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EarlyTamilPoeticsbetween N āṭ yaśāstraandRāgamālā.
HermanTieken
Tothememoryof GodardSchokker,whointroducedmeto
PrākritandApabhraṃśaliteratureandthusgavemethekeyto
Caṅkampoetry
Introduction1
TheearliestśāstrictextinTamilisTolk ā ppiyam.2Itispartof theso-
calledCaṅkamcorpus,whichotherwiseincludeseightanthologiesof
poems.Tolk ā ppiyamdescribes,orprescribes,thegrammarandpoetics
of thisliterarytradition.Theindebtednessof itsgrammaticalpartin
Books1and2totheSanskrittradition,andinparticulartheAindraor
Kātantraschoolof grammar,hasbeenlongrecognized.3Itinvolves
modesof analysisaswellasterminologyandshowsthattheTamil
1IliketothankThomasCruijsenforhisadviceconcerningtheuseof terminologyof musictheory.2Theearliestevidenceof aśāstrictradition(asagainstśāstrictexts)inTamilisformedbytheso-calledTamil-Brāhm īinscriptions, whichdatefrombetweenthesecondcenturyBCandthethirdADapproximately.Evenif thisdatehasbeenbasedonweakevidence,asacorpustheTamil-Brāhm īinscriptionsareindeedprobablymucholderthananyof theothersources,literaryaswellasinscriptional, availableforTamil.Theinfluenceof aśāstrictraditionintheTamil-Brāhm īinscriptionsisevidentintheorthography, whichismarkedbyastrikingeconomywhichisachievedbyaccountingforallophones.Inputtingtogethertheinventoryof theTamil-Brāhm īgraphemes,whichpresentsaselectionand,wherenecessary,anadaptationof theNorthIndianBrāhm īscript,certainvoicedplosivesof thelatterwereignoredasinTamiltheseweremerelypositionallyconditionedallophonesof thecorresponding voicelessones.Therecognitionof thisfeatureof theTamilsound
systemtestifiestoanadvancedknowledgeof,andexperiencein,linguisticsanalysisonthepartof thescribesresponsibleforthesefirstattemptsatwritingTamil.However,asindicated,theanalysisof Tamilphonologydidnottakeplaceinavacuum.ThestartingpointwastheNorthIndianBrāhm īalphabet,which,wemayassume,wasaccompaniedbyalinguistictraditionof itsown.Thismeansthatstudyof thegrammarof Tamil,of whichtheTamil-Brāhm īinscriptionsarethefirstproducts,didnotstartindependentlyof theNorthIndiangrammaticaltradition.Thispictureisconfirmedinthelaterperiod,forwhichwehavepropergrammarsof Tamil,theearliestof whichis,assaid,Tolk ā ppiyam.3SeeBurnell1875:8-20andScharfe1973.
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traditiondidnotstartfromscratchbutwasinitsorigininspiredby
earlierNorthIndianexamples.
FromthepoeticpartinBook3,knownasPorul atik āram,a
similarpictureemerges.4Sometopicshavebeenborroweddirectly
fromtheSanskritliterarytradition.Thisapplies,forinstance,tothe
treatmentof similes(uvamai,Sktupamā)andmoods(meyppāṭṭ u,Skt
bhāva)inChapters7and8respectively.Itmayalsoinvolvedetails,
suchasthedistinctionbetweennāṭ aka va ḻakkuandulakiyal va ḻakku
introducedin1.56/1003,whichcorrespondstotheonebetweenthe
pairnāṭ yadharmī andlokadharmī of the N āṭ yaśāstra(13.70ff.);or
partsof chapters,suchastheenumerationof the32uttikal in
9.112/1614,whichcorrespondtothe32tantrayuktismentionedin,
amongothertexts,the Arthaśāstra(Chapter15).
Inthisprocessof undressingTolk ā ppiyamoneusuallystops
shortattheclassificationof poetryinsevenso-calledtiṇai,ortypes,
laiddowninPorul atik āram,Chapters1-5.Thispartof theliterary
theoryisclaimedtobeapurelyindigenousinventionindependentof
anyinfluencefromtheNorth.Inwhatfollows,however,Iwilltryto
showthatitisbasedoncategoriesderivedfromatheoryof musicof
NorthIndian,Sanskrit,origin.Theearliesttextualsourceforitisthe
N āṭ yaśāstra(beforethefifthcenturyAD).However,themusical
theoryunderlyingTamilpoetics,if indeedrelatedtotheoneoutlined
inthe N āṭ yaśāstra,isalreadyfarremovedfromit.Itappearstohave
followedthesametrajectoryasthelaterNorthIndianRāgaand
Rāgamālāsystems.Theaimof thisarticleis,amongotherthings,totry
tosituatetheTamilliterarytheorymoreexactlybetweenthesevarious
NorthIndianmusictheories.
TheTamilliterarytheory
4SeeMarr1985:52-68.
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OldTamilCaṅkampoetryisdividedintotwogenres.5Ontheonehand
wehavepoemsdepictinglifeinsmallvillagesinthecountryside,on
theotherpoemsevokingaso-calledheroicsociety.Thelatterheroic
poemsfeaturekingsdoingbattleandbardstryingtomakealivingby
praisingthesekings’heroicdeeds.Inthevillagepoemsfarmers
againstalloddstryingtomakethebestof theirlovelives.Forthelove
poemsPorul atik āramhascoinedthetermakam,or“interior”andfor
theheroicpoemstheterm pu ṟ am,or“exterior”.InPorul atik āramthe
scenesof thepoems,whicharetheoreticallyinfiniteinnumber,have
beenbroughtdowntosevendistinct“types”,ortiṇais,thatis,seven
forthevillagepoemsand(twotimes)sevenfortheheroicpoems.In
whatfollowsIwouldliketodrawattentiontothenamesgiventothe
differenttypesof Akam,whichbesidebeingnamesof typesof poetic
scenesappeartobenamesof specificmelodictypesaswell.Inthe
caseof thenamesforthePuṟamtypes,thoughsimilarinnature,this
othersetof meaningsisabsent.Mostlikelytheyweremerelyinvented
tocreateasystemidenticaltotheoneof Akam.However,thisrequires
aseparatestudy,whichfallsoutsidethescopeof thepresentone.
Of thesevenAkamtypes,themiddlefiveareassignedto
specifickindsof landscapeandarenamedafterplantsorflowers
typicalof thoselandscapes.Thus,scenesinvolvingsecretmeetingsof
lovers( puṇartal)aresetinhillsandmountains(maivarai),andare
referredtobythemountainflowerku ṟ iñci.Thosedescribingasulking
wife(ūṭ al)arefoundinavillageamidstricefields(t ī mpuṉal).This
typeof sceneisnamedafterthemarutamtree.Awomanwaiting
(iruttal)forherlovertoshowupisportrayedagainstabackgroundof
aforest(k āṭ u)inSpring,theseasonof love,whenthemullai-jasmine
blooms.Situationsinvolvingwomenanxiouslywaitingfortheirlovers
5Foranoverviewof theTamilliterarytheory,see,forinstance,Zvelebil1973:85-110andMarr1985:14-68.
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aresetontheseafront( perumaṇal)amongthefishermencommunity
andarecalledneytal,afterthewhiteIndianwater-lily.Allpoemsdeal
onewayortheotherwiththeimpossibilityof eitherloversormanand
wifetobetogetherandmakeloveundisturbedly.Aspecificvariation
of thethemeof separationisthatof themantravelling( pirital)in
summerduringmiddaythroughadesiccated jungleandlongingforhis
wife.Thesepoemsarenamedafterthe pālaiflowertypicalof such
dried-uptracts.Apartfromtheabovementionedlovesituations(uri)
likethesecretmeetingandsulking,eachlandscapeisalso
characterizedbyitsownseasonandtimeof theday( peru- and
ci ṟ upo ḻuturespectively).Forinstance,theku ṟ iñciscenestakeplacein
winterinthemiddleof thenight,andthoseof pālaiinsummerat
midday.Inaddition,eachlandscapehasitsownnativematter(karu),
whichincludesgods,localfood,animals,plants,birds,musical
instruments(ormelodies)andoccupations.Thus,atypicaloccupation
of themountainpeopleishuntingandslashandburnagriculture,and
theirstaplefoodismilletandthegodappearingamongthemis
Murukaṉ.Typicalanimalsaremonkey,tigerandpeacock.
Besidethesefivetypestherearetwomore,thefirstandthe
seventh,whichare,however,notassociatedwithaparticular
landscapeornamedafteraplantorflower.Theyarecalledkaikkil ai
and peruntiṇairespectively,tothemeaningsof whichtermsIwill
comebacklater.Thedefinitionof kaikkil aiin53/1000consistsof a
descriptionof asceneinvolvingayounggirlandamantaking
advantageof hershynessbyinterpretinghersilenceasasignof
agreement:
kaikkil aiinvolvesscenesinwhichaman,frustratedand
unhappyinthecompanyof ayounggirlwhoisnot(yet)ready
forlove,afterhavingtriedtoremovetheobstacleswhichkeep
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themapartbykindwordsaswellasbythreats,ashegetsno
responsegoesaheadandenjoyshimself makinglovewithher.6
Whileinkaikkil aithethwartedloveriskeepingaclearhead,in
peruntiṇai(54/1001)heismakingmoredesperatemoves.Oneof these
isridingtheruggedtrunkof thepalmyrapalm(ēṟ iya maṭ al)infrontof
thehouseof thegirlwhohasrejectedhim.Inanotherhehas
completelylosthismindfromanexcessof desire(t ēṟ utal o ḻinta
k āmattu mikuti ṟ am)andinthethirdhetakesrecoursetobrutalforce
(mikka k āmattu miṭ al).Inthisrespectthefourthsituation(actuallythe
secondintheenumeration,comingafterridingthepalmyra)falls
somewhatoutof tune:itpresentsaloverwhoistooold
(il amait ī rti ṟ am).7Whileinkaikkil aiitisthegirlwhoishelpless,in
peruntiṇaiitisthemanwhoisandasaresultof thatresortsto
desperatemeans.AsIwillarguebelowtheseaspectsareindeed
somehowexpressedintherespectiveterms.Thepositionof thesetwo
types“outside”thegroupof fivemayimplythatthesituationsorthe
meansresortedtowerenotconsideredproper,notsomuchfroma
poeticpointof view,forinthepoemsmendoridepalmyratreesand
dotrytowinveryyounggirls,asfromapurelymoralpointof view.8
Whatisstrange,though,isthatonlyfor peruntiṇaiallowancesare
made:in55/1002,asakindof afterthought,itisstatedthatthefour6 k āmañ cālāv il amaiyōl vayiṉ
ē mañ cālāv iṭ umpai yeytinaṉmaiyun t ī maiyum eṉṟ iru ti ṟ att āṟ ṟ aṉṉotum aval oṭ un tarukkiya puṇarttic
col etir pe ṟāaṉ colli yiṉ pu ṟ al pullit t ōṉṟ uṅ kaikkil aik ku ṟ ippē .7
ēṟ iya maṭ a ṟ ṟ i ṟ am il amait ī rti ṟ ant ēṟ utal o ḻinta k āmattu mikuti ṟ aṉ mikka k āmattu miṭ aloṭ u tokaiicceppiya nāṉkum peruntiṇaik ku ṟ ippē .
8Forreferencesto“ridingthepalmyra”,see,eg,Ku ṟ untokai17and32;formentryingtoseduceveryyounggirlsplayinginthesand,makingsandcastles,andplayingwithdolls,see,forinstance, Akanāṉūṟ u60,andHart1975:249.
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scenesof peruntiṇaimayalsobefoundinthetype(s)mentioned
before.9
ItshouldbenotedthatIamnotconcernedherewiththe
questionof whetherthereisoverlapbetweenthevarioustypes
distinguishedinPorul atik āramorwhatistheexactrelationship
betweenthisclassificationandthepoems.Interestingly,thetheory
itself,byintroducingtheconceptof tiṇaimayakkam,orconfusionof
type(14/961),allowsforaconsiderabledegreeof overlap.Atypical
caseof tiṇaimayakkamiswhenanimalsof onetypearefoundinpoems
of anothertype.InsteadIamconcernedwiththeoriginof theliterary
theory.InthisconnectionIwouldliketodrawattentiontothefactthat
thenamesof thesevenAkamtypesarealsoinuseastechnicalterms
frommusic.Whilekaikkil aiandtiṇaiin peruntiṇaiseemtobeoriginal
musicalterms,theuseof theplantnamesastechnicaltermsinmusic
theoryhas,asweshallsee,amorecomplicatedhistory.Unfortunately,
thecontextsinwhichthemusicaltermsarefoundinCaṅkampoetry
itself areoftennotveryhelpfulfordeterminingtheirmeanings.Before
turningtotheinstancesintheCaṅkampoemsIwillthereforefirsthave
alookattheplantnamesasmusicaltermsintheCilappatik āram.This
textaboundsindescriptionsof performancesof music,songanddance
andthetermsinquestionareoftenfoundincontextwhichspeakfor
themselves.
Theplantnamesastechnicaltermsfrommusic
TheCilappatik āramcontainsseveralinstancesshowingtheuseof the
plantnamesku ṟ iñci, pālai,mullaiandmarutamasmusicalterms.(In
theCilappatik āramthewordneytalisnotfoundassuch.)Thus,in
Cilappatik āram3.149wereadabouta pāṟ paṭ a niṉṟ a pālaippaṇ.The
word paṇin pālaippaṇsuggeststhat pālaiisamelodytypewitha
9 muṉṉaiya nāṉku muṉaiyata ṟ keṉ pa.
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musicalscaleof itsown.Inthisrespect28.33containsmorespecific
information.Thepassagereferstoatraditionaltype(varumu ṟ ai)of
pālaiplayedontheluteinwhichthekuralnoteistakenasthekural,or
tonic.10Thefollowingtwolines(34-35)speakof asweetku ṟ iñci,
whichisproducedbyplayingthetuttamnoteasthekural.11
Furthermore,intheso-calledcevva ḻippālaithekuralis joinedwith
(cē r )thekaikkil ai,orthethirdnote,toformachord(7.47),12andinthe
vil arippālaiforthatsamepurposethefirstnote(kural)is joinedtothe
fifth(il i)(7.48.).13
Bothluteandflutecanbetunedaccordingtotheseparticular
scales.Cilappatik āram3.70-94givesadescriptionof thisprocessof
tuningforthe pālaimode.IquotethetranslationbyDikshitar:
Thentherewasthemasterof theluteof thefourteenstrings.
Inordertoproducetheseven pālainoteshewouldconjointly
soundtherespectivestringsinthelute,knownasthet āram,and
10 kural kuralāka varumu ṟ aip pālaiyil.InDikshitar’stranslation:“[Theyplayed]a pālai-paṇwhichwasthenaturalresultof takingthekural(basicnote)itself asthetonic(kural)”.11 tuttaṅ kuralākat toṉmu ṟ aiy iya ṟ kaiyiṉ
ant īṅ ku ṟ iñci.InDikshitar’stranslation:“[Thentheyplayed]thebeautifulku ṟ iñji-paṇinthetraditionalmodewhichwastheresultof takingtuttam(thesecondnoteof thescale)askural”.12 āṅkaṉam pāṭ iyav ā yi ḻai piṉṉarum
k āntaṇ melvira ṟ kaikkil ai cē rkuralt ī ntoṭ aic cevva ḻippālaiy icaiy e ḻī ip
pāṅkiṉi ṟ pāṭ iyōr paṇṇup peyartt āl .Or,inDikshitar’stranslation: “SingingthusinthemodeinwhichKōvalaṉhadsung,thebeautifuldamsel(Mādavi)againexhibitedwithherrosyfingersthecharmof the
ś evva ḻippālaiinwhichthekaikkil aiwas joinedwithkural.Shesanginsuitablestrainsanewmelody-type( paṇ).”13 nul aiyar vil ari noṭ itarunt ī mpālai
il ikil aiyi ṟ kol l av i ṟ utt ā yāṉ mālaiil ikil aiyi ṟ kol l av i ṟ utt ā yā y maṉṉī yēṟ kol aivallā y eṉṉāvi kol vāḻi mālai.
InDikshitar’stranslation:“Oevening,duringthatcharmingv[l ]arippālaipeculiartotheresidentsof themaritimetract,youmadeil iblendedwithkil ai(kaikkil ai).Oevening,evenasyoumadeil i joinwithkil ai,youareabletotakeawaymylife.Pleaseyourself.Mayyoulivelong”.
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thekural,andbringingthemtothecentralpartof thelutehe
wouldtunethekaikkil aipartof theinstrument.Similarly,
touchingtheotherstoutstringonthet āramsideandtheother
twoslenderstringsonthekuralsideandbringingthemtothe
centralpartof thelute,hewouldtunethevil aripartof the
instrument.
Thenproceedingfromu ḻai,themostslenderstring,uptothe
kaikkil ai,hewouldplayuponallthefourteenstringsandthus
producethecempālainote.Inadefiniteorderthenoteswould
arise,e.g. paṭ umalaippālaifromkaikkil ai,cevva ḻippālaifrom
tuttam,k ōṭ ippālaifromt āram,vil arippālaifromvil ari,
mēṟ cempālaifromil i – thusarethecombinationseffected.In
thelute,thenotesbecomelowerandlowerastheypassoverto
theleft(sideof theinstrument).Itis justtheoppositeinthe
flute.Theexpertinthelutecanmixthelowandhighandthe
middlingnoteswithapleasingeffect.14
14Dikshitar1939:101.TheTamiltextsreads:
ī r ēḻ toṭ utta cemmu ṟ aik k ē l viyiṉ ōr ēḻ pālai ni ṟ uttal vēṇṭ ivaṉmaiyi ṟ kiṭ anta t āra pākamummeṉmaiyi ṟ kiṭ anta kuraliṉ pākamummeykkil ai narampi ṟ kaikkil ai kol l ak kaikkil aiy o ḻinta pākamum po ṟ puṭ ait tal ar āt t āram vil arikk ī ttuk kil aiva ḻip paṭṭ aṉal āṅk ē kil aiyumtaṉkil aiy a ḻivu kaṇṭ aval vayi ṟ cē raēṉai makal iruṅ kil aiva ḻic cē ramē letu ḻaiyil i k īḻatu kaikkil aivampu ṟ u marapi ṟ cempālaiy ā yati ṟ utiy ātiy ākav āṅkavai
pe ṟ umu ṟ ai vanta pe ṟṟ iyiṉīṇk ātu paṭ umalai cevvāḻi pakarum pālaiy eṉak kural kuralākat ta ṟ ki ḻamai tirintapiṉ maṉṉataṉ vakaiyē mu ṟ aimaiyi ṟ ṟ irint āṅ kil imutalākiyav etirpaṭ u ki ḻamaiyumk ōṭ i vil ari mēṟ cempālaiyṉanīṭ ik kiṭ anta k ē l vik kiṭ akkaiyiṉ ṇainarampuṭ aiyaṉav aṇaivu ṟ ak koṇṭāṅ kiyāḻmēṟ pālaiy iṭ amu ṟ ai meliyak ku ḻaṉmēṟ k ōṭ i valamu ṟ ai meliya
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Theexpressionmullaiyant īṅku ḻalinCilappatik āram17.21.3may
accordinglybetakentorefertoaflutetunedinthemullaimode.
Itistemptingtoconnectthese paṇs,ormelodictypes,withthe
NorthIndianr āgas.TheCilappatik āram,however,usestheterm jāti,
which,if nottothedirectprecursorof ther āga,referstoanearlier,
closelyrelatedconcept.15SeeinthisconnectionCilappatik āram8.39-
41,inwhichthemarutamcāti(Skt jāti)issaidtoconsistof fourtypes,
calledakanilaimarutam, pu ṟ anilaimarutam,arukiyaṉmarutamand
perukiyaṉmarutamrespectively.16Asistobenoticed,thefirsttwo
varietieshavenames,akamand pu ṟ am,whicharealsofoundinthe
literarytheory.
If thewordsku ṟ iñci,mullai, pālaiandmarutam(asindicatedin
theCilappatikaramnoinstancesof neytalasatermfrommusicare
found)referallfourtomelodictypes,kaikkil aifallsoutof tune.Aswe
haveseenaboveinegCilappatik āram7.47,itisthetermforan
individualnote.Thetermtiṇaiasin peruntiṇaiisextremelyrareinthe
Cilappatik āramandisnotusedinthattextastermformmusic.
If wenowturntotheCaṅkampoemsproper,inthemtheword
kaikkil aiisfoundonlyonce,namelyinParipāṭ al 11.136inthe
expressionkaikkil aikk āmam.kaikkil aiclearlydoesnotdenoteanote
herebutisusedinitstechnical,literarymeaningof “mismatchedlove”
here.Tothisinstanceof kaikkil aiinthismeaninginaCaṅkamtextI
willcomebackbelow.Thewordtiṇaiasamusicaltermisnotfoundin
Caṅkamtexts.Inthefewknowninstancesof theworditseemsto
valivu melivuñ camaṉum ellām
poliyak k ōtta pulamaiyōṉuṭ aṉ.
15 N āṭ yaśāstra28.36hasthecompound jātir āga.16 akanilaimarutamum pu ṟ anilaimarutamum
arukiyaṉmarutamum perukiyaṉmarutamumnālvakaic cātiyu nalampe ṟ a nōkki.
InDikshitar’stranslation:“Shetestedherskillinthefourmodes[cāti]of ahanilai-marudam, pu ṟ anilai-marudam,[m]aruhiyal-marudam,and perukiyal-marudam”.
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mean“family,clan”,asinPu ṟ anāṉūṟ u373:18,vil aṅkutiṇai vē ntar
“kingsbelongingtoanillustriousfamilyorclan”.Inthemajorityof
instancesthewordsku ṟ iñci,mullai,neytal,marutamand pālaireferto
therespectiveplants.Inafewinstances,however,theyrefertopieces
of music.Casesinpointare Akanāṉūṟ u 102:6(ku ṟ iñci pāṭ a,“while
theysinga/theku ṟ iñci”), Na ṟṟ iṇai255:2(ku ṟ iñci pāṭ i ... k āṉavar ,“the
forestpeople,singa/theku ṟ iñci”), Aiṅku ṟ unūṟ u408:1( pāṇar mullai
pāṭ a“whilesingerssinga/themullai”)andPu ṟ anāṉūṟ u389:17
(makal ir neytal k ē l aṉmār ,“mayyourwomenneverheara/theneytal”).
Thefirstimpressionfromthesecasesisthatwearedealingwithsongs
typicalof therespectiveregions,forinstance,ku ṟ iñcibeingasong
typicalof themountains.17However,theinstanceof mullaiinthe
phrasemullai nal yāḻ pāṇain Aiṅku ṟ unūṟ u478.5,whichmaybe
comparedwithmullaiyant īṅku ḻalinCilappatik āram17.21.3,seemsto
suggeststhatthesesongsarealsocharacterizedbytheirownmelodic
modeormusicalscale:“Osingerwiththegoodlute(tuned)inmullai”.
Assuchtheyseemtobecapableof expressingcertainmoods.
Takeneytal inPu ṟ anāṉūṟ u194,whichisasongorapieceof music
expressingsadness,incasethesadnessof widows:18
Fromonehousethesoundof aneytalemerges,
fromtheotheramelody( pāṇi)onadrum(smeared)withcool
mud.
Womenwhohavetheirmenwiththem( puṇarnt ōr )
donornamentsof flowers!
Womenwhosemenhavegoneoff ( pirint ōr )
pourdowntearsfromgrieving,kohl-rimmedeyes.
Surely,theonewhocreatedthiswordhasnovirtues.17Seeku ṟ iñci,marutamandmullaiinPorunar āṟṟ uppaṭ ai218-221,quotedbelow.18SeealsoPu ṟ anāṉūṟ u389:17,quotedabove:makal ir neytal k ē l aṉmār ,“mayyourwomenneverheara/theneytal”.
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Thisworldisanunhappyplace,
Onlythosewhoknowitsrealnature
willknowhappiness.19
InPu ṟ anāṉūṟ u149marutamreferstoamelodyparticularlysuitedfor
themorning.Assuchitismentionedheresidebysidetoone
particularlysuitedfortheevening:
Nal l i!Mayyoulivelong!Nal l i!
Intheeveningmymenperforma/themarutam
ontheirlutes
andinthemorningacevva ḻi.
Theyhaveforgottenthepropertimeforeach
becauseof yourlargesseinthegivingof gifts.20
jāti,r āgaandRāgamālā
InthesetwoPu ṟ anāṉūṟ upoemsthemelodictypesof neytaland
marutamareassociatedwithaparticularmoodandaparticulartimeof
thedayrespectively.21Thesesameassociationsarealsofoundinthe
19 ōriṉeytal ka ṟ aṅkav ōril
ī rntaṇ mu ḻaviṉ pāṇi tatumpap puṇarnt ōr pūvaṇiy aṇiya pirint ōr paitaluṇkaṇ paṉivārpu ṟ aippap paṭ aitt ōṉ maṉṟ av appaṇ pilāl aṉ iṉṉātammav ivvulakamiṉiya k āṇkitaṉ iyalpuṇarnt ōr ē .
20 nal l i vāḻiyō nalli nal l eṉ
mālai marutam paṇṇik k ālaik kaiva ḻi maruṅki ṟ cevva ḻi paṇṇivaravemar ma ṟ antaṉar atu nī
puravukkaṭ aṉ pūṇṭ a vaṇmaiyāṉē . 21SeealsoCilappatik āram7.48,quotedabove(n.12),foraparticular pālaiperformedintheevening(mālai).InPati ṟṟ uppattu65 pālaiisassociatedwith,orbringingabout,amelancholymood( paiyul ).Lines14-15:t ī ntoṭ ai narampiṉ pālaivallōṉ / paiyul u ṟ uppi ṟ paṇṇup peyartt āṅku,“justasaskilledluteplayeronsweet-tunedstrings playsthevarious pālaiwhicharefullof melancholicsentiments”.Theword pālaiinthispassagemightwellbestandingforalutetunedin pālai.
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poeticaltheoryof Porul atik āramundertheheadingsof uriand
ci ṟ upo ḻuturespectively.However,theyarealsofoundinNorthIndian
r āga system(andtheso-calledRāgamālāpaintings),andsomething
likeitisalsofoundinthe jātisystemasoutlinedinthe N āṭ yaśāstra.
Indianmusictheory,fromthe N āṭ yaśāstraonwards,hasbeen
concernedwithnotesandscalesandtheireffectson,andpowerto
produce,moodsandsentiments.Inthetraditionthenotesandscales
haveservedasfocalpointsaroundwhichhavebeenbroughttogether
allkindsof situationswhichcontributedtotheproductionof the
differentmoods.Thus,inthe N āṭ yaśāstrathe jātiswereconnected
withtherasas.Afterhavingdealtwiththeproductionandcomposition
of thevarious jātisin28.37-141, N ātyaśāstra29.1-13continueswith
assigningrasastothevarious jātiswithreferencetotheirdominant
notes.Forinstance,29.1:
Theś aḍ jod ī cyavat ī andṣaḍ jamadhyamā jātiscanbeusedfor
theś r ṅgāra(erotic)andhāsya(comic)moodsasthemadhyama
and pañcamanotesabound(areamplified)inthem.22
Itispossibletodrawupaschemelikethefollowing(thenumbersafter
the jātisrefertotheś lokasin N āṭ yaśāstra,Chapter29):23
jāti rasa
ṣaḍ jod ī cyavat ī ,ṣaḍ jamadhyā (1) ś r ṅgāra, hāsya
22 ṣaḍ jod ī cyavat ī caica ṣaḍ jamadhyā tathaiva ca
madhyapañcamabāhulyāt k āryā ś r ṅgārahāsyayoḥ.23Foramorecompletetable,seeNijenhuis1992:32.
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ṣāḍ jī ,ār ṣabhī (2) vī ra,raudra,adbhuta
naiṣād ī ,ṣaḍ jakaiś ik ī (3) karuṇa
dhaivat ī (4) bī bhatsa,bhayānaka
gāndhār ī ,raktagāndhār ī (5) karuṇa
madhyamā , pañcamī ,nandayant ī , ś r ṅgāra,hāsya
gāndhārapañcamī ,madhyamod ī cyavā(6)
k ārmāravī ,āndhr ī ,gāndhārod ī cyavā(7) vī ra,raudra,adbhuta
kaiś ik ī (7) bī bhatsa,bhayānaka
ṣaḍ jamadhyā(12) allrasas
The jātishavegraduallylosttheirimportanceandcametobe
subsumedunderther āgas.Nārada’sSaṅgī tamakaranda(between700
and1100)introducedaclassificationintomale,femaleandneutral
r āgas.Thisclassificationisbasedontheattributionof ther āgastothe
rasas.Thoseproducingthevī ra,adbhutaandraudrarasasaremale,
thoseproducingtheś r ṇgāra,hāsyaandkaruṇārasasarefemale,and
thoseproducingthebī bhatsa,bhayānakaandśāntarasasareneutral.24
Inthesametextther āgaswerealsoassignedtodifferentseasonsand
timesof theday.25Amoreelaboratesystemhasbeenattestedin
Śārṅgadeva’sSaṅgī taratnākara(firsthalf of thethirteenthcentury).
Thesevennotesareconnectedwiththerasas,withanimalcries(ṣaḍ ja
withthecryof thepeacock),colours,gods,ancestors,seers,demons,
thefourcastesandregions.Inthesametreatisether āgaswere
subjectedtoasimilarcategorizationaswell.Asinthe
Saṅgī tamakarandather āgaswerealsolinkedtotheseasons,thetimes
of thedayandtherasas.26Thiswholeedificehasculminatedinthe
Rāgamālāminiaturepaintinginwhichthemaler āgas,thefemale
r āgiṇī sandtheirsons,orr āgaputras,weredepictedasgodsor24Koch1995:30-31.25Koch1995:32,n.15.26Koch1995:31-33.
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goddessesinsettingsappropriatetothemoodsof ther āga.The
paintingsweremeantasobjectsof meditation(dhyāna).Oneof the
earliestexamplesisthe RāgamālābyKṣemakarṇafromthesixteenth
century.InRāgamālāthegreatvarietyof r āgasisgroupedaroundsix
main,maler āgas.27
Poetryandsinging
ThedevelopmentsseenintheSaṅgī taratnākaraandRāgamālāseemto
reflectthemeetingof music,(song)textandimage.AsIwilltryto
showtheTamilliterarytheoryistheproductof suchacombinationas
well.InordertomakethisclearIliketoturntothefirstthreenūṟ pās
(nūṟ pāisaloantranslationof Sanskritsūtra)of thePorul atik āram.
Whileenumeratingtheseventiṇais,thefirstnūṟ pāappearstoreferan
earlierwork,whichonthebasisof thethirdnūṟ pāmaybeidentifiedas
atreatiseonsingingandsongtexts.
Intheveryfirstnūṟ pāthenumberof tiṇais,beginningwith
kaikkil aiandendingwith peruntiṇai,issaidtobeseven.Thesesame
seventiṇaisarealsosaidtohavebeentreatedbefore(mu ṟ paṭ a kil anta
e ḻutiṇai).Thisphrasepresentsaproblem,forthisisthefirsttimethe
seventiṇaisarementionedintheTolk ā ppiyam.Thereisnoevidenceof
alostpartof thePorul atik āramprecedingthepresentfirstchapter
either.Forapossibleanswertowhatsourcethetextisreferringhere
wemayturntothethirdnūṟ pā.First,however,inthesecond,the
middlefivetiṇaiaretakenapart.Of thesefive,four,thatis,excluding
pālai,standfordifferenteco-types(mountains,forests,ricefieldsand
dunesandbeach). pālaiisthewild junglelyingaroundorinbetween
theseareas.Thethirdnūṟ pā,then,turnstothecategoriesof landscape
(nilam)andtime( po ḻutu)(mutal,or“thefirstorbasicelements”),
27Bautze2001.
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thingsnativetothelandscapes(karu)andlovesituations(uri)peculiar
tothemiddlefivetiṇais.Thetextreads
mutalkaru uripporul eṉṟ a mūṉṟē
nuvaluṅ k ālai mu ṟ aici ṟ antaṉavē
pāṭ aluṭ payiṉṟ avai nāṭ uṅ k ālai.
Theabsenceof anymarkerof coordinationinthetwoparallel
subordinateclauses(...nuvaluṅ k ālaiand... nāṭ uṅ k ālairespectively)
suggeststhatthetwoclauseshavedifferentrelationshipstothemain
sentence.Itmaybeassumedthatthesecondone,foundafterthemain
verbof thesentence,suppliesakindof afterthought.Thiswouldgivea
translationlikethefollowing:
Thebasicelements,thethingsnativetothetractandthelove
situations,whenthesethreethingsareexplained,(together)
theyappeartoformabeautifulsystem,(inparticular)whenone
(also)takesintoconsiderationtheiruseinsong.
Itshouldbenotedthattheword pāṭ al inthethirdlinereferstosongs,
nottopoemslikethoseof,forinstance,Ku ṟ untokai.Inthisconnection
Iliketorefertonūṟ pā55,inwhichtheword pāṭ al referstothesongs
embeddedintheKalittokaiandParipāṭ alpoems.28Itseemsthatin
presentingthetiṇaisystemtheauthorof Porul atik āramlookedfrom
thecornerof oneof hiseyesatsongsorsingingandapparentlythat
songtraditionwascharacterizedbyseventiṇaisaswell.
Inthisconnectionitisimportanttonotethatthekeywordof
theliterarytheory,namelytiṇai,“class,type”,isaloantranslationof
28SeeTieken2001:163andTakahashi1989:21.
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thetermforthemelodytypes, jāti.29Itmaythereforebeassumedthat
theauthorof theTamilliterarytheorywasinspiredbyatheoryonthe
musicandsongs,if notbyanactualtreatiseonthesetopics,which,
theoryortreatise,maywellhavebeenthe“earlier”sourcereferredto
inthefirstnūṟ pā.Apartfromallthisitmaybenotedthatthoughthe
compound peruntiṇaiisotherwiseunknown,alsotheseventhtiṇai,like
theothersix,nowappearstohavebeennamedbyatermfrommusic,
orrathertoincludeatermfrommusic.
Thenumberssevenandfive
Thetermtiṇaisuggeststhatthemusictheoryconcernedwas
formulatedinSanskritorgoesbacktooneformulatedinthatlanguage.
Thistheorymusthaveresembledmorecloselythesystemswefindin
theSaṅgī tamakarandaorSaṅgī taratnākarathantheoneinthe
N āṭ yaśāstra.However,astotherelatively“meager”musictheory
foundinthe N āṭ yaśāstra,thistextwasmostprobablyonlyinterestedin
thoseaspectsof thecontemporarymusictheorywhichcouldcontribute
totherealizationof therasas.Furthermore,the N āṭ yaśāstraisonlyin
averygeneralwayconcernedwithpoeticconventions.Ontheother
hand,mostTamilscholarswillconsidertheSaṅgī tamakarandaand
Saṅgī taratnākara toolateforcomparisonwiththeTamilliterary
theory.Bothtexts,however,maywellrefertoaspectsof musicwhich
atthetimealreadyhadlongtraditions.Apartfromthat,howoldis
Caṅkampoetryanyway?ThedatesassignedtoTamilCaṅkampoetry
differwidely,rangingfromthethirdcenturyBCtotheeighthof ninth
AD.AsIhavetriedtoshowelsewhere,however,theearlydatehas
neverbeenbackedupwithverifiableevidence.30Theevidenceis
mostlycircular,thatistosay,onceitsisacceptedthattheearlydateis29Like jāti,tiṇaialsomeans“family,clan”,asinPu ṟ anāṉūṟ u373:18,vil aṅkutiṇaivē ntar “kingsbelongingtoanillustriousfamilyorclan”,alreadyquotedabove.30SeemostrecentlyTieken2008a.
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notestablishedasfirmlyasonewantstobelieve,mostof theevidence
putforwardinitssupportcollapses.Inadditiontothat,if theTamil
literarytheoryhasindeedbeenbased,directlyorindirectly,onamusic
theoryformulatedinSanskrit,wehavehereanotherpieceof evidence
suggestingthatthetraditionisnotasearlyandasindependentasitis
oftenclaimedtobe.Assuggestedalreadyelsewhereweshouldstart
fromapost-PallavadateforCaṅkampoetry.31
Withthisrelativelylatedatethedistanceintimebetweenthe
TamilliterarytheoryandthetwoSanskrittreatisesonmusic
mentionedabovehasbecomeconsiderablysmaller.Inwhatfollows,
however,Idonotintendtoundertakeadetailedcomparisonbetween
thetwosystems.InsteadIwanttodrawattentiontotheexistenceside
bysideintheTamilliterarytheoryof sevenandfivetiṇais,which
raisesseveralquestionsregardingthewayandmeansbywhichthe
literarytheorywasputtogether.
Aswehaveseen,thenumberof tiṇaiintheTamilliterary
theoryisseven.Sevenisalsothenumberof thescalesformedbythe
jātis,mentionedintheKuḍimiyamalaiinscriptionof theSouthIndian
PallavakingMahendravarmanI(seventhcentury).32Itshouldbenoted
thatinthe N āṭ yaśāstrathenumberof the jātiscales(gr āmas)isnot
clear.TwohavebeenexplicitlymentionedinChapter28onthe jātis,
namelytheṣaḍ jagr āmaandmadhyamagr āma,socalledaftertheirfirst
notes,ṣaḍ jaandmadhyamarespectively.Besidethesetwo,thetext
mentionsfourmore.Thus,inChapter32,428-429itspeaksof
altogethersixdifferentscalestobeusedinthesixphases,orsandhis,
inaplay:besidetheearliermentionedṣaḍ jagr āma(inthe pratimukha)
andmadhyamagr āma(inthemukha)arementionedtheṣāḍ ava(inthe
pūrvaraṅga), sādhārita(inthegarbha), pañcama(intheavamar ś a)
31Tieken2001.32Nijenhuis1992:38.
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andkaiś ika(inthenirvahaṇa).InTamilpoetics,however,thenumber
sevenisreachedonlybyhalfwaychangingthecriteriaaswellasthe
terminologyusedintheclassification.Thus,onlythemiddlefive,the
so-calledaintiṇai,areassociatedwitheco-types,seasons,timesof the
day,andthingsnativetotheeco-types,andarenamedafterflowersor
plants.Theothertwotypesbycontrastarenotconnectedwithsuch
thingsaslandscapes(andthereforecouldnotbegivenplantnames).
Theyare justheadingsforanumberof (moreorlessreprehensible)
lovescenes,forwhichappropriatenameswereselected,orcoined,
drawingfrommusicterminologyproper:kaikkil ai,whichwithkai
couldservetoexpresstheyounggirl’shelplessnessand peruntiṇai,
whichwith perusuggestedthewoman’sprideandstrength.
Giventhissituationitistemptingtoconcludethattheplant
nameswerenotpartof theoriginalmusictheory.Thatistosay,the
seventiṇais(or jātis)of themusictheorywerenot(yet)namedafter
plants.Inanycase,if theywereit,isdifficulttoseewhythesenames
werenotusedforthefirstandtheseventhpoetictiṇaisaswell.Itmay
beassumedthattheplantnameswereintroducedonlyatthemoment
whenmusicandpoetrycametobeconsideredtogether;theywere
suggestedbythepoeticscenes.Thisassumptionraisesseveral
questions.Foronething,itisdifficulttodecideif atthatmoment
scholarswereworkingonthebasisof anexistingclassificationof
poetrywithfivelandscapesornot,orif thefivelandscapespresented
anearlierpoeticconventionoracategorycreatedonlyonthat
moment.TothispointIwillcomebackbelow.Whateverhadbeenthe
case,ineitherscenarioastrangelightiscastontheuseinthepoemsof
theplantnamesformelodictypesexpressiveof specificmoods.It
suggestseitherthatthesupposedearlierpoeticconventionswiththe
fivetiṇaishadbeenbasedonamusictheoryaswell,whichalready
hadbecomepartof thepoetictraditionitself,orthatthepoetrywhich
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wenowhavewasascholarlyaffairdependentontheliterarytheory.In
connectionwiththelatterpointIliketorefertothepossibilitythatthe
Caṅkamcorpusaswenowhaveitmaywellbeafairlylateversion
producedunderthepatronageof theCēraswhothroughthisliterature
triedtoreviveanearlierliterarycultureof thePāṇṭiyasof theeast
coast.33Sucha“revival”subsumestheavailabilityof ascholarly
traditionregardingthepoetryinquestion.
If theuseinthepoemsof thewordsku ṟ iñci,neytal,mullai,
marutamand pālaiasnamesformelodictypesdoesindeedrepresenta
caseof borrowingfromtheliterarytheory,thereseemstobelittle
evidenceof othersuchborrowingsinthepoems.Theinstancewhich,
however,immediatelycomestomindistheexpression
kaikkil aikk āmam,“mismatchedlove”,inParipāṭ al11,136(seeabove).
TheotherinstancesarefoundinthePorunar āṟṟ uppaṭ aiand
Maturaikk āñci,bothfromthePatuuppāṭṭ u.Thus,in
Porunar āṟṟ uppaṭ ai218-221wefindbothtiṇai,meaning“melodic
type”andmullaiinthemeaningof forest(themeaning“forest”is
vouchsafedbytheprecedingexpressionnīṉi ṟ a,whichcannotpossibly
refertothe jasmine):
ku ṟ iñci paratavar pāṭ a neytal
na ṟ umpūṅ kaṇṇi ku ṟ avar cūṭ ak
k āṉavar marutam pāṭ av akavar
nīṉi ṟ a mullaip paẖṟ iṇai nuvala,
Whilethefisherfolksfromtheseacoastsingmountainsongs
(ku ṟ iñci),whilethemountainpeopleweargarlandsmadeof
fragrantflowersfromtheseacoast(neytal),whilethepeople
fromtheforestssingsongsfromthericefields,andwhilethe
33Tieken2001:230-234.
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cultivators(akavar )34fromthericefieldssing(the)various
melodies( paẖṟ iṇai)fromthedark(nīṉi ṟ a)forest.
Maturaikk āñci238-326providesstereotypeddescriptionsof thefive
typesof landscapes(marutamin238-270,mullaiin271-285,ku ṟ iñciin
286-301, pālaiin302-314andneytalin315-325),whichdescriptions
areconcludedinline326withthephraseaimpāl tiṇai,“sofarthefive
tiṇais”.Hereweseethewordsmarutametc.andtiṇaiintheirtechnical
meaningsof landscapesandlandscapetypesrespectively.Ileaveout
of considerationtheoccurrencesof thissetof wordsin
Cilappatik āram.
However,astothepositionof preciselythesetwotext,
Paripāṭ alandPattuppāṭṭ u,vis-à-vis“Caṅkam”poetrythereexists
someconfusion.Thus,whiletheParipāṭ alismentionedinthe
traditionallistof Caṅkamworksmodernscholarstendtoplaceitapart
asalatetext.Thecaseof thePattuppāṭṭ uistheopposite:itisnot
foundinthelistbutscholarsneverthelessliketoincludeitinthe
Caṅkamcorpus.AsIhavearguedelsewhere,boththeParipāṭ aland
Pattuppāṭṭ urepresent“merely”genresdifferentfromthatof theso-
calledshortCaṅkampoems,butareassuchnotnecessarilylaterthan
these.Or,toputitdifferently,theshortCaṅkampoemsarenot
demonstrablyearlierthattheParipāṭ alandPattuppāṭṭ u.35Mostlikely
thelattertwotextshadtheiroriginintheverysamemilieuastheother
Caṅkampoems.ThePattuppāṭṭ uistheresultof theattempttoadapt
thestyleandconventionsof stanzaicCaṅkampoetrytotheMahākāvya
genre.36Inthelattergenreshowingoff one’slearningisacommon
poeticdeceit.Inadditiontothatitsimplyoffersmorespaceforliterary34akavar meansliterally“singers”(fromakavu)or“inhabitants”(fromaka[m]).Thepresentcontextsuggeststhattheyaretheinhabitantsof themarutam,orricefield,area.35Tieken2001:170-182and196-200.36Tieken2001:196-200.
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gamesof thissortthandotherelativelyshortpoemsof Caṅkam
proper.Therarenessof technicaltermsborrowedfromtheliterary
theoryintheCaṅkampoemscouldafterallwellbeamatterof genre.
Above,itisassumedthatthenumbersevenhasitsoriginin
music,withitsseven jātis(anditssevennotes).Asfaraspoetryis
concerned,however,sevenmusthaveprovedproblematicfromthe
verybeginning.Thenumberof seasonsdistinguishedissixandin
whateverwaydayandnightaredivided,adivisioninsevenisnot
found.37Of coursealmosteverythingcan,if needbe,beforcedintoa
divisionof seven,butinthecaseof,forinstance,theseasonsandthe
dayandnight,inordertobeconvincingonehadtosticktothe
traditionaldivisions.Furthermore,thedivisionof thelandscapeshas
resultedinfivedistincttypes,notseven.AboveIhavealreadynoted
thatitisunclearif thisdivisionintofiverepresentedanearlierliterary
traditionorwasonenewlyintroduced.Inthisconnectionitmightbe
noted,though,thatfivehasresultedinastrikinglyneatsystem,neater
thanwouldhavebeenpossiblewith,forinstance,fourorsix,witha
middlegroupof fiveandoneplacedateitherside.Anentirely
differentquestioniswhylandscapewithitsnativeplantsorflowers
wasmadetheprimarycategoryintheclassification,ratherthan,for
instance,season.Apossiblereasonisthatpreciselyinthiscasethe
numberhadnotbeenfixedyetincontradistinctiontothatof seasonor
timeof day,sothatitcouldbeadaptedtothecircumstances.In
additiontothatitis,however,alsopossibletoreadnationalistic
motivesinit.TheTamilspeakingworldisdefinedasaworldinitself.
Everytypeof landscapeisrepresentedinit.“Tamilnadu”maybe
smallerthanIndiabutitis justasvariedandcomplete.38Takeninthis
waytheTamilpracticeof distinguishinglandscapesmightbe37Ontheseasons,seeZvelebil1973:95andmorerecentlyFeller1995,andonadivisionof dayandnight(in,forinstance,sixteenparts),see Arthaśāstra1.19.38Forthecosmopolitanambitionsinvernacularliteratures,seeTieken2008b.
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comparedwiththeidentificationsof theindividualr āgaswithdifferent
regionsof India(Jaunpur ī ,Multān ī ,etc.)in,forinstance,the
Saṅgī taratnākara.39
Conclusion
Above,IhavetriedtoshowthattheTamilliterarytheorywasinspired
byatheoryof musicwhichoriginallymusthavebeenformulatedin
Sanskrit.Itdistinguishedseven jātiswhichwemeetagainintheseven
tiṇais.Theliterarytheoryitself seemstoexpresslyacknowledgeits
indebtednesstoasongtradition.Thesefindingsraisemorequestions
thancanbeansweredatthismoment.Thequestionsconcerntheway
themusictheorywasactuallyimplementedandtherelationship
betweentheliterarytheoryandthepoemsthatwenowhave.Thelatter
pointsneedafresh,thoroughinvestigationof Tamilliterature,in
whichalloptionsareleftopen.Thisappliesinparticularthequestion
of thedatingof Caṅkamliterature,whichhasunfortunatelydeveloped
intoatrenchwar.InthisconnectionIshould,however,noteoncemore
thatthefactthatthekeytermof theTamilliterarytheory,tiṇai,isa
loantranslationof aSanskrittheoryof musicseemsonemorepieceof
evidenceforalatedateof theTamiltheory.
39Koch1995:32.Seealsotheschemeinibidem,p.43.
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