initial andcontinuing training curricula.

Cedefop supports the exchange of innovative approaches to identify and anticipateskill needs in Europe. It set up the Skillsnet network and organises regular events topromote transfer into policy and practice (www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Projects_Networks /Skillsnet). The involvement of all stakeholders – researchers,policy makers, social partners, training organisations, etc. – for policy transfer is anexplicit objective of this network.

Examples of countries that have a future perspective in their policy include (18):

ñ In the mid 1990s Germany established a network on ‘Early identification of skills needs’involving the participation of many organisations and exploring new skills emerging indifferent sectors and occupations (www.frequenz.net);

ñ France: an agreement between the social partners requires that each sector, that has notalready done so, should take the necessary steps to establish ‘Prospective observatories’ onprofessions and qualifications;

ñ Finland: has developed a foresight methodology on a nationwide basis, including an inter-governmental working group with 11 ministries and working groups that produce alternativeforecasts and scenarios. (http://www.oph.fi/english/page.asp?path=447;490;6750);


(18) Further examples and publications from European and non-European countries may be found inthe Skillsnet website (see above).


ñ In 2000 the UK set up UK Skillsbase in response to proposals in the second report of theNational Skills Task Force (www.dfes.gov.uk/skillsstrategy/);

ñ Austria has launched the ‘Qualification barometer’, a public-private initiative that providesinformation on anticipated qualification trends (http://www.ams.or.at/neu/2339);

ñ Belgium (Flanders) is planning to collect wider socio-economic data in collaboration withregional social economic committees as a supplement to the collection of labour market dataalready in place;

ñ Ireland has adopted a futures approach through the expert group on ‘Future skills needs’(www.skillsireland.ie);

ñ Norway implemented the ‘Learning conditions monitor’ in 2003. It addresses the issue ofskills supply and demand in the context of lifelong learning, and how large-scale measuringcan take account of skills acquired outside a formal learning context (www.fafo.no).

B7. Innovative pedagogies and learning-conduciveenvironments

Workforce skills are being redesigned to emphasise flexible and broadoccupational competences such as problem-solving, coping effectively withchange and communicating with peers and clients. This is reflected in newgoals and content for VET teaching and learning.

Key competences: openers to a knowledge-based societyThe Maastricht study identifies the development of broad occupationalcompetences through workplace learning as the key dimension of VETinnovation. Transferable or key competences are part of VET curricula inmany countries and the context in which learning takes place influencesgreatly the learning outcome.

Innovative European projects have developed curricula including thecompetences needed in particular industries or sectors across nationalboundaries. Competence-based education and training was introduced inthe Netherlands, and the Global Village in Denmark developed a curricularapproach combining different types of skills and knowledge needed in theinternational knowledge-based motor-industry.

Training for entrepreneurship – a key competenceEntrepreneurship is a key competence enabling people to develop attitudesand competences as a basis for creativity, initiative and responsibility, andindependence. Increasingly, governments are implementing entrepreneur-

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�ship teaching in mainstream schooling, but there is still a long way to gobefore this is common practice.

Specific entrepreneurship education and training is also a priority forstarting up and running a business. Numerous initiatives and programmesexist in European countries, mostly in higher education. However, in initialVET, there is no real focus on self-employment or on setting up a business.The curriculum prepares students and apprentices to become employees,since the main task is seen as being to train skilled workers.

CVT offers more business start-up training and advice, often through the privatesector. Measures are most effective when focused on particular sectors, marketsand groups. This element of VET has developed slowly in the EU15, even in thosecountries where recognised VET progression pathways beyond upper secondarylevel are not widely available. CVT for craft SMEs in Germany provides a well-established progression route including training for entrepreneurship.

ICT skills and e-learning – innovative tools for knowledge transferThe importance of ICT literacy and e-learning is reflected in Leonardo daVinci, Socrates, the e-Learning Action Plan and in other European initiatives.It is a feature of almost all national innovation strategies on teaching andlearning. Countries vary in the extent of ICT learning and approaches to theICT curriculum, with some opting for general ICT literacy, others for ICTintegrated into work processes. Countries with a strong vocationalorientation have a combined approach. Germany and Austria haveintroduced vocational education pathways for ICT occupations integratingformal and non-formal learning.

In initial VET, e-literacy is an important component of national VETsystems, as well as of employee skill portfolios. Apprenticeship trainingtends to relate enterprise skill strategies to opportunities for ICT inworkplaces. Various countries have inaugurated ICT action plans to includeICT content in the different occupational fields, such as the CzechRepublic’s ‘Outline of State information policy in education’, Denmark’s ‘ICTaction plan’, and Turkey’s ‘Preliminary national development plan’.

Member States should progressively ensure that, by 2010, ICT in vocational learningis embedded in work and business processes, rather than mainly involvingsimulation activities or distance learning.


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Increased efforts are required to expand training opportunities and the take-up ofcontinuing vocational training and learning at the workplace, which is a leading edgefor adult learning. Special attention needs to be paid to supporting training in SMEsand to facilitating access and motivating non-traditional learners (e.g. those with lowskills, older workers, migrants). Countries where participation has fallen need toreview their policies and practices to reverse the downward trend.

Information, guidance, counselling – imperatives for a European labour marketThe more diverse and flexible learning systems are, the greater individuals’needs for guidance to enable them to take informed decisions about careerand learning opportunities and manage their career paths. Some countrieshave implemented information campaigns and other awareness-raisingactivities. Measures to develop and reinforce guidance include: the creationof counselling and guidance systems (the Czech Republic and Slovakia,Lithuania), improvement of counselling and vocational guidance (Greece),expansion of guidance and counselling provision (Ireland), the deepening ofcareer guidance activities to provide individual counselling to all involved inselecting initial VET options (Liechtenstein), and establishing regionalpartnerships for educational and vocational guidance (Norway).

Research by the OECD, Cedefop, the ETF and the World Bank (17) showsthat a reform of policies and practices is required for guidance provision inEurope to meet the demands of a knowledge-based economy. To date, mostprovision is focused on secondary school students and the unemployed andconcerns short-term educational or labour market decisions. Provision forthose in vocational streams and in tertiary education and training is relativelyunderdeveloped and virtually non-existent for SME employees and olderworkers.

In a lifelong learning context, all individuals need to understand theoccupational implications of educational decisions and the pathwaysleading to occupational destinations. This requires close cooperationbetween education and labour authorities and other stakeholders involved inguidance. International competitors are ahead of most European countriesin providing coordinated systematic approaches to guidance informationand developing learning and career management skills through a morecompetence/outcomes based approach to guidance.

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(17) The career guidance policy reviews have been carried out in 37 countries. See http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Projects_Networks/Guidance/Career_Guidance_survey;http://www.oecd.org/document/35/0,2340,en_2649_34511_1940323_1_1_1_37455,00.html.

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Use of new technology and media – catalyst for changes in teaching and learningNew technologies and media allow for greater flexibility in teaching andlearning. They push back the boundaries of time and location and enablemore focus on individual learners. They have led to innovations in teachingand learning.

Many European and national initiatives have been launched to stimulateICT-supported learning. Large companies are beginning to benefit fromthese developments to train and up-skill their staff, but only a smallpercentage of SMEs.

ICT supported learning offers great potential for innovation in teaching and learning,in initial VET and continuing vocational training. To tap this potential fully, MemberStates need to address the role and support of teachers and trainers, develop newmodels to create, use and reuse content, develop pedagogical methods and promotegreater uptake by SMEs.

Learning organisations and partnershipsThe ‘learning organisation’ describes the need for companies and staff toengage in a continuous process of learning as a source of performanceimprovement and competitive advantage.

The development of the learning organisation is closely linked to therealisation that effective VET teaching and learning is achieved throughlearning partnerships. Workplace partnerships are an innovative way to linkcompanies and develop regional innovation centres, including vocationalschools and higher education.

The GOLO project in Germany is an SME workplace learning partnership.By rotating apprentices between different companies, learning is enrichedand opportunities expanded. This gives apprentices the range of experienceto develop a comprehensive occupational profile.

The ‘Chance Border region’ network was set up in 2003 to explore crossborder VET design between countries adjacent to the new Länder inGermany. Seventeen partners from nine countries are developing cross-border qualification profiles in numerous sectors.

Teamwork, learning partnerships and the widespread use of peer group teaching andlearning, contribute to the quality of learning-conducive work. A number of Europeancountries are working towards this goal.

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Given the future needs for highly skilled labour, the skill levels of active workforcemust increase dramatically. This is a priority in realising the Lisbon goals. The worldof work can provide many, but not all, curricula and learning opportunities fordeveloping competences and preparing workers for the future. Formal education andtraining is still needed.

B8. The role of teachers and trainers in assuringquality in VET

There have been few attempts at European level to tackle the specificchallenges of the education and training of vocational teachers and trainers.Special attention is warranted in view of the direct and indirect influence ofvocational teachers in system quality and skill development. Cedefop’snetwork for training of teachers and trainers (www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Projects_ Networks/TTNet) provides a platform for exchange andcooperation in this field.

In the US, the NAVE report (2004) is concerned about the competences and lack of opportunitiesfor continuing training among vocational teachers. They are less likely than academic teachers tohave bachelors’ degrees and many do not feel they have received sufficient professionaldevelopment. NAVE concludes that upgrading the teachers workforce is essential and thatsubstantial investments in new recruitment and in-service training approaches are required.

A key challenge is that while vocational teachers and trainers are essentialto supporting skill development in the workforce, their status is low. Thesalaries and image of vocational teachers tend to be quite low, especially insome Mediterranean and new Member States. VET teaching, in schools andcolleges, is an ageing profession, and many are not inclined to undertakecontinuing training or adapt to new technologies or pedagogic concepts.

Teacher shortages exist in many countries. In Germany and Austria, thereare shortages of teachers of specific subjects, especially those in highdemand in the external labour market.

Training has diversified in the workplace and the profile of VET teachers and trainershas grown more varied. Teachers and trainers within companies are extending theirroles from instruction to learning facilitators and innovators and are increasinglyinvolved in additional tasks, such as human resource development, guidance andcoaching, and assessment of competences.


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Many countries have introduced new progression routes and recruitment regulations for teachersand trainers. Regulating entry and educational requirements for teachers and trainers in VET ischanging. In traditional work-based systems, such as in Denmark, Germany or Austria,regulations for in-company trainers make some pedagogical training a requirement. InLuxembourg and Hungary, similar requirements also exist for workplace trainers. Usually, trainingis integrated into the upper level training of the respective craft or trade (e.g. Meisterqualification).

With the new law on VET, Italy has introduced new requirements for trainers involved inapprenticeships. Finland is currently running a major training programme for those who areinvolved in learning processes at work. For both Italy and Finland, requirements are also reportedin the case of regional and labour market training, where the trainer’s qualification is one criterionfor allocating public training subsidies.

Other countries have implemented special school development or overarching reform plans inwhich teacher training is an integral component.

Given the fundamental importance of VET teachers and trainers for thefurther development of Europe towards the Lisbon goal, improving thesituation and status of VET professionals must be high on the politicalagenda. Strong cooperation among European higher education institutesinvolved in teacher training may help to raise standards.

A coherent teacher policy reflecting the Lisbon and Copenhagen challenges is not yetvisible. Teachers and trainers should receive far more support to fulfil their role asinnovators and facilitators. This is essential to improving the quality of, andinnovation in, teaching and learning.A balance is needed between further professionalisation of teachers and moreflexibility in teacher and trainer recruitment policies and practices. This reflects thetension between the need for quality teachers and the need to adapt to demographicand economic problems affecting education and training systems in the future.

52

SECTION C

The contribution of the Copenhagen process toachieving the Lisbon goals

For VET to be active in developing lifelong learning policies and supplyingthe highly skilled workforce necessary to achieve the Lisbon strategic goalsby 2010, the Copenhagen Declaration (2002) identifies four priorities forenhanced European cooperation in VET across Europe:ñ strengthening the European dimension;ñ improving transparency, information and guidance systems;ñ recognising competences and qualifications;ñ promoting quality assurance.

In the two years since the Copenhagen process was initiated, substantialprogress has been made.(a) The Ploteus portal on European learning opportunities was launched in

2003, providing access for citizens to information about education andtraining courses and systems, grants, exchange programmes, jobs andliving conditions across Europe.

(b) The new Europass, single framework for the transparency ofqualifications and competences, will be adopted by Council andParliament in January 2005 and launched under the Luxembourgpresidency in early 2005.

(c) Work on lifelong guidance has revealed large gaps between policy goalsand the capacity of national career guidance systems. The CouncilResolution of May 2004 identifies clear priorities and the Careerguidance handbook for policy makers provides common principles andother tools to improve services at national, local and company level.

(d) Validation of non-formal and informal learning is on the agenda of almostall European countries. The May 2004 Council conclusions providecommon principles to guide these developments. However, the Councilaccepts the needs of enterprises and the issue of quality assurance arenot adequately covered by the principles which require furtherdevelopment.


(e) A European credit system for vocational education and training (ECVET),to allow trainees to build upon their achievements when moving fromone national VET system to another, is under development. The technicalworking group on credit transfer in VET has developed proposals on theprinciples and rules of a European credit system for VET, to ensure itseffective implementation in mobility exchange initiatives.

(f) A sectoral qualifications strategy is being developed. The Leonardo daVinci II programme provides an important framework for new sectoralinitiatives across national borders in Europe. There is a risk that sectoralinitiatives (local or EU funded) have only a modest impact, as they arenot carried out in a defined political context and tend to have a ‘project’character without sufficient plans for a more structured uptake. This iscompounded by a reluctance of employers and employee organisationsin several European countries to be involved in training issues.

(g) Related to the sectoral strategy, early identification of future skills needsis a priority. Innovative approaches are needed, given the difficulties inpredicting future skills. Otherwise, there is a danger of passing onredundant or irrelevant skills. Cedefop’s Skillsnet network provides aplatform for European cooperation and exchange on new approachesand findings (see Section B6).

(h) A Common Quality Assurance Framework was endorsed by the Councilin May 2004. The framework helps to develop, improve, monitor andevaluate national systems and practices, and provides a commonreference system. Quality assurance is on the political agenda of allEuropean countries. Many have just started planning, others haveimplemented quality assurance systems (see Section B1). Extendingquality assurance for training providers outside government influence isan issue to be addressed, especially for those located outside nationalboundaries.

Attention to the learning needs of teachers and trainers within all forms ofVET is a priority under the Copenhagen Declaration to promote qualityassurance. EU programmes can encourage and assist such action, but morepriority needs to be given to this issue at national level.

In addition to VET teachers and trainers, the training needs of people atrisk and the ageing workforce are among the eight national priorities of theEducation Council Conclusions adopted on 15 November 2004. TheConclusions which provide the basis for the Maastricht Communiqué alsorefer to the need to continue the Copenhagen process and implement itsresults more systematically at national, regional and local levels.

54

�

The focus of future action at European level will be to consolidate thework begun on developing common tools and frameworks and thedevelopment of a European Qualifications Framework. This will provide acommon reference to facilitate the recognition and transferability of VET,general and higher education qualifications, based on competences andlearning outcomes. It will improve permeability in education and trainingsystems, provide a reference for validating informally acquired competencesand support effective functioning of the European, national and sectorallabour markets.

The Copenhagen process, although focusing on VET, has done much to furtherlifelong learning. Many of the tools developed are applicable beyond VET andcontribute to making a European area of lifelong learning a reality. The lifelongguidance principles and handbook, the common principles for validation of non-formal and informal learning, form part of the required building blocks.

SECTION CThe contribution of the Copenhagen process to achieving the Lisbon goals 55

ANNEX 1

Selective thematic summary ofDGVT responses (19)

(a) Implementation of measures related to the Copenhagen PrioritiesResponses to the DGVT questionnaire and the country reports show thatEuropean countries have implemented and are planning many measuresaddressing the four priorities for VET of the Copenhagen Declaration, asoutlined below.ñ Recognition of competences and qualifications has received most

attention to date. Two thirds of European countries (Austria, Belgium-Fr, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy,Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Slovenia,Spain, Sweden, the UK) have taken steps to recognise informal andnon-formal learning. Most others (Belgium-Fl, Bulgaria, CzechRepublic, Finland, Greece, Iceland, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Malta,Poland, Romania, Slovakia) are at the planning stage. There are widevariations in the scope and coverage of approaches. Most have asummative function and give credits in an educational pathway, aimingto improve both the system’s efficiency and increase participation inlifelong learning. Some countries (e.g. Estonia, Spain, Ireland, Maltaand Slovenia) are developing a credit transfer system, often related toa national qualifications framework. Others (e.g. Czech Republic,Denmark, Liechtenstein, the Netherlands and Poland) areimplementing actions related to Europass. Denmark is developing alegal framework to ensure individual recognition of qualifications andcertificates acquired in another country.

ñ Quality assurance is the priority receiving the second highest amountof attention. Some countries (e.g. Belgium-Fl, Ireland and Austria)have quality assurance systems for VET. Many countries are applyingnew systems of quality development and assurance. The methodsvary between standard quality management procedures such as ISOor EFQM and approaches targeted to the needs of schools, such as

(19) The survey among the DGVTs on measures, challenges and future strategies was part of the'Maastricht study' (2004). The questionnaire and more detailed results may be found there.

the QIS (Qualität in Schulen) in Austria. Self-evaluation is emphasisedin some quality assurance processes for institutional VET, for examplein Denmark and the Netherlands.

ñ To improve transparency, information and guidance, many countrieshave raised awareness of VET provision and its links to otherpathways to promote its attractiveness. Several countries (e.g. theCzech Republic, France, Greece, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Norway,Slovakia) have improved VET information, advice, guidance andcounselling. Fragmented information is a problem. To navigate theincreasingly complex systems of provision, individuals need anintegrated approach connecting learning and career information withlabour market data, making clear which options open up and whichare closed when embarking on a particular track. Norway isestablishing regional partnerships for educational and vocationalguidance. Poland has a multidimensional career information system.

ñ Internationalisation strategies are beginning to be introduced to VETsystems to develop the European dimension and promote mobility.Placements abroad are still limited and, with a few exceptions (e.g.Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands and the UK), systems lackspecific provision to organise transnational study and workplacements. Finland provides internationalised apprenticeship trainingwith a focus on the metal, electrical and telecommunications sectors.The initiative aims to attract and motivate talented young employeesby offering them opportunities to follow pathways leading tointernational professional qualifications. It also develops practicalguidelines for companies to facilitate and encourage their involvementin international mobility.

(b) Training incentives, investments, expenditureEuropean countries are using a range of funding strategies that dependon governments and partnerships with social partners, the privatesector, and involve individuals. Most countries have incentives toencourage individuals and/or firms to take part in continuing VET.Measures include the introduction or expansion of educational leave(e.g. Austria, Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway), financial support or taxallowances to individuals (e.g. Austria, Cyprus, Germany, Hungary, Italy,Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Sweden),financial support, including tax incentives to firms (Austria, Bulgaria,Cyprus, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Romania,Spain). In countries such as France, Italy and the Netherlands there are

ANNEX 1Selective thematic summary of DGVT responses 57


multi-sectoral funds financed by a percentage of the total wage bill offirms and managed by joint bodies to promote and fund actions andtraining plans. In some countries employers also have a mandatoryresponsibility to facilitate the acquisition of a qualification for unskilledemployees (e.g. Czech Republic) or ensure access of employees totraining programmes based on training plans agreed with trade unions(e.g. Romania).

(c) VET to support economic development and respond todemographic changesSeveral countries are shifting towards more competence based VETcurricula (e.g. Belgium, Estonia, France, Greece, Malta, the Netherlands,Poland, Portugal, Romania). Many have created VET programmes inhigher education and/or introduced access to higher education via VET(e.g. Austria, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland,France, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway,Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Spain). Some countries includeentrepreneurship training in the vocational school curriculum and/or inthe secondary school curriculum or national framework (e.g. Austria,Bulgaria, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Norway,Poland, Spain, the UK). These measures help develop the skills neededin working life and bring VET closer to the world of work.

As regards skill forecasting mechanisms, some countries (e.g. Austria,Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Norway, the UK) have takensteps to incorporate a stronger future perspective into theirmethodologies integrating trends that influence change such as sectorconvergence, technology developments and local/global specialisation.To complement labour market policies enabling older people to continueto work, some countries have expanded access to training and lifelonglearning for older workers (e.g. Austria, Czech Republic, Estonia,Finland, France, Italy, Ireland, Latvia, Liechtenstein, the Netherlands,Sweden). Some have initiatives focused in particular on the provision oftraining or lifelong learning for older unemployed people (e.g. Belgium,Czech Republic, Ireland, Austria, the UK).

(d) Social cohesion and VET for vulnerable groupsThe vast majority of European countries has expanded and/or deepenedactions to reduce early school leaving. Measures include second chanceeducation and training (e.g. Germany, Greece, Ireland, Luxembourg,Austria, Poland, Romania), alternative learning pathways, including a

58

stronger practical VET focus (e.g. Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,France, Germany, Latvia, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Turkey) and enhancedguidance and counselling (e.g. Czech Republic, the Netherlands,Slovakia). A majority has introduced more student-centred learning andtailor-made provision. Portugal, which has a particularly acute problemof early school leaving, has developed a national plan of prevention. TheNetherlands has introduced regional information and coordinationcentres to detect drop-outs and provide counselling and redirection toeducation or special work-based programmes. In Ireland, clusters ofschools and other actors develop plans and provision to combat earlyschool leaving. In Bulgaria and Lithuania legislative initiatives emphasisethe role of parents in preventing drop-out. In Slovakia the social benefitssystem provides incentives for remaining in education and in Lithuaniasupport (including food, temporary housing, learning materials) isprovided to pupils from disadvantaged groups.

All countries have measures for the unemployed and adults with no orlow-level qualifications, including support for literacy, numeracy, ICT,non-formal training, accreditation of prior learning and advice andguidance. Other target groups addressed by most countries includemigrants (e.g. via literacy and language programmes), people withdisabilities (e.g. via personalised support, improved integration legislationand tax incentives), and women returners (e.g. via measures to buildconfidence, combat occupational discrimination and genderstereotypes).

(e) Open learning pathways and guidanceAll countries have sought to raise the attractiveness and flexibility ofinitial VET. Most mention modularisation (Austria, Belgium, CzechRepublic, France, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Luxembourg, Malta,Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Sweden) establishing national qualificationsystems/frameworks (Czech Republic, Ireland, Lithuania, Malta, theNetherlands, Slovenia, the UK), establishing competence basedprogrammes (Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Italy, Latvia,Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia) and increasing accessto higher education (Austria, Finland, Germany, Liechtenstein, Portugal,Spain, Sweden). Some are trying to improve the quality of VETprogrammes (e.g. Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Malta, Romania), whilstothers are focusing more on the diversification of programmes (e.g.Bulgaria, Poland, Portugal) and pathways (e.g. France). Several haveintegrated vocational subjects into general programmes and vice versa



(e.g. Belgium, Czech Republic, Ireland, Norway, Austria, Portugal,Slovakia, Sweden, the UK). Some have strengthened information, adviceand guidance activities (e.g. Belgium, Czech Republic, Greece, France,Ireland, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Slovakia).

As regards CVT, efforts are being made to improve coherence andtransparency through qualifications frameworks (e.g. Denmark, Ireland),to promote quality assurance (e.g. Czech Republic, Malta) and reinforceinformation, advice and guidance (e.g. Belgium, Spain, Austria). Somecountries are improving the flexibility and responsiveness of systemsand stimulate demand through the creation or adaptation of regionalCVT centres (e.g. Czech Republic, Romania, Spain, Sweden). In Belgiumthey are developing and testing a methodology to detect demand forlifelong learning. Some countries (e.g. France) have reformed training forthe unemployed into a more flexible programme for a wider target group,including workers whose jobs are likely to be lost or restructured andolder workers. In Germany training for the unemployed has shifted fromsupply oriented funding to demand oriented funding.

(f) Involvement of stakeholders/partnershipsMeasures have been undertaken in nearly all countries to strengthen theinvolvement of social partners and sectors/branches of industry in VET.Enterprises are increasingly involved in providing work/trainingplacements for students and teachers/trainers. Cooperation with thesocial partners has been consolidated and systematised to promote acloser match between VET supply and labour market needs. Socialpartners are involved in the development of policies, programmesprocedures and certification at various levels, including throughcentralised tripartite councils (e.g. Estonia, Latvia), regionalpartnerships/networks (e.g. Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany,Estonia, Slovenia, Slovakia), at all levels (e.g. Greece, Spain, Hungary),at local level via school/industry partnerships (e.g. Austria, Belgium,France, Italy, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Sweden,Turkey), via initiatives at sector or branch level (Bulgaria, Ireland). Icelandhas created 14 occupational councils with social partners to developcurricula. The UK has a National and Sector Skills Council to encourageemployers to take ownership of skills issues and develop sectorstrategies to address specific productivity issues and associated skillsneeds. Bulgaria has established a national enrolment plan for sectorministries and social partners bringing planning of enrolment into linewith labour market needs.

60

(g) Innovative pedagogies and learning-conducive environmentsNew goals and content for VET teaching and learning have beendeveloped to reflect changes in the skills needed in a knowledge-basedeconomy. Countries emphasise the development of broad occupationalcompetences and/or transferable key competences usingcontextualised learning settings, especially in the workplace (e.g.Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Malta, theNetherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania).

Most countries have introduced ICT or e-literacy into the VETcurriculum. Some have implemented ICT action plans (e.g. CzechRepublic, Denmark, Turkey) to promote specific ICT content in differentoccupational fields. Others have introduced VET pathways for ICToccupations integrating formal and non-formal learning (e.g. Germany,Austria). Generally the focus is on how to use ICT rather than using it tomodel and transform an activity. Some countries have introduced openlearning approaches in school or college-based learning environmentsto promote learning cultures through individualised and group-directedlearning (e.g. Denmark). Learning partnerships of networks ofenterprises, schools, colleges and universities have been created insome countries to develop regional innovation centres and increase thesupply of skills and competences for organisations and individuals (e.g.Germany).

(h) Teachers and trainersSome countries have reformed their teaching profiles andteacher/training progression routes (e.g. Belgium, Czech Republic,Denmark, Ireland, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania). Almostall have strengthened continuing education and training for VETteachers, including through periods of immersion in the workplace (e.g.France). Some countries are building coherent research and trainingprogrammes to reflect the integration of subject matter and pedagogy inVET. For example in Germany a network of German University Institutesfor training vocational teachers and trainers has looked at occupationalclusters focusing on core problems and developmental tasks. Severalcountries have introduced mandatory requirements for teachercontinuing training (e.g. Austria, Finland, Hungary, Ireland, Latvia, theNetherlands, Romania). Some (e.g. Estonia and the UK) are movingtowards the further professionalisation of teachers and pursuingambitious goals to improve teacher quality, whilst others (e.g. Germany)are more oriented towards allowing greater flexibility in teacher and



trainer recruitment policies and practices. Efforts to maketeaching/training a more attractive profession are also evident in manycountries (e.g. Bulgaria, Sweden). In the Czech Republic, a goal hasbeen set to increase teachers’ wages from 20% below the nationalaverage to 37% above. Some countries report measures to expand thepool of teachers/trainers. For example Sweden has introduced specialteacher training for teachers lacking qualifications.

62

ANNEX 2

Tables and figures

Figure A1: Pupils in upper secondary education enrolled in vocationalstream, 1998, 2002 (%)


Table A1: Population aged 25-64 years by highest level of educationattained; 2003 (a) (%)

64

Country Total Low (ISCED 0-2) Medium (ISCED 3-4) High (ISCED 5-6)

CZ 100.0 11.6 76.5 11.9EE 100.0 11.8 57.7 30.4SK 100.0 13.4 75.0 11.6LT 100.0 13.9 62.8 23.2DE 100.0 16.5 59.5 24.0UK 100.0 17.5 51.9 30.7LV 100.0 17.6 64.2 18.2PL 100.0 17.9 68.2 13.9SE 100.0 18.0 54.8 27.2DK 100.0 18.1 50.1 31.8SI 100.0 21.5 60.7 17.8AT 100.0 21.7 63.1 15.2FI 100.0 24.5 42.7 32.8HU 100.0 26.0 58.8 15.2LU 100.0 30.2 54.8 14.9NL 100.0 32.4 42.7 24.9CY 100.0 34.0 36.5 29.5FR 100.0 35.2 41.3 23.5IE 100.0 38.3 35.2 26.5BE 100.0 38.6 33.2 28.2EL 100.0 45.9 36.0 18.1IT 100.0 53.1 36.1 10.8ES 100.0 57.3 17.7 25.0PT 100.0 77.8 11.7 10.5MT 100.0 79.5 11.4 9.0

EU15 100.0 34.4 43.1 22.5

EU25 100.0 31.6 47.3 21.2

EU25 (1 000) 245 518 77 874 115 420 52 224

NO 100.0 13.5 55.2 31.4CH 100.0 13.5 59.6 26.9BG 100.0 29.0 49.9 21.1RO 100.0 29.7 60.4 9.8IS 100.0 35.0 39.3 25.7

AU 100.0 39.0 30.0 31.0CA 100.0 18.0 40.0 43.0JP 100.0 16.0 47.0 36.0KR 100.0 30.0 45.0 26.0US 100.0 13.0 49.0 38.0

(a) NL, IS, AU, CA, JP, KR, US: 2002.European countries sorted by low level of education – Slight differences by rounding numbers.Source: Eurostat - NewCronos database (cited 2.11.04); non-European countries: OECD, Education at a glance,2004.

EU

Austria AT

Belgium BE

Czech Republic CZ

Cyprus CY

Denmark DK

Estonia EE

Finland FI

France FR

Germany DE

Greece EL

Hungary HU

Ireland IE

Italy IT

Lithuania LT

Latvia LV

Luxembourg LU

Malta MT

Netherlands NL

Poland PL

Portugal PT

Slovakia SK

Slovenia SI

Spain ES

Sweden SE

United Kingdom UK

ACCs

Bulgaria BG

Romania RO

Turkey TR

EFTA

Iceland IS

Liechtenstein LI

Norway NO

Switzerland CH

Non-European countries

Australia AU

Canada CA

China (PR) CN

Japan JP

South Korea KR

United States US

ISO country codes

References

Bjørnåvold, J. Common European principles for validation of non-formaland informal learning in Europe. European Commission, DirectorateGeneral for Education and Culture. DGVT conference, Dublin, 9 March2004a.

Bjørnåvold, J. Why validation of non-formal and informal learning?Introduction to working group 1, ‘Better use of individual knowledge andcompetence’. 8th Conference of European Ministers of Education, Oslo24 and 25 June, 2004b.

Chisholm, L.; Larson, A.; Mossoux, A.-F. Lifelong learning: citizens’ views inclose-up. Findings from a dedicated Eurobarometer survey. Luxembourg:EUR-OP, 2004.

Conclusions of the Council and the Representatives of the Governments ofthe Member States meeting within the Council conclusions on CommonEuropean Principles for the identification and validation of non-formal andinformal learning, Brussels, 24 May 2004 (http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/2010/doc/validation2004_en.pdf).

Coulombe, S.; Tremblay, J-F.; Marchand, S. Literacy scores, human capitaland growth in fourteen OECD countries. International Adult LiteracySurvey. Statistic Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. Catalogue N. 89-552-MIE.

Council of the European Union. Council Conclusions on Quality Assurancein Vocational Education and Training. Brussels, 24 May 2004;http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/2010/doc/vetquality_en.pdf

Council of the European Union. ‘Education and training 2010’. The successof the Lisbon strategy hinges on urgent reforms. 14358/03 EDUC 168 –COM (2003) 685 final. Brussels, 12 February 2004.

Council of the European Union. Outcome of proceedings. Councilconclusions on reference levels of European average performance ineducation and training (benchmarks). 8981/03, EDUC 03, 2003.

Declaration of the European Ministers of Vocational Education and Trainingand the European Commission, convened in Copenhagen on 29 and 30November 2002, on enhanced European cooperation in vocationaleducation and Training. ‘The Copenhagen Declaration’.

Descy, P.; Tessaring, M. (eds) Impact of education and training. Third reporton vocational training research in Europe: background report.Luxembourg: EUR-OP, 2004 (Cedefop Reference series, 3036).

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ETUC, UNICE, CEEP. Framework of actions for the lifelong development ofcompetencies and qualifications. Brussels, 2002.

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European Commission. Report of the High Level Group on the future ofsocial policy in an enlarged European Union. Brussels, 2004.

Eurostat. NewCronos database (diverse data).Government of Canada. Knowledge matters. Skills and learning for

Canadians. Human Resources Development Canada, 2002a.Government of Canada. National summit on innovation and learning.

Summary. Human Resources Development Canada, 2002b.Green, A.; Preston, J.; Malmberg, L.-E. Non-material benefits of

education, training and skills at a macro level. In: Descy, P.; Tessaring,M. (eds) Impact of education and training. Third report on vocationaltraining research in Europe: background report. Luxembourg: EUR-OP,2004 (Cedefop Reference series, 3036).

Hansson, B. et al. The impact of human capital and human capitalinvestments on company performance. Evidence from literature andEuropean survey results. In: Descy, P.; Tessaring, M. (eds) Impact ofeducation and training. Third report on vocational training researchin Europe: background report. Luxembourg: EUR-OP, 2004 (CedefopReference series, 3036).

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Kok, W. Jobs, jobs, jobs. Creating more employment in Europe. Report ofthe Employment Taskforce. November 2003.

Kok, W. Facing the challenge. The Lisbon strategy for growth andemployment. Report from the High Level Group. November 2004.

Leney, T. et al. Achieving the Lisbon goal: The contribution of VET. Finalreport for the European Commission, 15.10.2004, London, 2004(‘Maastricht study’) (http://www.refernet.org.uk/index_copenhagen.asp).

NAVE. National assessment of vocational education. Final report to theCongress. US Department of Education. June 2004.

OECD. Education at a glance. Paris: OECD (various issues).Presidency Conclusions. Lisbon European Council, 23 and 24 March 2000.

SN 100/00, Lisbon.Resolution of the Council and of the Representatives of the Member States

meeting within the Council on Strengthening policies, systems andpractices in the field of guidance throughout life. Brussels, 24 May 2004;(http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/2010/doc/resolution2004_en.pdf).

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68

Cedefop (European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training)

Cedefop synthesis of the Maastricht Study



Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

2004 – VI, 68 pp. – 17 x 24 cm

ISBN 92-896-0329-1

Cat. No: TI-63-04-771-EN-C

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TI-63-04-771-EN-C

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European Centre for theDevelopment of Vocational Training

Free of charge 4041 EN

This report puts together the main findings of a study (Maastrichtstudy, Leney et al. 2004) examining developments in VET andprogress towards the Lisbon and Copenhagen goals in 31 Europeancountries.

The report considers key challenges facing VET and looks at effortsmade at national and European levels. It compares and contraststhe state of VET in Europe with that of competitor countries, suchas Australia, Canada and the US.

The report puts forward conclusions and recommendations forfuture action to improve the contribution of VET to meeting theLisbon goal. This is for the EU to become the most dynamic andcompetitive knowledge-based economy in the world, deliveringsustainable growth, generating more and better jobs and creatingmore social cohesion.

The report is intended to inform reflection and act as a stimulusfor debate. It includes examples of practice and data on keyindicators to enable policy-makers to benchmark their own systemsin relation to others.


Cedefop Synthesis Report

Vocational educationand training –key to the futureLisbon-Copenhagen-Maastricht:mobilising for 2010

9 789289 603294

ISBN 92-896-0329-1

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