tim bertolet - christological monotheism
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Christological Monotheism: A Foundation for Religious Debate
Tim Bertolet
I. Introduction
In todays luralistic culture it is not uncommon for claims to be made that all religions
are e!ual" that all eole #orshi the same god or that all aths lead to sal$ation% &rthodo'
Christianity has historically re(ected such erroneous $ie#s% )$en in light of the e'tensi$e
luralism in our ostmodern culture" #e #ould be na*$e to assume that #e are the first
generation of Christians to be attac+ed by religious luralism% Truly" as the #riter of )cclesiastes
roclaims" ,-hat has been is #hat #ill be" and #hat has been done is #hat #ill be done" and
there is nothing ne# under the sun%./Monotheism is aramount to Christianitys confrontation
#ith other religions" #hich ultimately do not #orshi the biblical 0od" 12-2% 2o#e$er" this
monotheism must be roerly understood #ithin the conte't of the 3e# Testament re$elation
that 4esus is 0od% 5aul demonstrates in his o#n religious confrontations by dra#ing from the
Shema and first6century 4e#ish monotheism that a Christological Monotheism must be
foundational to Christianitys continual confrontation #ith luralism and other religions%
II. What is a Christological Monotheism?
A difficulty that 3e# Testament scholars face" in terms of history6of6religion" is to
e'lain ho# first6century Christians" articularly 4e#ish Christians 7e%g% 5aul8" could go from
being monotheistic to embracing 4esus the Messiah as 9ord" 12-2 of the &ld Testament"
#ithout aarently $iolating the strict monotheism of first6century 4udaism% This difficulty is
comounded by the fact that certain 4e#ish circles re(ected not only Christian claims that 4esus is
/)cclesiastes /:" all Bible !uotations in the )nglish #ill be from the )nglish ;tandard
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the 4e#ish Messiah but that he is at the same time 12-2% =Are #e therefore forced conclude
that Christianity $iolated monotheism in the first6century> 5ure history6of6religion aroaches
ha$e been content to argue in #ays similar to a 2egelian formula that 4e#ish monotheism 7the
thesis8 mi'ed #ith agan olytheism 7the antithesis8 creating something distinct in the Christian
concet of 0od 7the synthesis8% -hile this is a simlification of more nuanced argumentation"
0e?a
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solutions can be traced bac+ to -ilhelm Boussetsyrios Christos342e argued that titleyrios
9ordE as alied to 4esus mar+ed a ma(or shift in early Christian thought and arose from
Christianitys 2elleni?ation%/;ummari?ing the e$idence against a theory of late de$eloment for
Christology" 2urtado concludes based on receding careful e'amination of rele$ant sources ,a
$eritable e'losion of de$otion to 4esus too+ lace so early and #as so #idesread 5y the timeof
his 5aulsE 0entile mission" that in the main christological beliefs and de$otional ractices that
he ad$ocated" 5aul #as not an inno$ator but a transmitter of tradition%.// In other #ords"
confession of 4esus as di$ine is not the result of Christianitys association #ith 0reco6Roman
religion% 9et us dra# attention to three basic failures in the $ie#s of those #ho see high
Christology contradicting high monotheism%
First" they fail to gras the shae of first6century monotheism" #hich results in a study
that ursues the #rong trails of e$idence% As 2urtado notes" ,these scholars in$o+e their
ortrayal of 4e#ish monotheism as a basis for determining in ad$ance #hat could or could not
ha$e haened christologically among Christians #ith allegiance to the monotheistic stance of
the 4e#ish tradition%./=Monotheism #as not monism as #e #ill discuss belo# in our o#n
treatment of monotheism% First century 4e#ish monotheism and that of the &ld Testament" is not
to be e!uated #ith later 4e#ish and Islamic monotheism% This is articularly ertinent since these
t#o religions ha$e had centuries to formulate and articulate their o#n monotheism in a manner
that confronts and re(ects Christianitys Trinitarian monotheism%
;econd" the de$otion and #orshi of 4esus arose e'tremely early and is not the roduct of
late de$eloment as 4e#ish Christianity #as allegedly confuted #ith agan olytheism%/@ The
that 4esus functions as di$ine in the religious life of Christian grous of the first t#o centuries. 78%2urtado"/or" Jesus Christ% /6=% +ne !o"% +ne /or"% =6=G%/2urtado"/or" Jesus Christ% =%///or" Jesus Christ% =/% )mhasis mine%/=/or" Jesus Christ%=%/@2urtado" +ne !o"% +ne /or"% @"Cf% also 2urtados/or" Jesus Christarticularly as cited in note %
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data does not suort this tyical re$isionist aroach%/ Citing Biblical e$idence" Richard
Bauc+ham succinctly re(ects the notion that #orshi of 4esus from agan 0reco6Roman sources"
,Certainly the $ie# that the transition to #orshi of ChristE coincided #ith the mo$ement of
Christianity from a 4e#ish to a agan 2ellenistic en$ironmentLis mista+en%./ )'amination
must be thorough including the titles of Christ in the 3e# Testament" &T assages alied to
Christ" and the earliest de$otional ractices of Christians%/Tyically resuositions that first6
century monotheism is entirely incomatible #ith later 3icene Christology has led scholars to
osit atterns of synthesis that de$eloed in the second and third centuries% Again 2urtado is
reresentati$e of the solid 3e# Testament scholars #ho re(ect this notion:
But the e$idence suggests strongly that" #ell before these later de$eloments the3icene CreedE" #ithin the first t#o decades of Christianity" 4e#ish Christians
gathered in 4esus name for #orshi" rayed to him and sang hymns to him"
regarded him as e'alted to a osition of hea$enly rule abo$e all angelic orders"aroriated to him titles and &ld Testament assages originally referring to 0od"
sought to bring 4e#s as #ell as 0entiles to embrace him as the di$inely aointed
redeemer" and in general redefined their de$otion to the 0od of their fathers so as
to include the $eneration of 4esus%An" apparently they regar"e" this re"einitionnot only as legitimate 5ut% in"ee"% as something "eman"e" o them3./G
Third" #hen #e focus on 5aul" in articular" in his argumentation concerning $arious
toics 7including 0od" 9a# and ;irit8 he is a thoroughly 4e#ish theologian #ho has come to
understand his #orld in light of the climactic eschatological acti$ity of 0od in fulfillment of the
&ld Testament romises%/H9i+e#ise" 5auls discussion of Christ" articularly 2is deity" bears the
same 4e#ish fla$or% 1et 0ods o#n eschatological re$elation "eman"e" 7to use 2urtados
language8 on the art of 2is eole a greater understanding of 0od" the $ery same 12-2J0od
/2urtado" +ne !o"% +ne /or"% @"% Cf% also 2urtados/or" Jesus Christ3/,4esus" -orshi of".Anchor Bi5le ,ictionary 7ed% Da$id 3oel Freedman 3e# 1or+: Doubleday" /=8" @:H/@%/For a discussion of the early Christian #orshi and its binitarian nature cf% 9arry 2urtado"At the +rigins o
Christian 6orship# The Conte7t an" Character o 0arliest Christian ,eotion70rand Raids" MI%: )erdmans" /8
along #ith the t#o other ma(or #or+s from 2urtado" namely +ne !o"% +ne /or" and/or" Jesus Christ%/G+ne !o"% +ne /or"% //% )mhasis mine%/HThis #ould hold true for non65auline te'ts such as 2ebre#s / #here 4esus is clearly 12-2 described using
language and te'ts to sea+ of the ;on as one #ho is truly 0od%
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re$ealed rogressi$ely in the &ld Testament through 2is history of redemtion% The last thing
5aul #ould e$er do" as one anchored in the firm belief that the &ld Testament has no# come to
its eschatological fulfillment" is abandon his belief that Israels 0od" 12-2" is the one true 0od%
-hile the oosing scholars may ac+no#ledge this last oint concerning 5auls 4e#ishness" they
do#nlay the eschatological6re$elatory significance of Christs death and resurrection that for
5aul #as combined #ith a ersonal re$elation recei$ed on the Damascus Road%/Ta+ing into
consideration these e$ents" 5aul is !uite comfortable in redefining true monotheism in light of
and because of the clima' of 12-2s o#n self6re$elation%= 2ence" a number of recent 3e#
Testament scholars ha$e roosed the term Christological Monotheism as a hrase to describe
5auls continuity and discontinuity #ith first6century 4e#ish monotheism%=/)ssentially" 5aul" in
light of 0ods o#n eschatological self6re$elation in Christ" adated monotheism to incororate
both 0od the Father and 4esus the 9ord withoutany $iolation of &ld Testament monotheism%
This Christological monotheism does not e'ist #ithout 0ods eschatological self6re$elation in
the erson and #or+ of Christ% These aroriations and alications of 12-26language
/3otice that in / Cor% /:/6" 5aul does not see his Damascus road e'erience as contradiction the teachings of theearliest church as it has been assed on% ;ee also 0alatians /6=% For a discussion of the significance of 5auls
Damascus Road e'erience see ;eyoon im" The +rigin o *auls !ospel7re$% ed% TNbingen: 4%C%B% Mohr 5aul
;iebec+E" /H8 es% chater fi$e follo#ed by his later #or+*aul an" the .ew *erspectie# Secon" Thoughts onthe +rigin o *auls !ospel 70rand Raids" Mi%: )erdmans" ==8 es% chaters one and fi$e% 5eter T% &Brien" ,-as
5aul Con$erted>". inJustiication an" 9ariegate" .omism# 9olume 2 The *ara"o7es o *aul 7ed% D%A% Carson" 5eter
T% &Brien and Mar+ A% ;eifrid 0rand Raids" Mi%: Ba+er Academic" =8" @/6/% Both conclude that the
Damascus Christohany included ne# elements of Christology and soteriology for 5auls ersonal understanding%=-e use the term redefine in the sense that the name 0odJ9ord no# e'anded to include the confession that 4esus
is 9ord 7notice for e'amle" the use of 4oel =:@= in Romans /:/@ or the use of Isaiah :=@ #ith reference to 4esus
Christ8% 0od is no# +no#n as Father and ;on% This e'anded definition is recisely 5ecausein these eschatological
last days 12-2 has re$ealed 2imself in ;on 72eb% /:=6 8" #ho shares in the $ery glory of 0od as 2imself uncreated" ossessing full glory in eternity ast 72eb%
/:@"/6/= 4ohn /:/6@ /G: Col% /:/6/G Re$% /:/G6/H8% The redefinition is not because 0od has changed butbecause 2e has further re$ealed 2imself at the clima' of 2is sal$ation history% 5aul ob$iously is neither the only
Christian nor the first Christian to engage in this redefinition 5oth in their theology an"their #orshiJde$otionalractice% 7The t#o are not mutually e'clusi$e as is often thought in this ostmodern era8%=/ At least t#o 3e# Testament scholars ha$e used the term in their distinct #or+s% Richard Bauc+ham" !o"
Cruciie"# Monotheism an" Christology in the .ew Testament 70rand Raids" MI%: )erdmans" /H8 esecially
chater t#o: ,Christological Monotheism in the 3e# Testament.% 3%T% -right" The Clima7 o the Coenant# Christ
an" the /aw in *auline Theology7Minneaolis: Fortress" //8 /@ et al es% chaters t#o through si' 7chater si':
,Monotheism" Theology and )thics: / Corinthians H. is most rele$ant to our discussion belo#8% The general concet
is used by 2urtado in +ne !o"% +ne /or"" articularly chater fi$e contains the concet but not the secific hrase%
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alied to the erson of 4esus ser$e to e'ress the identity of the Messiah" as human and di$ine"
and did not $iolate monotheism% The re$elation of 0od e'ands the definition of the one 0od
central to monotheism #ithout contradiction of or infringement uon this truth%
In other #ords" #hen first6century monotheism is e'amined in con(unction #ith 5auls
o#n language" he clearly refers to Christ in #ays tyically reser$ed only for 12-2 yet in a
fashion that does not betray true monotheism%==2is Christological monotheism centers on the
confession that 4esus is 9ord% 5aul is most unambiguously not comromising to luralism in
fact" !uite to the contrary" on se$eral occasions he uses his o#n Christological Monotheism
con$ictions to confront religious luralism" tyical of the attac+s 4e#ish theologians made from
their o#n monotheistic ersecti$e% Those #ho osit Christianity as a synthesis of 4e#ish and
agan ractice #ho be #ise to heed the #ords of B%B -arfield concerning the language of the
3e# Testament #riters:
They do not" then" lace t#o ne# gods by the side of 4eho$ah as ali+e #ith 2im
to be ser$ed and #orshied they concei$e 4eho$ah as 2imself at once Father";on and 2oly ;irit% In resenting this one 4eho$ah as Father" ;on and ;irit" they
do not betray any lur+ing feeling that they are ma+ing inno$ations% -ithout
aarent misgi$ing they ta+e o$er &ld Testament assages and aly them toFather" ;on and ;irit indifferently% &b$iously they understand themsel$es" and
#ish to be understood" as setting forth in the Father" ;on and ;irit (ust the one
0od that the 0od of the &ld Testament re$elation isL=@
==Again" monotheism is emhatically not monism 7as in Islam or contemorary 4udaism8% In $arious conte'ts" 5aul
can distinguish bet#een Father" ;on and ;irit yet still refer to one 0odJ9ord% Furthermore" the thrusts of hisargument are undergirded by monotheistic concerns 7es% #orshi creation or unity of 0ods eole" see belo# on
/ Cor% H but also 5hil% =:6// / Cor% /= )h% :6 Col% /:/6= et al8% Interestingly" in Armstrongs o#n
discussion of 5hiliians =:6// fails to deal #ith the comle'ity of 5auls articulation% 2er interretation aearsmore li+e 0nosticism #ith a second lesser di$ine being 7History% HH68% 2er interretation of 5aul lea$es him
$iolating monotheism at a fundamental le$elO In 5hil% =:6//" 5aul" !uoting Isaiah :==6=@" identifies Christ as12-2 yet +ees him distinct from 0od the Father% This !uotation from Deutero6Isaiah is significant for t#o
reasons: 7/8 the eschatological significance in the later half of Isaiah" #hich informs much of 5auls o#n theology ashis fre!uent !uotations testify and 7=8 the e'tremely rofound and unyielding confessions of monotheism made in
this section as #ell as the entire boo+ of Isaiah" #hich no# in 5hiliians stand as alied to 4esus Christ% These t#o
oints could hardly go unmissed let alone $iolated by 5aul% 3or did he simly sli6u in alying a 12-2 te't to
a less6than612-2 e'alted figure% It is clearly not as if 5aul simly meant to ut 4esus on ar #ith the other e'altedalbeit less6than612-2 figures" such as of angels or atriarchs" as in 4e#ish literature contemorary to 5aul%=@B%B% -arfield ,The Biblical Doctrine of the Trinity". The 6or;s o Ben
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Therefore" 5auls thought 7and &rthodo' Christianity as a #hole8 is not a synthesis of
monotheism and olytheism but is consistent #ith monotheistic thought% 5auls language
referring to Christ reflects a thoroughly high Christology andat the same time without tension a
thoroughly monotheistic theology" hence a Christological monotheism% Before continuing to
use this term" Christological monotheism" it is imerati$e to highlight that #e are in no #ay
suggesting a Christomonism #here the Trinity is either reduced to only the erson of Christ or
the sole agent of re$elation in the Trinity is limited to Christ% 3either is there any suggestion that
the Trinity is not behind our thin+ing" or a +ey comonent to the thought of the 3e# Testament%=
Before #e can e'amine 5auls o#n use of this Christological Monotheism to confront
luralism" #e shall briefly e'amine monotheism%
III. The Shemaand Monotheism
5aramount to our discussion is the nature of first6century 4e#ish monotheism% It is easily
recogni?able that the #ord monotheism comes from t#o 0ree+ #ords monos meaning only"
uni!ue or alone and theos meaning 0od% This definition is seldom robed any further%
=1et the focus of this aer is articularly on a Christological monotheism% This aer #ill be content to discussthe significance of 5auls use of both monotheism and Christology at the same time to confront the threat of
luralism% Certainly the ontological Trinity ser$es as the grounds for all aologetics% Again" #e are in no #ay to
denying or minimi?ing the triune nature of 0od in the 3e# Testament% ;ee for e'amle = Cor% /@:/ or Matt% =H:/%
5aul incororates the 2oly ;irit in his discussions of the oneness of 0od 7cf% / Cor% /=:68% Certainly" the ;iritlays a fundamental role of ind#elling the eole of 0od 7/ Cor% :/8 and therefore bringing true unity to them" a
+ey concet in monotheism 7see belo#8 yet this is beyond the scoe of our discussion% In terms of the Trinity" #e
can remain on solid e'egetical grounds and contend that 5aul did see three distinct ersons 7to use the secificlanguage of the Creeds8 and yet one 0od" in a #ay that ne$er $iolated monotheism 7e$en if it #as slightly
redefined8% For a significant e'egetical discussion of the ;irit" including the 2is 5ersonhood and unity in the0odhead: cf% 0ordon Fee" !o"s 0mpowering *resence# The Holy Spirit in the /etters o *aul75eabody" Mass%:
2endric+son" /8 and ;inclair Ferguson" The Holy Spirit 7Do#ners 0ro$e" Ill%: Inter
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Monotheism of the first6century is not unitarianism% First6century 4e#ish monotheism=#as not a
hilosohical or metahysical statement of the inner nature of 0od" as the 0ree+s tended to
discuss god%=Monotheism #as not a rimarily a discussion of the internal comosition of 0od
and ho# 12-2 functioned internally%=G-hile first6century 4e#ish monotheism had room for
e'alted figures that #ere in no #ay di$ine" it ,dre# a shar line bet#een any such figure and the
one 0od in the area of cultic ractice" reser$ing #orshi for the one 0od%. =HThe Most 2igh 0od
#as distinct and set aart in relation to other beings% &ne did not mi' 12-2 language #ith
e'alted human or angelic figures%=
The most significant statement of monotheism is #hat it says about 12-2 in
relationshi to the other gods% The reality of 12-2 being 0od and ing is that no other gods
are real% For e'amle" 5salms :6"6/ declares the so$ereignty of 12-2 and 2is sole right
to #orshi:
For great is the 9&RD 12-2E" and greatly to be raised he is to be feared
abo$e all gods% For all the gods of the eole are #orthless idols" but the 9&RD12-2E made the hea$ensL-orshi the 9&RD 12-2E in the slendor of
holiness tremble before him" all the earthO ;ay among the nations" ,The 9&RD
12-2E reignsLhe #ill (udge the eoles #ith e!uity%@
Monotheism is centered on se$eral +ey tenants%@/ First" monotheism is creational
=From here on in this section" to sa$e sace" I #ill simle refer to it as monotheism recogni?ing it as distinct from
Islamic or modern 4e#ish monotheism%=3%T% -right" The .ew Testament an" the *eople o !o"7Minneaolis: Fortress" /=8 =H% Richard Bauc+ham"!o" Cruciie"%G"H%=G2ere Bauc+ham is helful in noting that" ,;ome 4e#ish #riters in the later ;econd Temle eriod consciously
adoted some of the 0ree+ metahysical language% But e$en in these #riters the dominant concetual frame#or+ ofunderstanding of 0od is not a definition of di$ine nature6#hat di$inity is6but a notion of di$ine identity rimarily in
#ays other than metahysical attributes. 7!o" Cruciie"% H8%=H2urtado"/or" Jesus Christ% G6H% ;ee also +ne !o"% +ne /or"3=;ee note == abo$e and our brief criti!ue of aren Armstrongs treatment of 5hil% =:6//%@This bears stri+ing similarity to other assages that center on monotheism% Most notable for our discussion here is
the monotheism of Deutero6Isaiah esecially such sections as :6@/ =:6 @:/6/ :6=H =:G et al%@/&ur treatment #ill follo# 3%T% -rights categories in .ew Testament% =H6% Along the same lines" 2urtado
concludes that ,there are t#o ma(or themes or concerns come through in the monotheistic rhetoricof ancient 4e#s:7/8 0ods uni$ersal so$ereignty as creator and ruler o$er all" e$en the e$il forces that oose 0od and 7=8 0ods
uni!ueness" e'ressed by contrasting 0od #ith the other deities of the religious en$ironment" but also in contrasts or
distinctions bet#een 0od and 0ods o#n hea$enly retinue" the angels. 7/or" Jesus Christ% @8
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monotheism%@=It is 12-2 alone #ho created the uni$erse% This rules out any +ind of 5latonism"
0nosticism" deism" henotheism" antheism or aganism%@@It is 12-2 #ho #as acti$e in the
#orld in order to create it e7 nihilo% This strict monotheism does not rohibit $arious 4e#ish
monotheistic #riters 7canonical and non6canonical8 from sea+ing of 0ods ;irit" -ord or
-isdom as being in$ol$ed in creation%@At times ;irit" -ord or -isdom are ersonified in such
#ays that they aear distinct from 12-2" yet the #riters ne$er $iolate monotheism @because
these are ortrayed as ,asects of 0ods o#n identity%. @ To summari?e creational monotheism"
it is 12-2 the 0od of Israel alone #ho has made the uni$erse% This is rimarily a statement of
0ods relationshi o$er and abo$e the #orld not a statement of his internal ma+eu%
Furthermore" 0od #ho has created this #orld has created it #ith a goal" or telos% In the 4e#ish
$ie#" from the beginning history" as art of creation" is eschatological not circular%@G
;econd" monotheism centers on the ro$idence of 0od%@H-hile 0od is searate from 2is
creation" 2e remains concerned #ith it% 0od" being transcendent o$er creation" is not remote
from 2is creation but remains acti$ely in$ol$ed in it% There is a clear Creator6creature
@=3%T% -right".ew Testament" =H%@@For a discussion of ho# these $arious alternati$es are ruled out cf% Ibid% =H6%@0en% /:/6@ 5s% @@:6 5ro$% H 7es% ==6@8 -isdom of ;olomon :/=6//:/ 7es% G:==" =6 H: :/68 ;irach=% In 5ro$% H 0od used 2is #isdom to create the #orld in a #ay that ersonifies #isdom yet almost seems distinct
from 0od himself% 1et this is not a roto6gnostic demigod% The author can sea+ of #isdom as re6e'istent before
creation and in$ol$ed in creation #ithout $iolating monotheism% 2urtado #rites" ,the ersonification of -isdom is
the descrition of her as !o"s chie agent" #here the language of di$ine agency is used to refer to an attribute of0od. 7)mhasis original% +ne !o"% +ne /or"" 8% -hile there is debate of the ersonification of #isdom and
otential ,#isdom Christologies. in the 3e# Testament" our o$er all thesis deends neither uon the $alidation that
the ersonifications of #isdom in $arious sources ser$e as an identity #ithin the 0odhead nor an accetance ofhighly !uestionable #isdom motifs in 5aul Christology% There is in fact good e'egetical ground for re(ecting
#isdom Christologies in the 3T 7cf% aren 4obes" ,;ohia Christology: The -ay of -isdom. and 0ordon Fee,-isdom Christology in 5aul: A Dissenting
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distinction% Thus" there #as absolutely no room for the #atchma+er mentality of deism in this
monotheism% The true 0od did not create the uni$erse to let it run at its o#n #him% Anything that
haens is not an accident but is because of the acti$ity of 12-2 in his creation% Isaiah :6G
roclaims 0ods continual in$ol$ement in his creation:
I am the 9&RD 12-2E" and there is not other" besides me there is no 0od Ie!ui you" though you do not +no# me" that eole may +no# from the rising of
the sun and from the #est" that there is none besides me I am the 9&RD" and
there is no other% I form light and create dar+ness" I ma+e #ell6being and create
calamity" I am the 9&RD" #ho does all these things%
Third" monotheism is co$enantal% 4ust as 0od is one so 2e also has one eole% @,The
creator calls a eole through #hom" someho#" he #ill act decisi$ely #ithin his creation" to
eliminate e$il from it and to restore order" (ustice and eace%. Israel #as called to be a +ingdom
of riests%/For this urose" Abraham and his seed #ere chosen by 0od%=12-2 is bound to
co$enant #ith 2is eole for 2is honor and glory alone% The co$enant mar+s 12-2 to 2is
eole% The saints of Israel can" in their #orshi" aeal to the one true and li$ing 0od one the
basis of 2is co$enant faithfulness%@ Thus" the co$enant is ,er$asi$e and definitional for
1ah#eh%.
&ne +ey element to this co$enant is the 9a#" Torah% This is the co$enant charter 0od
ga$e to his eole to rescribe roer relational li$ing before 0od #ithin the co$enant% A
second +ey feature of this co$enantal monotheism is the )'odus% It is 0od and 0od alone #ho
@A theme 5aul alludes to in Rom% @:=6@3%T% -right".ew Testament" ==%
/)'% /:%=9i+e#ise this is an imortant toic 5aul ic+s u to in 0al% @:G6"/"= it is Christ #ho is the true seed and
therefore all #ho are in Christ are Abrahams true descendants" the eole of 0od%@2erman Ba$inc+" +ur >easona5le )aith# A Surey o Christian ,octrine70rand Raids" Mi%: )erdmans" /G
rer%" 0rand Raids" Mi%: Ba+er" /GG8" 6G% -alter Brueggemann" Theology o the +l" Testament# Testimony% ,ispute% A"ocacy " 7Minneaolis: Fortress"
/G8 =G%Cf% es% 9e$% /H:"% The 9ord is the 0od of Israel therefore the eole shall obey his statutes to li$e% This is not of
romise of sal$ation by #or+s but roer co$enantal li$ing% Cf% -alter C% aiser" ,9e$iticus and 5aul: Do This and
1ou ;hall 9i$e 7)ternally>8".J0TS / 7/G/8: /6=H%
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has brought the eole out of )gyt% The )'odus theme aears #ithin the conte't of the Shema%
If 0od is one and if 2e has them as a co$enant eole then "e acto it can only be as a result of
12-2s redemtion that Israel #as brought out of cati$ity% Redemtion and re$elation are
intimately tied together in the acti$ity of one true 0od 7the Re$ealer K Redeemer8 towar"s the
eole #ith #hom 2e #as entered into a co$enant 7the recei$ers of re$elation and redemtion8%
2e is the Most 2igh su?erain they are 2is $ice6regentJ$assal eole% The eschatological
direction of the co$enant history of redemtion anticiates a Day of the 9ord #hen all the earth
#ill behold 12-2s glory%GThe guiding structure of this is ne$ertheless co$enant% Thus" the
6estminster Conession o )aith con$eys the highest Biblical monotheism #hen" reflecting on
the tota of ;critural re$elation" it declares:
The distance bet#een 0od and the creature is so great" that although reasonable
creatures do o#e obedience unto 2im as their Creator" yet they could ne$er ha$eany fruition of 2im as their blessedness and re#ard" but by some $oluntary
condescension on 0ods art" which He hath 5een please" to e7press 5y way o
coenant3$?
These three asects of monotheism deal less #ith 12-2s internal relationshi and
more #ith 2is relationshi to the #orld% They are articularly imortant in distinguishing Israel
and her beliefs from the entire agan #orld #ith conflicting beliefs" such as antheism"
gnosticism and henotheism% In articular" monotheism rules out any +ind of dualism% Fallen
The Shemaconsists of three assages: Deut% :6 //:/@6=/ and 3um% /:@G6/% -ithin the conte't of all three is
mention of the )'odus: Deut% :/=" = Deut% //:/6"/ and 3um% //:/% This is significant for four reasons /8 The
curses of the co$enant in Deut% =G6@= is cati$ityJe'ile #hich #ill result in a second )'odus" =8 Deutero6Isaiah ic+su on this theme of e'ileJsecond )'odus" @8 the #ord 3e# Testament #ord for redemtion 7 ajpolutrwv!"8 has
the bac+ground of the sla$e6mar+et and 8 the 7highly debated8 belief of continuing e'ile in the first6century% 7Fordiscussion of continuing e'ile and its significance in 3e# Testament e'egesis: cf% 3%T% -right" ,Curse and
Co$enant: 0alatians @%/6/%. Clima7 o the Coenant" /@G6/ Jesus an" the 9ictory o !o"" Minneaolis:
Fortress" /E ==6 et aland.ew Testament% =H6G et al% Craig A% )$ans" ,4esus and the Continuing )'ile ofIsrael". inJesus an" the >estoration o (srael% ed% Carey C% 3e#man Do#ners 0ro$e" Ill%: Inter$arsity" /E" GG6
/%8G-e could cite for e'amle the second )'odus motif of Isaiah 6 or the Day of the 9ord assages in the
rohets" or the eschatological last days #$%&'()* t$r+j,a*-.E or in that day also fre!uent in therohets%H-CF G%/% )mhasis mine%
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angels are no cometition to the true 0od% )$il is not a threat% There is no ri$alry of gods% It is
12-2 #ho is the uni$ersal monarch%1et 12-2 condescends to 2is eole through the
co$enant% In his o#n summation of first6century 4e#ish monotheism" 2urtado concludes" ,First6
century 4e#ish monotheism #as" thus" an e'clusi$ist" monarchial $ie# of 0od" manifested
articularly in orthora'y in culticJliturgical matters%.
&ur brief discussion of monotheism has sho#n that it #as not a metahysical statement
of the internal nature of 0od% Rather it is a olemical doctrine that ta+es a fighting stance against
the different asects of agan #orld$ie#s%/The co$enantal asects ser$e to remind the eole of
0od that they are bound to this one true 0od" desite the surrounding luralism% Before #e
discuss 5auls adatation of monotheism" #e shall e'amine the battle6cry of first6century 4udaic
monotheism" the Shema%=
Deuteronomy : roclaims" ,2ear" & Israel: The 9ord our 0od" the 9ord is one%. In the
first6century #orld this #as a +ey roclamation in 4e#ish liturgy% ,It declares a confession of
faith and an ultimate accetance of 0ods +ingshi%. @The three +ey assages for the Shema are
Deut% :6" Deut% //:/@6=/ and 3um% /:@G6/%The Shema #as to be rayed t#ice a day" once
in the morning and once in the e$ening%This confession #as the fundamental encasulating
statement of first6century 4e#ish monotheism% Israel is to gi$e e'clusi$e #orshi and
Cf% Daniel I% Bloc+" The !o"s o the .ations# (n Ancient .ear 0astern .ational Theology7=nded% 0rand Raids"
MI%: Ba+er" =8" @6% 2urtado" 9arry% ,-hat Do -e Mean by First6Century 4e#ish Monotheism>. Society o Bi5lical /iterature
Seminar *apers 1447ed% )% 9o$ering Atlanta: ;cholars" /@8 @H%
/3%T% -right".ew Testament" =H%=Ibid% Cf% also 2erbert -olf"An (ntro"uction to the +l" Testament *entateuch7Chicago: Moody" //8" =/6H%@D%
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recognition to 12-2 as the sole ;o$ereign 9ord%GMichael 2orton oints out that ,it is the
;hema not antheistic ;toicism that emhasi?es the sole lordshi of 12-2 as +ing%. H ;ince
12-2 is 9ord" co$enant fidelity is central to this confession of monotheism because Israel is to
lo$e her 0od alone since in reality 2e is the only 0od and the one #ho has called out 2is eole%
Thus" #e can confirm #ith 5ayne" this assage itself is not rimarily a statement of 0ods
internal ma+eu:
The teaching of this assage does not rimarily concern a di$ine unity ofsimlicity: that 0od constitutes a unity #ithin himself" in contrast for e'amle"
#ith Baal" #ho #as so slintered u so as to e'ist searately in countless
indi$idual lots of groundLIt concerns rather the di$ine unity of singularity that
0od constitutes the sole deity" as oosed to others%
0ods oneness is distinct from 2is e'istence in three persons3&n a more oular le$el"
4ames Montgomery Boice has clearly articulated that the oneness described in Deuteronomy
: does not e'clude the Trinity because ,in this $ery $erse the #ord for one is echa"#hich
means not one in isolation but one in unity% In fact" the #ord is ne$er used in the 2ebre# Bible of
a star+ singular entity% It is a #ord used in sea+ing of one bunch of graes" for e'amle" or in
saying that the eole of Israel resonded as one eole. or in referring to Adam and )$e as one
flesh%As &rthodo' Christianity has al#ays recogni?ed" the Shemadoes not contradict the later
re$elation of 0od as Father" ;on and 2oly ;irit%
-hen #e e'amine monotheism and its central confession #e can conclude" ,the doctrine
of the deity of Christ is not at all incomatible #ith the highest form of monotheism%. /
Therefore" if it can be sho#n that 5aul adats this statement in his discussion of Christ" then he is
G)ugene 2% Merrill" ,A Theology of the 5entateuch".A Bi5lical Theology o the +l" Testament7Chicago: Moody"
//8" GH%H/or" an" Serant# A Coenant Christology 9ouis$ille" en%: -estminster 4ohn no'" =E" =%4% Barton 5ayne" The Theology o the +l"er Testament70rand Raids" Mi%: Qonder$an" /=8" /=%)oun"ations o the Christian )aith Re$ised in one $olume Do#ners 0ro$e" Ill%: Inter
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sho#ing his continuity #ith monotheism e$en if" at oints" he distinguishes t#o ersons 70od the
Father and Christ the 9ord8 #ithin this monotheism% = Belo#" #e shall sho# that 5aul accets
and adats this battle6cry in his o#n confrontation #ith luralism without iolating it% In short"
contrary to those such as
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of there o#n ne# +no#ledge 7/0w1!"8 of 0od there #as no threat to themsel$es if they
entered into the temles of idols and ate the food sacrificed before idols% It seems e$ident" to
5aul" that such +no#ledge did not enhance the Corinthians ,sirituality. but instead #as leading
them to become arrogant and uffed u 7H:/: 2u!o!18% As 5aul argues this is not the true
attitude of the belie$er% In fact" 5aul refutes this" arguing that such self6ercetions indicate that
they do not understand #hat +ind of attitude is re!uired 7H:=8% In $erse @ #hen he says" ,But if
anyone lo$es 0od" he is +no#n by 0od. 73 45 67 89:;< = >?@ A7 B9:6
C; D:EF8" 5aul is setting u his argument to discuss the Shema%
Concerning H:@" diffusing the Corinthians inflated $ie# of +no#ledge 5aul asserts that it
is the erson #ho lo$es 0od #ho is +no#n by 0od not the erson #ith +no#ledge 7$%@8% 3%T%
-right is correct to oint out this $erses significance because" ,5auls references to humans
lo$ing 0od" as oosed to $ice $ersa" are fe# and far bet#een" and in this case at leastLthe
reason for the reference is that he #ishes to allude" or echo" the 4e#ish confession of
monotheistic faith%.It is clear in $% G6/@ that this lo$e is demonstrated by ta+ing care not to
become a stumbling bloc+ to #ea+er brother and sin against Christ% Fee summari?es" ,The
roblem #ith conduct redicated on +no#ledge is that it results in greater sinfulness%.
The standard summation of the 9a# as the first commandment to lo$e 0od" follo#ed by
second greatest commandment as lo$ing your neighbor 7Matt% ==:@6 9u+e /:=G Mar+
/=:=6@/8" seem to be influencing 5auls use of the Shema%G5aul has already sho#n these as
foundational to his ethics u to this oint in / Corinthians%
H
The first summation that one should
Clima7%/=G%0ordon Fee" The 0pistle o )irst Corinthians70rand Raids" Mi%: )erdmans" /HG8" @%G3otice that 4esus combines the Shema#ith the greatest commandment of the 9a# in Mar+ /=:=6@%HBrian Rosner has sho#n the +ey role that the &ld Testament ;critures layed in 5auls ethical e'hortations and
rerimands in / Corinthians 6G in his study: *aul% Scripture% an" 0thics# A Stu"y o 1 Corinthians 8-= 70randRaids" MI%: Ba+er" /8% Imortant here is Rosners discussion of the co$enant motif in / Corinthians 7H6G8%
;ince the co$enant is influential to 5auls ethical rescrition #e should not be surrised in the least to find a clear
allusion to the Shemaas 5aul de$elos his argumentation in the course of his eistle%
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lo$e 0od is e'licit 7$%@8" yet #ith the #ay 5aul de$elos his argumentation the second
commandment is clearly behind his thin+ing% As his argument against idols concludes this
becomes more e'licit in /:=% The belie$er must see+ the good of his neighbor rather than his
o#n ersonal good" i%e% lo$e his neighbor as himself% These summati$e commandments are not
simly early $ersions of the golden rule but are the heart of a true Biblical monotheistic faith and
its correlating ethical imlications%
In / Corinthians H:" 5aul affirms in a manner consistent #ith 4e#ish monotheism that
any idol oses no threat to the Christian% 5aul sets u t#o arallel clauses confirming #hat both
5aul and the Corinthians +no#:
7a8 oGt! ouHIJK0 J!,Iwlo0 JH0 LoM%wN@ La!K7b8 oGt! ouHIJ!KO PJoKO J!H %)K J!OQG
The te't is a monotheistic confession% 5aul continues in $% " ,For although there may be
so6called gods in hea$en or on earthas indeed there are many gods and many lords%. This
means that any idol" or religion" offers no threat to Christianity% For any other gods are not real
gods and anyone #ho claims to #orshi another god does not% &ther religions are not otions
because they do not #orshi real gods" #hich seems to be central to the Corinthians asserting
their liberty% Pltimately" as 5aul de$elos" abusing such +no#ledge" as the Corinthians #ere" is
an offensi$e against Christ 7$%//8 if a #ea+er brother is caused to stumble% They #ere not
demonstrating true lo$e to#ards the #ea+er Christians and ultimately sho#ed a lac+ of true lo$e
to#ards 0od in their lifestyle" #hich the Shemaand summations of the 9a# demanded%G/The
Shema is central to the argument" not to ro$e the Corinthians ,+no#ledge. might be correct but
It is robably no coincidence that 5aul uses o!RIa%J0and not /!0wvLw% 5aul has said that 967 uffsu but then goes on to roclaim #e +no# 7S4:8% This is not to ma+e theological oints from simle #ordusage only to highlight the subtleties that can go unnoticed in )nglish%Ga8 ,that an idol has no real e'istence and. b8 ,that there is no 0od but one.G/This lac+ of lo$e as #ell as 5auls argument in chater t#el$e against their lac+ of unity is #hy 5aul must offer a
diatribe on lo$e in chater thirteen%
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to sho# their conduct ultimately did not demonstrate lo$e for 0od" #hich is a sign that one is
+no#n by 0od% As 3%T% -right notes the issue at sta+e" ,is not simly a matter of beha$iour% It is
about the definition of the eole of 0od: and" for 5aul" that definition can be stated in
Deuteronomic terms" by means of the Shema%.G=In due course" 5auls longer argument comes in
chater ten 7es% /=6=/8% -hile the Corinthians #ere free in Christ" they #ere in danger of
religious comromise before a #atching #orld% 5auls Christological monotheism #as a
boundary against internal comromise to#ards the luralism that threatened%
In / Corinthians H: 5aul ta+es the Shemaand e'ands his definition of the one 0od%
-hen #e comare 5auls #riting #ith the Deut% : in the ;etuagint #e cannot hel but notice
the arallel structure:
Deut% : / Corinthians H:
aRLouJ jTra)l Luvr!o" oU PJo" )U%w0
Luvr!o" J!N" Jjt!0
Vjll)U%!10J!N" PJoW" oU pat)Wr
JjX ouN taW pav0ta La!)U%J!1" J!j" aujto0La!W J!N" Luvr!o" jT)ou1" Yr!toW"
I! ouN tav pav0ta La!W
)U%J!1" I! aujtou15aul is not tal+ing about t#o gods% 2e is offering a Christian commentary on the Shema%
There is one 0od" yet there is 0od the Father and there is the 9ord 4esus Christ% 5aul has ut
4esus Christ our 9ord in the middle of the most monotheistic confession in the Bible% In the
confession 9ord is a reference to 12-2%G@2e further affirms monotheism is at the heart here by
adding t#o clauses ronouncing both the Father and the ;ons role in creation% GConcerning the
Father: Z:[ 7 37 :E?% Concerning the ;on: D
Z:[ 7 46 D :EF% This same language is used in 5auls great do'ology inG=Clima7%/=G%G@9arry 2urtado" ,9ord%".,ictionary o *aul an" His /etters" 7Do#ners 0ro$e" Ill%: Inter
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Romans //:@ #here 0od is raised \6 Z:[ D Z:[ 37 :E=
] :E 4?^: 37 _7 :3:7@ 8`% In our assage" this do'ology is
unac+ed as it alies to the Father and the ;on%
Pltimately all creation is for 0ods glory% 5auls co$enant theology might e$en be seen in
the language 7 37 :E? in reference to the Father and 7 46 D :EF in
reference to the ;on #here 7 certainly refers to those belie$ers in union #ith Christ%
)ither #ay" #ith the e'ansion of the Shema and the references to act of creation" it is e$ident
that 5aul has struc+ at the heart of monotheism% 1et it is e!ually a Christological monotheism%
9ittle is gained by suggesting that 5aul has relaced Di$ine6-isdom #ith the erson of
Christ for nothing in the assage inherently suggests a #isdom6Christology is in $ie#%G The
focus is on the osition of 4esus Christ #ithin the di$ine identity% This inclusion stands against
the agan conte't of many gods and many lords that threatened the community%
For 5aul" lo$ing 0od and fulfilling the Shema is redefined by lo$ing Christ as #ell%
2ence in the light of temtations the Corinthians faced to shift bac+ to#ards luralistic li$ing
because they had ,+no#ledge. that no other gods are real gods" 5aul inserts his Christological
monotheism as a #ay to refocusing the Corinthians understanding of lo$ing 0od" later
imloring them not to sin against Christ 7$%/=8% 0i$ing #ay to agan ractices no matter ho#
unreal the ri$al gods does not mar+ a belie$ers lo$e for 0od% -hile the strong Corinthians
+ne# that these gods #ere not gods" ractically sea+ing they #ere in danger of comromising
their lifestyle esecially if they ate idol meat in the idols temle% This is articularly true as it
causes #ea+er brothers to stumble and brings one to $iolate lo$ing his brother in Christ%
/ Cor% /:/6@@ 7es% /6=/ and =6=8 is imortant to 5auls further conclusions regarding
GFee" 6is"om% =%Contra 2urtado" +ne !o"% +ne /or"" G6H% Anthony Thiselton" The )irst 0pistle to the
Corinthians3I0TC 70rand Raids" Mi%: )erdmans" =@8 @%
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idol meat% -orshiing agan idols is to #orshi demons% True monotheism does not allo# such
luralistic comromises% )$en if meat is (ust meat" there are occasions #here eating idol meat is
forbidden 7/:=H8 recisely because eating #ould bring the aearance of luralism before the
#atching #orld" #hich had no !ualms about recogni?ing and #orshiing a antheon of deities%
This high monotheistic standard ta+en by Christians #ould ha$e been offensi$e to the agan
#orld 7Acts /:=@6/8%
The confession of Christological monotheism functions as a #ay to ,mar+ out the
eole of 0od against their neighborsLThe confession of one 0od" one 9ord mar+ed the
community out sociologically as #ell as theologically%.
G
Christianity cannot articiate #ith
demons 7/:=6==8% The eschatological eole of 0od cannot fall into the same tra as idolatrous
Israel #ho ser$e to instruct those of us ,on #hom the end of the ages had come. 7/://8% GG;ince
#e ha$e &ne 0od the Father" and &ne 9ord 4esus Christ #e must ,flee idolatry. 7/:/8% The
confession ser$es 5aul as a foundation for confrontation #ith religious luralism in a conte't
#here the church is caitulating%
Imortant to our discussion here" 5auls Christological monotheism allo#s him to
affirm that other religious otions are not otions% It functions as a boundary for the Christian
community both ractically and theology% The t#o are not mutually e'clusi$e% 3ot only is a
Christological monotheism a oint of religious debate" if #e truly belie$e the confession it
should function as an anchor for us" a nonnegotiable to our faith% 2urtado remar+s that / Cor%
H:6 ,summari?es the distinct nature of early Christian de$otionLinsisting that for Christians
there can be only ,one 0od.LThis rather strict monotheistic standindeed" offensi$ely strict in
the eyes of $irtually all agans of that time#as nothing but the common osition ta+en by
G3%T% -right" Clima7%/@=%GGBehind this thought is the notion of 0ods one co$enant eole but #ith a re6eschatological e'erience in the &ld
Testament and an inaugurated e'erience in the resent age% It remains fundamental to monotheism: &ne 0od" one
eole of 0od%
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4udaism".GH The !uestion needs to be as+ed our oursel$es: As #e consider our o#n
confrontations #ith luralism" ho# offensi$ely strict are #e #ith resect to our monotheism>
;econd" in Acts /G:==6@/ 5aul uses the t#o elements of monotheism and Christology as a
means of introductory roclamation" #hich leads to a full gosel resentation% 5aul engages in a
sort of re6e$angelism as a means to oen the door for further discussion of the gosel 7Acts
/G:@=8% Contrary to the #ay many share the gosel today" 5aul did not enter the Areoagus
roclaiming" ,0od lo$es you and has a #onderful lain for your life. or e$en ,1ou need
sal$ation%. -isely" 5aul begins the discussion at a much more fundamental le$el%G 2is
resentation functions around t#o +ey oints: monotheism and an introduction to Christology%
5auls assertion of monotheism is imortant because for him it lays the foundation of his
Biblical #orld$ie#% Before he can resent the 0od #ho offered 2is ;on" he must introduce this
0od into the en$ironment of religious luralism that he had entered% Pon encountering an altar
to the un+no#n god"H5aul uses it as an oortunity to share the true nature of the one 0od%
5aul engages in #hat can be described as a defense of monotheism%H/
5aul ma+es four +ey oints that are central tenants of monotheism% First" in $erses = and
=" he asserts a creational monotheism% It is 0od #ho has made e$erything and is o$er all% 2e
does not need a temle made by man or human ser$ice because he gi$es life to all men% Thus"
0od is not to be identified #ith creation nor is 2e contained #ithin creation 7Isa% :/6=8%
;econd" 0od has made the nations from one man" i%e% Adam% 12-2 is not one of many
GH+ne !o"% +ne /or"% /%GThe alication here sea+s for itself% In an age of increasing luralism #e must begin at a more fundamental
oint in the Biblical narrati$e" that there is only one true 0od% This truth is the building6bloc+ for any discussion of
4esus Christ" his deity" his humanity and the substitutionary nature of his atonement%H0i$en the conte't of the Areoagus" the inscrition could be translated ,to an un+no#n god.% 4erome says that the
altar read: ,To the gods of Asia" )uroe" and Africa" to un+no#n foreign gods. !td% F%F% Bruce" The Boo; o Acts7re$ised 0rand Raids" Mi%: )erdmans" /HH8" @@%H/5aul did not see them as truly #orshiing the 0od of the Bible through this altar% 2e used it as an oortunity to
share about the 0od #ho they did not +no#%
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gods each #ith their resecti$e nation but 12-2 is thee 0od #ho ossesses the #hole earth% H=
The reason any nation e'ists is because of 0ods common grace and ongoing rocreation of
Adams descendants 70en% //8% In =Ga" these nations should see+ 2im recisely because the other
gods are not gods%
Behind this reaching is a Biblical #orld$ie#% -e might also note that there may be
inciient thoughts of 5auls t#o6Adam Christology behind his e'ressed thoughts: 7/8 the
nations created from one man AdamE 7=8 he 0odE has fi'ed a day on #hich he 0odE #ill
(udge the #orld in righteousness by a man #ho he 0odE has aointed i%e% the eschatos
AdamE%
H@
This second asect is articularly crystalli?ed #hen #e consider the si?eable amount of
5auls teaching on the resurrection of the dead in / Cor% / that is directly elucidated by means of
his t#o6Adam Christology% The core of the resurrection teaching in this chater hinges uon a
t#o6Adam Christology% The oint concerning Acts and monotheism remains: as so$ereign
creator and 9ord o$er all 12-2 #ill" through 2is anointed one" e'ercise (udgment o$er the
nations 7Acts /G:@/8%H
Third" contrary to the deist concetion of god the true 0od remains acti$e in his creation%
5aul is e$en comfortable !uoting from a oem from )imenides the Cretan and the fifth line
*hainomenaby Aratus%H-hile both of these oems in their original conte't refer to Qeus" 5aul
uses them in his conte't to refer to the true 0od sho#ing some small le$el continuity bet#een
H=To highlight ho# monotheistic this is #e might aroriate the thoughts of Christoher -right used in a slightlydifferent conte't: ,At Mount ;inai" for e'amle" at the $ery oint #here 0od is imressing on Israel their uni!ue
identity and role in the midst of the nations" he lea$es no doubt that he is far from being a minor local deity or e$enyour a$erage national god% The scoe of his concern and his so$ereignty is uni$ersal: the #hole earth is mine 7)'%
/:8%. 7nowing Jesus% @8% 2orton ma+es similar comments noting that 0enesis conte't is olemical as 0odasserts ,his so$ereignty o$er and against the gods of the nations as Israels su?erain% It is Israels 0od #ho created
all that e'ists%. 2e ends the aragrah !uoting Acts /G:=6= 7/or" an" Serant" G/8%H@5auls t#o6Adam Christology is clearly articulated in Rom% :/=6=/ and / Cor% / es% $$% =6=H and =6%HFor the &T bac+ground #e see this in Israelite royal theology es% 5s% =" H" //" = ;am% G == and numerous other
assages but also in Re$% / and / Cor% /:=6=H% -e might also note the 3T uses of 5s =" H" // used in the same
conte'ts%HBruce"Acts" @@H6%
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the $ie#s e'ressed in the oems and #hat they are saying% They are contemorary illustrations
that his audience #ould ha$e been familiar #ith but 5aul has reclaimed their truthHreasserting it
under the roer rubric of Biblical monotheism% By #ay of his illustrations" 5auls audience
should recogni?e his understanding of monotheism is not totally alien to them" e$en if they
radically differ in other +ey areas%
Fourth" in $% = 5aul contradicts their understanding that a god can be reresented in an
idol% It #ould be insulting for 5aul to thin+ the true 0od could be reresented by an idol% This is
consistent #ith a first6century 4e#ish monotheistic #orld$ie# that #as re$ealed in the &ld
Testament" esecially the second commandment 7)'% =: Dt% :H8% In this short section of the
te't" 5aul has outlined four +ey oints that are fundamentally an aologetic for monotheism%
5aul then incororates t#o Christological +ey oints into this monotheism% It is imortant
to note that #hile these may not aear at first glance to be Christological oints in the sense
that a 3icene definition of Christ is e'licitly selled out" they are ne$ertheless Christological%
5auls eschatology and Christology are so intert#ined that they can be designated a ,Christ6
eschatology.%HGRidderbos comments are ro$e seminal for our thesis that Acts /G does contain a
Christological monotheism:
This interdeendence bet#een the ,eschatological. and the ,christological.
ground motif of 5auls reaching is of the highest imortance for the
understanding of bothLThis reachingE has in rincile a redemti$e6historical"
eschatological content% It is decisi$ely defined by #hat has ta+en lace in Christ"by the acts of 0od that he #rought in him for the fulfillment of his redemti$e
lan and of #hich the death and resurrection of Christ constitute the all6
controlling center% *auls Christology is a Christology o re"emptie acts% 2erelies the ground of the #hole of his reachingLThis historical6eschatological
character of 5auls Christology also laces it in organic relationshi #ith the
re$elation of the &ld Testament% -hat has ta+en lace in Christ forms thetermination and fulfillment of the great series of di$ine redemti$e acts in the
history of Israel and the resuosition of the rogress and consummation of the
HI am thin+ing here of Cornelius
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history of the #orld%HH
First" this 0od #ill (udge the #orld by a man" 4esus Christ" #hom 2e has aointed% In
the &ld Testament" as #ell as the first6century 4e#ish #orld$ie#" it #as understood that only
0od as so$ereign monarch #ould (udge the #orld%H The authority #as 2is alone% 1et 2e #ould
authori?e 2is $ice6regent to enact this (udgment% This #ould mar+ the end of the resent e$il
age and the beginning of the age to come% For 5aul" as #e noted abo$e" Christ is the agent
through #hom 0od #ill (udge the #orld in the future% This is in fulfillment of the eschatological
hoe of the &ld Testament% This eschatological reality as da#ned at least initially in Christs
crucifi'ion and resurrection%
/
Christ" the anointed one" in e'ercising (udgment as e'alted $ice6
regent ultimately #ould do #hat #as reser$ed for 0od alone% Christs aointment to (udge is
nothing less than the truth that Christ must reign until all enemies ha$e been ut under 2is feet 7/
Cor% /:=8% Christs resurrection guarantees 2e #ill e'ecute (udgment defeating 0ods enemies
and raise those #ho are united to 2im in the culmination eschatological Day of the 9ord 7/ Cor%
/:=6=H8% 5auls oint that Christ is aointed (udge is a Christological statement%
;econd" 0od assured this aointment to the #orld by means of Christs resurrection% The
resurrection aoints 4esus as the ;on of 0od in power 7Rom%/:8% The resurrection #as
fundamental to 5auls understanding of inaugurated eschatology%= )lse#here for 5aul the
HHRidderbos"*aul% 6%% )mhasis mine%H5s% :/"/@ H: Isa% @@:== :/"/%)%0% )?ra G://@ ,The Day of 4udgment shall be the end of this age and the beginning of the eternal age to
come%./Christs resurrection is the firstfruits of the one eschatological resurrection 7/ Cor% /:=8% Thus" the eschatological
day of the 9&RD had da#ned in the death and resurrection of Christ 7Dale Allison 4r%" The 0n" o the Ages HasCome 5hiladelhia: Fortress" /HE" es% /G6/8% The eschatological character of Christs death and resurrection is
readily ac+no#ledge by numerous scholars from $arious Christian traditions but articularly by Reformed scholars#ho ha$e follo#ed the redemti$e historical sensiti$ities of 0eerhardus
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resurrection is imortant as the firstfruits for those #ho are in Christ and as securing their
(ustification%@It guarantees 0ods $indication of 2is eole% The introduction of the resurrection
is imortant because as Richard 0affin has sho#n" ,the resurrection of Christ is thei$otal factor
in the #hole of the aostles soteriological teaching%.In this assage" #hile reference to the
(udgment is #ithout secifics" 5aul certainly has in mind condemnation for those #ho do not
belie$e and sal$ation for those #ho do belie$e% This is e$ident #ith aeal assionate aeal that
this 0od 712-28 ,commands all eole e$ery#here to reent. 7Acts /G:@8%
Christs o#n resurrection assures both condemnation in eschatological (udgment for
unbelie$ers and forgi$eness" (ustification" or eschatological $indication for those #ho reent and
through faith being united to 2im% -rath has been oured out on Christ for 2is eole in the
form of the eschatological (udgment #ith subse!uent $indication in 2is resurrection" thus the
comletion of this Day of the 9ord is fi'ed since the firstfruits of it ha$e been e'erienced%
;uffering the curse of sin" Christ #as (udged but unable to be held by death% The day of the
9&RD has da#ned and those #ho are in union #ith Christ #ill recei$e (ustification now" instead
of condemnation at the consummation of the age% In this Day of the 9&RD" none other than
12-2 2imself has aeared to 2is eole in the erson of the eternal ;on of 0od% It is nothing
less than the resurrection of 4esus that ser$es as roof of this truth% The resurrection as the clima'
of redemti$e history is the dislay of #hat #e may call a high Christology% As eschatological
it is e!ually re$elatory of 0ods erson and the climactic sal$ation romised in the &T%
-e might oint out one final crucial connection bet#een this monotheism and
Christology% According to Acts /G:=" all men o#e their e'istence to 0od 7957
C;7 F >F@ bt)JrJ2orJ cJ!0/ doIe ofpr!0/e8" clearly suggesting that
@/ Cor% / and Rom% := Richard B% 0affin 4r%" >esurrection an" >e"emption# A Stu"y in *auls Soteriology 7=nded 5hillisburg" 3%4%:
5resbyterian and Reformed" /HG8" /@% )mhasis &riginal%
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man is 0ods image% Man is not to thin+ of the di$ine being as gold or sil$er 7EZ ghi
i6 k 89 k i>8" in other #ords the image of 0od cannot be
reresented by idolatry since 0od has created 2is o#n image in man" #ho #as made to be
12-2s $ice6regent 70en% /:=6=H8% Adams creation as the image is creation in sonshi to the
high su?erain% In 0enesis / and =" 0od created 2is image to reresent 2im% 0od cannot be
reresented by an image" mar+ or imress made by man himself 7:9:6 57 Z:[
>`7 8>m; lit% an image of art and a thought of man8% The dati$e
:9:6 is most li+ely stands in aosition to the dati$es k 89 k i>%
0old and sil$er is not a true imageJimress of 0od% But #hat concerns us is this: #hy is it so
crucial that now0od no longer o$erloo+s luralistic ignorance>
This is not to suggest that idolatry #as not a culable offense for the nations in the &ld
Testament% Rather rior to the da#ning eschaton" there #as not e'tensi$e roclamation that
anticiated the inbringing of 0entiles% Man is still (udged for er$erting and suressing the
+no#ledge of 0od 2e had as 0ods creatures 7Rom% /:/H6@=8% But 0ods 9a# 7and the Shema8
#as gi$en as a light to Israel" #hich made her more culable to +ee it 7Rom% =:/=8% This same
le$el of culability did not aly to 0entiles" yet nowin light of the eschatological death and
resurrection of Christ" this idolatry can no longer be ,o$erloo+ed. by 0od% But the !uestion
remains: #hy is it so crucial that now0od no longer o$erloo+s luralistic ignorance>
The turning oint of 5auls argument is that Christ is (udge and this is dislayed to all
men in 2is resurrection% The resurrection of 4esus Christ re$eals 2im to be the image of the
in$isible 0od" the true image or dislay of glory that cannot be reresented by any +ind of
imress or form% The dislay of 0ods image is not the created image of 0od but the eternal
image of 0od" the eternal ;on of 0od 7Col% /:/6/H = Cor% :"8% Image" glory" sonshi" and
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$ice6regency are all terms and concets that ser$e as near synonyms in Biblical re$elation%
3otice a near synonym to :9:6 used of idols in Acts /G:= aears in 2ebre#s /:@ n7
8;:9:: 7 4?^7 Z:[ 7 C;7 :EF used to
describe the eternal glory of Christ% Idols cannot reresent 0od #hose true image is Christ%
The resurrection is 4esus aointment as the ;on of 0od inpower 7Rom% /:8% This
redemti$e historical e$ent as eschatological ser$es as clear roof to all men% The resurrection is
Christs glorification as his human nature enters an e'alted status 7Acts =:@=6@ @:/@ 5hil% =:6
// Col% /:/"/H 2eb% =: / 5et% /:=/ cf% also = Cor% :"8% 1et it is a dislay of the glory that
Christ had eternally #ith the Father 74ohn /G: /@:@/6@=8% In resurrecting and e'alting Christ to
glory" 0od the Father has re$ealed to all men 2is o#n true image" the one #ho is clearly the
eternal ;on of 0od manifest through the $ery clima' of redemti$e history% Truly Christ is the
glory of 0od is the $ery image of 0od" #ho is no# seen%
5luralism and ri$al images are ruled out recisely because now thee image of 0od has
aeared" the true ;on #ho is e'alted to ruling (udge% 0od has dislayed 2is glory in 2is ;on at
the e$ent of 2is death and 2is resurrection% -orshi of idols and ri$al deities as images of 0od
is no longer o$erloo+ed since the true image of 0od is clearly dislayed in the erson of Christ at
the e$ent of 2is resurrection% &f course" the resurrection has al#ays been essential to the
Christian roclamation that 4esus is 9ord 7Acts =:@8" our Christological monotheism%
1et 5aul does not aeal to the e$idences for the resurrection" rather the resurrection is
itself the roof% This e$ent is only roerly understood #ithin Biblical monotheism and 0ods
redemti$e historical re$elation% The glory of 0od is dislayed in the erson of the ;on at the
center of redemti$e history% 0ods image has been re$ealed in the resurrection of the ;on% ,In
Ta+ing our !ueue from Cal$in" #e use the resurrection as synecdochic of the #hole e$ent of cross" resurrection
and e'altation"(nstitutes o the Christian >eligion% II%'$i%/@% 4ohns gosel in articular laces the cross as the e$ent
of 4esus glorification%
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calling Christ the Image of 0od" he 5aulE thus identifies Christs glory #ith that of 0od
himself%. 0od is clearly re$ealed in the resurrection% 3ot only is Christ the second Adam
e'alted o$er all in the resurrection" 2e is the eternal ;on of 0od re$ealed in the resurrection:
Thus Christs e'altation as the second Adam refers bac+ to the $ery beginning of
things" ma+es him +no#n as the one #ho from the $ery outset" in a much more
glorious sense than the first Adam" #as the Image of 0od and the Firstborn ofe$ery creature% ;o the fundamental structures and imlications of 5auls
eschatological reaching of Christ are e'osed to $ie#% The ne# creation that has
bro+en through #ith Christs resurrection ta+es the lace of the first creation
#hich Adam #as the reresentati$e% It is" ho#e$er" much more glorious than thefirst as the second man" both in $irtue of his origin and of his destiny" #as
suerior to first%G
-hile the argument in Acts /G:==6@/ does not contain a full6blo#n discussion of
Christology" Christ and the resurrection lays a i$otal role% &ur e'egesis has" ho#e$er"
suggested there is in this e$ent of 5auls reaching a deeer Christology than tyically
ac+no#ledged% -e ha$e attemted to sho# that 5aul could not sea+ of Christs e'altation to
(udge and Christs resurrection #ithout ha$ing the eternal glory of Christ far from $ie#%H
Furthermore" 5auls monotheistic argument is dri$en by eschatology #hich itself centers
on the erson and #or+ of Christ% There is no absence" e'clusion" denial or re(ection of a high
Christology in 5auls confrontation #ith luralism% Rather" #e ha$e #hat #e ha$e called a
Christological monotheism% Ridderbos is again insightful for ,it is characteristic of 5aul that he
sea+s of Christs di$ine ;onshi in no other #ay than in direct connection #ith his redemti$e
#or+%.Thus" resentation of the Christ6eschatology #e see in Acts /G" namely that Christ has
been aointed (udge and has been resurrected to ro$e it" oints us in the direction of 5auls
o#n high Christology albeit a Christology further articulated else#here in its fullness%
Ridderbos"*aul% G%GRidderbos"*aul% H6%HThis is also suorted #hen #e consider 5eters teaching in Acts =%Ridderbos"*aul% GG% 2e continues" ,2is #hole Christology rests uon the manner in #hich he has learned to
understand Christ in his cross and resurrection as the ;ent &ne of the Father. 7GG6H8%
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3ot only does 5auls Christology distinguish 5aul from a 4e#ish monotheist both in
defining 0od and in defining already6not yet nature of the age to come" it oens the door for
further oortunities% 5auls discourse centering in monotheism and Christ6eschatology further
challenges both )icurean agnosticism and the denial of an afterlife since 0od has both re$ealed
2imself an"dislayed the coming resurrection life in Christ% 5aul is articulating some +ey oints
to the gosel #ith a foundation of Christological monotheism% -hile #e ha$e stressed Acts
/G:==6@/ does not articulate a full6blo#n discussion of Christs deity" uon closer e'amination
the concet of a Christological monotheism is unmista+ably rominent in 5auls reaching"
forming ground for his religious debate in Athens% In clima' to the narrati$e" some of the hearers
offered disute regarding the resurrection #hile others belie$ed% Acts /G:@ this belief occurs
after some as+ed to here more about #hat 5aul had said 7$%@=8%
5aul clearly articulates that there is one 0od in standard monotheistic olemic that
includes the +eys of creational monotheism and ro$idential monotheism% There may e$en be an
allusion to the category of co$enantal monotheism behind his assertions in $%= and @% -e
should be clear that 5auls oint is not that 0od has an e'clusi$e ne# co$enant relationshi #ith
only the 4e#ish eole/or that 0od has an all6inclusi$e relationshi #here all are sa$ed" as a
uni$ersalist might argue% The oint is that all are commanded to belie$e" from both 4e# and
0entile% From those #ho belie$er" the one 0od is ma+ing one eole #ho are in Christthe
eschatos Adam% As 5aul articulates else#here it is those #ho belie$e #ho are the sons of
Abraham" are in co$enant relationshi #ith 0od and are truly 0ods chosen eole as they are
in union #ith Christ%// The danger is that #e cannot misaly the co$enantal asects of
monotheism in Acts /G and thus fail to see that fulfillment 12-2s redemti$e historical
/As #e might see in 4e#ish monotheism of the time 7e%g% / Maccabees /"=8//Rom% @:=6@ 0al% @:G6"/"=%
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rogram in$ol$es the inclusion of 0entiles into the one co$enantE eole of 0od 79u+e =:G
Acts =H:=H8% -hile in the &T" 0ods co$enant eole #as ethnically restricted" Israel as a nation
#as only the firstfruits of 0ods har$est of the nations 74er% =:@8" a har$est that has no# da#ned
in the inaugurated eschaton that is itself dri$ing 5auls reaching% /=The conclusion remains that
5auls argumentation and foundation for religious debate is a Christological monotheism% 5aul
mo$es through his argument by first gi$ing an aologetic for monotheism follo#ed by t#o
Christological oints #hich are else#here sho#n to be foundational for his theology and
roclamation% These Christological oints are deendant uon the in brea+ing of 0ods
eschatological self6re$elation in the history of redemtion%
-hile #e can discuss other 5auline assages on Christology and the nature of 0od" these
t#o assages are enough to sho# that ones understanding of 0od and Christ affects the #ay one
aroaches other religions" esecially in luralistic cultures% The fundamental Christian creed
that ,4esus is 9&RD. is not merely an abstraction of dogma but defines the #ay one engages the
culture% For 5aul" in / Cor% H:6 and Acts /G:==6@/ his understanding of a Christological
monotheism i%e that 4esus is 9&RDE informs his understanding of the nature of 0od" shaes his
ethical e'hortations to a church facing luralism" forces him to assert that other gods are nothing
and is foundational to his o#n engagement #ith the religions around him% The Christological
monotheism retains the battle6cry of &ld Testament monotheism #hile the cry is e'anded to
include the erson of 4esus Christ%
V. Christological Monotheism: ! "oundation for eligious #e$ate.
The nature of &ld Testament monotheism should be redisco$ered in our o#n setting% As
/=&f course" in any age it is only through faith that one is a true seed of Abraham% 2o#e$er" #e cannot minimi?e
the fact that in the &T this #as by and large Israelite restricti$e% )$en those non64e#s #ho came to faith #ere toembrace the ;inaitic co$enant and (oin the eole of 0od% Cf% Christoher -right"nowing Jesus%ch% / ,4esus and
the &ld Testament ;tory. #here he #rites for the &ld Testament time ,only in Israel did 0od #or+ #ithin the terms
of a co$enant of redemtionL. 7% @8%
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discussed abo$e" monotheism #as a olemical doctrine% It asserted that any other gods are in
reality not gods% It is our contention that the contemorary Christian community must redisco$er
this aspect ofmonotheism as foundational for its understanding of 0od%
Today" the luralism #e face is not so much #hole antheons of other gods but other
#ays to god" #hich are deemed e!ually $alid% As 4ohn /: roclaims" this methodology is
contradictory to Christianity at a fundamental le$el% 1et many #ithin so6called e$angelicalism
#ould see+ to Corinthiani?e% Many today #ould e$en see+ to incororate asects agan
#orshi into our #orshi of the Triune Christian 0od% This is analogous to the ossible
Corinthian assertions that they +ne# the true god and thus eating idol meat #as fully accetable
since they did not really #orshi the non6e'istent idol gods% 2o#e$er" 5aul confronts and re(ects
this luralism and tolerance standing on a thoroughly monotheistic and Christological
foundation% Furthermore" 5auls aologetics #ith agan hilosohers resides on #holly Biblical"
monotheistic and Christological resuositions for argument and confrontation% -ithin our
Christian communities" #e must adat this Christological monotheism that forced 5aul to
affirm that any other god is not a god at all% -e must echo his statement and affirm that all other
gods or #ays to god are nothing% There can be only one 0od and one #ay to 0od% -e must
reco$er the #ar and #oof of monotheism so that it is not simly belie$ing that 0od is one but
it is the ground for our actions" articularly in aologetics and religious debate% Pltimately" this is
nothing ne# because Christianitys central confession has al#ays been 4esus is 9ord forming
the center of our doctrine" ethics" and religious confrontations%
This foundation should not lea$e us #ith a closed door to religious debate% Suite to the
contrary" #e must engage our culture% -e are called to reach Christ crucified in a sea of
religious luralism% 1et as 9uther !uestioned" ,Do you" I #onder" ta+e reaching Christ crucified
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to be (ust a matter of calling out Christ #as crucified" and nothing more>. /@True reaching of
Christ crucified un!uestionably brings in other +ey doctrines% /-e cannot simly retend #e
are reaching Christ crucified because #e call eole to belie$e #hen #e ha$e not engaged"
!uestioned and ultimately sho#n all their current #orld$ie#s to be found #anting% -e cannot
retend #e ha$e reached Christ crucified #hen #e ha$e not roclaimed the monotheistic
confession 4esus is 9&RD" as if #e can accet the former #ithout the latter%
If #e reach the gosel as merely an otion" #e do not sho# it to be truth% 0od" 2imself"
commands that all eole reent since Christ is 9&RD% -e must be clear to incororate
monotheism" humanitys total dera$ity" the deity of Christ" the crucifi'ion" the resurrection and
the (udgment into our e$angelistic reaching and our religious debate" emhasi?ing certain
asects as the situation demands and deending uon the audiences familiarity #ith Christianity%
If #e limit the gosel to a roclamation that ta+es simly care of needs only on an in"ii"ualistic
leel #e ha$e not sho#n the full o#er of our glorious 0od nor ha$e #e distinguished it from
other religions that for the here6and6no# often aear as $iable roads to self6fulfillment% -hile
the gosel does change li$es" religious debate cannot center on e'erience% /-e must call men
to abandon their false gods for the Triune 0od of the Bible #ho has re$ealed 2imself in the
death and resurrection of the ;on of 0od" 4esus Christ" / Thes% /:6/I%
A Christological monotheism not only sets a firm boundary against comromising our
#orld$ie#" it ro$ides a launching oint for religious debate%/3umerous religions embrace a
/@ Martin 9uther" The Bon"age o the 6ill 7trans% 4%I% 5ac+er K &%R% 4ohnston 0rand Raids" Mi%: Fleming 2%
Re$ell" /G8" /H%/Ibid%" /G6H%/5roof can be mustered for and against all religions if the foundation for debate is e'erience% -e can say this#ithout denying that a Christian must li$e the lifestyle before a #atching #orld% A failure to do so can only hinder
our religious debate% At the same time" #e #ill not deny that many are often attracted to Christianity by the faithful
lifestyle of some of its dearest saints%/-hat I am suggesting is consistent #ith the Reformed understanding that 0od is essential foundation of all7principium essen"i8 and thus 2is re$elation is the ground of all +no#ledge 7principium cognoscen"i8% For theology
and aologetics" #e need the -ord of 0od 7principium cognoscen"i e7ternum8 and the internal #or+ of the 2oly
;irit 7principium cognoscen"i internum8% It #as ho#e$er beyond the scoe of the aer to ma+e these arguments% I
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god or gods% A smaller amount of religions reach one god yet do not embrace Christ% ;till fe#er
religions aear to embrace Christ but they cannot embrace him as 9ord" 12-2% &ur modern
conte't of toleration see+s to illuminate debate and e!uali?e all religion in some form of a
lo#est common denominator%/GMichael 2orton succinctly #rites:
-hile olitical toleration is a benefit for democratic culture" 12-2 ran+sreligious luralism enemy number one in his stiulations for his co$enant eole"
as enshrined in the Decalogue% The sole lordshi of 12-2" as #e ha$e seen" is
the resuosition of biblical faith" and it is carried for#ard into fuller re$elation
of 12-2s identity as alied to 4esus ChristL0od is (ealous for his o#n nameand for the eole #ho call on his name and are called by his name% 0od #ill not
gi$e his glory to another%/H
VI. Conclusion.
-e ha$e e'amined monotheism from the &ld Testament% -e ha$e e'amined the
aroriation of monotheism and a Christological monotheism in t#o +ey laces in 5auls
thought as he confronts the luralism of his day% -e" too" must ha$e this same Christological
monotheism in our resent day% A Christological monotheism reaches 0od the Father" the
9ord 4esus Christ and the 2oly ;irit #ho are distinct ersons of the one 0od% It stands is star+
contrast to the monotheism of modern 4udaism and Islam% It re(ects Buddhism" 2induism" and
any other religion or hilosohy%
Pltimately" uon the consideration of the #hole of ;criture" Christianity is Trinitarian
and reaches the triune 0od of the Bible% Central to orthodo' Christianitys Trinitarian
confession is the statement that ,4esus Christ is 9ord". the Christological Monotheism
hoe it is e$ident to the reader that these asects of Reformed theology are grounded uon the ontological Trinity
and 2is self6condescension by the means of co$enant 7-CF G%/8% -e could argue that Reformed tradition has thenbest understood this recisely because it arises from monotheism and the Creator6creature distinction%/GPsually the e'istential acti$ity of faith itself" ho#e$er $aguely defined% This is of course anti6truth" anti60od"
anti6Christianity% Follo#ing 0ods authoritati$e -ord" Christianity has al#ays laced the utmost imortance in the
ob(ect of faith rather than the sub(ecti$e acti$ity of faith% -hile the latter is essential it is ne$ertheless meaningless#ithout the former%/H2orton"/or" an" Serant% @% In our ellisis" #e ha$e omitted 2ortons !uotations of 4ohn /: 5hiliians =:6
/ and Acts :/=%
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Bertolet - Christological Monotheism- page
resented here% &nly a Christian can roclaim 4esus is 9ord%/ It forms a boundary both
ractically and theologically% 5roerly understood a Christological monotheism guards
Christian doctrine and shaes a Christian ethic%
A Christological monotheism dra#s a line in the sand in fighting luralism in the same
#ay &ld Testament monotheism oosed the $arious antheons% It ro$ides the latform needed
for religious debate" confrontation" and resistance% A failure to recogni?e the monotheistic
imlications and boundary mar+ers inherent #ithin this confession that 4esus is 9ord #ill
roduce and in many laces has roducedE disastrous conse!uences in subse!uent generations
#ithin the Christian community% Among other things" #e #ill beJare no longer a city set uon a
hill" a light to the nations" a +ingdom of riests rather #e #illJha$e become a eole li$ing in the
lains of ;odom and 0omorrah% Soli ,eo !loria%
// Cor% /=:@% -e could highlight the #or+ of the Trinity from other ;critures as the 2oly ;irit regenerates
bli f ith i f i th t 4 i 9 d i th h th F th h ll d t 2i lf