Title:  Audiation,  Improvisation,  and  Music  Learning  Theory    Author(s):  Christopher  Azzara    Source:  Azzara,  C.  (1991,  Spring  &  Summer).  Audiation,  improvisation,  and  music  learning  theory.  The  Quarterly,  2(1-­‐2),  pp.  106-­‐109.  (Reprinted  with  permission  in  Visions  of  Research  in  Music  Education,  16(2),  Autumn,  2010).  Retrieved  from  http://www-­usr.rider.edu/~vrme  

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Audiation, Improvisation, andMusic Learning Theory

By Christopher AzzaraEastman School of Music of the University of Rochester

Edwin Gordon's music learning theoryis an excellent model for understand-ing learning. While similar in some

respects to other theories of music learning,it is not an application of other theories.Rather, it is an attempt to answer the ques-tion, "How do individuals learn music?" Theanswers to this question should provide thefoundation for music education. The con-cept of audiation is at the heart of Gordon'smusic learning theory.

Audiation is to music what thought is tolanguage. 1 In order to master a language,one must be able to think in that language.Likewise, in order to understand music, onemust audiate music. Audiation takes placewhen one comprehends music for which thesound is not physically present. It is impor-tant to distinguish between audiation andimitation. To audiate is to think for oneself;imitation is quickly forgotten. Musicianshipis fundamentally based on audiation. Whenwe audiate, we give meaning to music thatwe read, write, create, and improvise. Weaudiate music we have heard, as well asmusic we are predicting. Audiation is notdichotomous; it is a matter of degree, notkind. The better one audiates, the more oneis able to understand.

You are what you hear. One of theessential elements of music learning theory isthe audiation of tonal and rhythm patterns.We learn music similarly to how we learnlanguage. Language has syntax. In lan-guage, we comprehend by organizing words.Music has syntax. We comprehend musicwhen we audiate tonal and rhythm patternsand are able to combine and sequence themin a larger context. For example, one mayinternalize a sense of tonality and meter. Toaudiate is to understand, and the greaterone's understanding, the greater is the

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potential to appreciate music.We learn to audiate so that we can audiate

to learn. With musical understanding,individuals can:

1) listen intelligently to music:2) develop aesthetic sensitivity and appreciationthrough listening, improvisation, and perform-ance;3) develop the ability to communicate ideas,feelings, and emotions through improvisation,

"The word "improvisation"has been used as a catchword in music education.A refined definition, however,brings focus and a clearerunderstanding of this activ-ity: Improvisation meansthat an individual has inter-nalized (can audiate) a musicvocabulary and is able toexpress intended musicalideas spontaneously."

composition, and performance; and4) listen to and participate in musical perform-ances on varying levels of understandingcommensurate with individual aptitude,achievement, and interest.

What is Basic to Music Education?When specifying what is basic to music

education, it is necessary to distinguishbetween musical behaviors and music-relatedbehaviors. A musical behavior involvesunderstanding based on audiation, Music-related behaviors can be described by

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activities such as identifying clefs or keysignatures and knowing the time values ofnotes. Music educators should research,design, and incorporate curricula, methods,and teaching techniques relevant to bothbehaviors, but emphasis should be placed onteaching the content and audiation skillsrelevant to musical behaviors. Consider thehigh school graduate who can recognize atreble clef sign, tell you the names of thelines and spaces on the staff, and the timevalues of each of the notes. He reads on thetitle page that the piece was written by J S.Bach, and he knows that Bach was a prolificBaroque composer. When asked to sing oraudiate the music, however, he cannot. Thisindividual cannot give meaning to thenotation. Although not unimportant, music-related behaviors are not necessary toengage in a musical behavior; they are onlynecessary to talk about music.

Individual Differences and theLearning Process

Gordon's music learning theory is aparadigm that is the result of creative re-search and critical thinking, and it providesdirection and definition to educators andresearchers. Iusic learning theory is not onemethod of teaching music. Rather, it is theoutline of logical, fundamental principles forunderstanding music learning. Because ofthe open-ended nature of the paradigm, itlays the groundwork for a myriad of teachingand learning settings.

Music instructors at all levels should havean understanding of the music learningprocess. Individuals bring their uniqueperspective to any situation; one's worldview is influenced by one's specific lifehistory. Understanding teachers and studentsin these terms is critical when consideringany educational or research endeavor. Goodteaching is not synonymous with exposure.Sadly, much of what is called teaching issimply exposure, and students are left tolearn on their own. The teacher's rolebecomes that of a disciplinarian. Yet, withan understanding of method, teachers knowwhat to teach, when to teach it, and why it istaught. Techniques demonstrate how toteach. When teachers apply techniquesbased on method, they can improve instruc-

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tion and are able to teach to the differencesof individual students.

Gordon's music learning theory is a modelfor method, and method based on this theorysuggests techniques for learning sequenceactivities and classroom activities. Musiclearning theory supplies a hierarchy ofsequential objectives so that students canacquire a music vocabulary for understand-ing music. Skill learning sequence andcontent learning sequence are the funda-mental dimensions of music learning theory.

The skill learning sequence includes levelsof discrimination and inference learning andtheir respective parts. In music learningtheory, both rote and conceptual learning areemphasized. Discrimination learning is rotelearning, and the student develops a vocabu-lary of familiar tonal and rhythmic patterns.During discrimination learning, the teachergives the answers and teaches students tomake comparisons. Perception is notlearning; discrimination is learning. We learnwhat things are by what they are not. Whenwe teach minor, students learn more aboutthe nature of major. When we teach triple,students know more about the nature ofduple. If everything is the same, there canbe no inferences. Inference learning isconceptual learning, and students givemeaning to unfamiliar tonal and rhythmpatterns based on the familiar patterns whichthey learned by rote in discriminationlearning. During inference learning, studentsteach themselves; teachers provide guidance.

Just as skill learning moves sequentially,Gordon's content learning sequence providesan orderly outlirie for tonal and rhythmcontent. Music skill and content are notmutually exclusive. Gordon (1989) states:"Skills cannot be learned unless they aretaught in conjunction with tonal content orrhythm content, and tonal content andrhythm content cannot be learned unlessthey are taught in conjunction with a skill"Cpp. 33-34).

Measurement and EvaluationIdentifying musical behaviors defined by

audiation and teaching to individual differ-ences with the aid of objective measurementtools are two critical components for exem-plary teaching. The primary purpose for

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measurement and evaluation is to improveinstruction and to teach to individual differ-ences (Grunow & Gordon, 1989). Yetmeasurement and evaluation have been thesubjects of much concern and criticism.Controversy exists over the application ofand need for measurement and evaluation inmusic education. A lack of understanding bymusic educators has been the cause of muchconfusion and debate when designingcurriculum and evaluating teaching effective-ness. Test interpretation should not be usedto categorize students or as proof of good orbad teaching. Test scores should, however,be recognized as samples of behavior undercertain conditions at certain times. As such,they provide objective scores upon whichone can evaluate and help improve instruc-tion and learning.

An understanding of musical aptitude andmusic achievement and their implications isessential to any discussion of teaching toindividual differences. Confusion existsconcerning the difference between aptitudeand achievement. Many vague terms,including "talent" and "ability," also havebeen used in attempts to describe musician-ship, resulting in more confusion. Aptitudeis defined as the measure of one's potentialto learn, while achievement is what hasactually been learned. An individual whodemonstrates high achievement must displayat least equally high aptitude, while anindividual who possesses high aptitude willnot necessarily demonstrate high achieve-ment (Gordon, 1989). The value of testing isto improve teaching and learning experi-ences. Music aptitude is one's potential toaudiate: Everyone has music aptitude, andsome students have the potential to achievein music more than in other subjects(Grunow & Gordon, 1989).

Just as techniques should be understood interms of method, music achievement shouldbe understood in terms of music aptitude.Measuring music achievement is the assess-ment of what a student has accomplished. Itincludes peliormance ability, aural skills,aural-visual skills, general musical knowl,ed.ge, knowledge of music notation, compo-sition skills, and improvisation skills.

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Creativity and ImprovisationSince the mid-fifteenth century when the

printing of music began, an ever-increasingemphasis has been placed on notation. Yetit is important to remember that notation isvisual documentation for an aural art. Just asit is possible to read and understand thephrases on this page, it is possible to readand audiate notation. When performanceincludes audiation, meaningful expressiontakes place: Students give meaning tonotation. Knowing how to create andimprovise music is not a necessary readinessfor reading music with meaning. Neverthe-less, when students have the audiation skillsnecessary to improvise, the relationshipbetween composition and performance is putinto its proper perspective.

The word "improvisation" has been usedas a catch word to describe a variety of ac-tivities ranging from aleatoric exploration tounrestricted creativity. While creativity andimprovisation are similar, there are importantdifferences. Creativity involves less restric-tions than improvisation. While improvisa-tion is a creative activity, it is important tospecify precisely what is meant by the word"improvisation." A refined definition bringsfocus to activities and allows for a clearerunderstanding of improvisation's role inmusical education.

Improvisation means that an individual hasinternalized (can audiate) a music vocabularyand is able to express intended musical ideasspontaneously. Students accrue an "audia-tion dictionary" from which to draw whenengaging in improvisatory endeavors.Gordon states that without an ample amountof tonal and rhythm patterns in varioustonalities and meters, students will onlyengage in aleatoric exploration. Audiation ofvarious patterns crystallizes the differencebetween having to create something andhaving something to create (Gordon, 1989),

Improvisation is not exclusive to jazz;opportunities to improvise in various settingsshould be provided. Individuals improvisedaily in language when engaging in conver-

sation. Yet, with the exception of someexperiences in general music classes andvarious jazz ensembles, many students arenever given the opportunity and encouraoe-

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ment necessary to improvise music withsyntactical meaning. Developing improvisa-tion skills involving audiation yields improvi-sation that is as natural and interactive asstimulating conversation.

Many of today's audience members arepassive listeners. Many concert-goers attendmore to the visual and acoustic aspects of aperformance than to the aural/musicalaspects. Music in many people's lives issynonymous with ambience and entertain-ment. One of our goals as music educatorsshould be to facilitate the development ofindependent music makers and activelisteners. Aural understanding-audiation-and improvisatory experiences are at the rootof accomplishing this goal.

Future Needs and ImplicationsJust as each culture has its language, each

culture also has its music. Music class is theplace to learn the understanding of music,just as English class is a place to understandEnglish. If all students have some aptitudefor music and many students, indeed, havethe capacity to succeed in music more thanin any other subject area, then all studentsshould be provided with opportunities todevelop the music knowledge and skills

necessary to optimize music understanding.While technology and media continually

change, audiation and the ability to createand improvise remain fundamental. Futureresearch should involve an examination ofthe role and definition of improvisation andcreativity in music education.

An increased awareness of musical behav-iors, the learning sequence process, methodand related techniques, achievement in termsof aptitude, and the use of measurement andevaluation tools provides the practicalfoundation for good music instruction. De-veloping musicianship in terms of audiationprovides for more meaningful performancesand musically intelligent audiences. Music isa vital part of life; music educators have theopportunity to enhance the experience.

Footnote1. Statements in italics are published and

unpublished quotes of Edwin Gordon.

ReferencesGordon, E. E. (1989). Learning sequences in

music (Sth ed.). Chicago: G. 1.A. Publica-tions, Inc.

Grunow, Richard F. & Gordon, Edwin E. (1989)Jump right in: 17.1einstrumental series.Chicago: G. 1.A. Publications, Inc.

~(ljJ~~@U~[j'j] of the Council for Research in Music EducationTable of Contents, NO.1 08, Spring 1991

ArticlesProactive versus Reactive Teaching: Focusing Observation on Specific Aspects of Instruction

--Robert A. Duke and Clifford K. MadsenDetermination of Location of Pitch within a Musical Vibrato

--Steven F. BrownTeacher Effectiveness Research: A Review and Comparison

--Joe W. Grant and Lynn E. DrafallComparisons of Attitudinal Assessments in Middle and Junior High School General Music

--Jacquelyn BoswellMusic in Nigerian Education

=Richard C. OkaforDissertation ReviewsAnalytical and Aesthetic Concepts in the Work of Leonard B. Meyer--Helen Naomi Cummings

--Reviewed by Joy E. LawrenceRecruitment and Retention of Hispanic Students in Selected Successful School String Programs--Jeanette Eastwood Ensley--Reviewed by Lemuel Berry, Jr.Reviving a Lost Art: Piano Music of Russian-Jewish Origin--David Marc Posner--Reviewed byWesley RobertsApplications and Adaptations of Orff-Schulwerk in Japan, Taiwan, and Thailand--Mary ElizabethShamrock--Reviewed by Patricia Shehan Campbell

For subscription information, contact: Council for Research in Music Education, School ofMusic, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1114 West Nevada Street, Urbana, IL 61801.

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