title effects of green manure and compost of pea...

Title Effects of Green Manure and Compost Of Pea Plant on Wheat( 本文(Fulltext) )

Author(s) ZAI, A. K. Eusuf; HORIUCHI, T.; MATSUI, T.

Citation [Compost Science & Utilization] vol.[16] no.[4] p.[275]-[284]

Issue Date 2008

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URL http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12099/32671

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Compost Science & Utilization Autumn 2008 275

Introduction

Use of chemical fertilizers has been increasedworldwide for cereals including wheat production(Abril et al. 2007) due to availability of inexpensivefertilizers (Graham and Vance 2000), which causeshealth and environmental hazards (Pimentel 1996).Possible options to reduce chemical fertilizer use maybe adoption of leguminous crop in wheat based crop-ping system and recycling of organic wastes. Rotationof legumes in cereal based cropping systems reducesdependence on chemical fertilizer (Patil et al. 2001)and improves soil conditions (Rochester et al. 2001).Use of organic wastes in agriculture is well knownbut the idea is not widely accepted due to some limi-tations. For example, researchers advise farmers touse Sesbania as green manure (GM) in cereal basedcropping systems but farmers do not respond sponta-neously in developing countries due to “no direct fi-nancial return”. Moreover, soybean and mungbeancould be alternatives but oil extraction from soybeanand decomposition of hard plant materials is difficult.There should be one crop in the cropping systemwhich can give direct income plus scope to recycleplant nutrients for cereals.

Additionally, recycling of indigenous agriculturalwastes should be in proper way i.e. wastes could berecycled as GM or composted to achieve highest nu-trient recovery. Between the two, compost would bebetter than GM because, compost handling is less dan-gerous than raw material handling in terms of ammo-nia volatilization and leaching of N and P (Arja andMaritta 1997). Moreover, compost reduces plant dam-age by insect pests (Arkhipchenko et al. 2005).

Effective use of organic waste is an important is-sue in developing countries. The poultry industry isnow booming in developing countries discharginghuge amounts of poultry manure, thereby pollutingthe environment (Sharpe et al. 2004). The manure con-tains important nutrients such as N, P, K, organic mat-ter, Ca, Mg, etc. (Abdelhamid et al. 2004). Rapeseedproduction has been increasing worldwide (Zaller etal. 2008) and its residue contains the above nutrients atmuch higher concentration than chicken manure (Ab-delhamid et al. 2004). Use of such organic materials inagriculture may contribute to preserve the environ-ment as well as improve farmland.

Wheat is cultivated in many countries as staplefood but adoption of legume crops in cereal based crop-ping systems is not popular in developing countries. If

Compost Science & Utilization, (2008), Vol. 16, No. 4, 275-284

Effects of Green Manure and CompostOf Pea Plant on Wheat

A. K. Eusuf Zai, T. Horiuchi and T. MatsuiUnited Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan

Cereal based cropping systems have been established for food security in many countries where farmers useplenty of chemical fertilizers, but adoption of leguminous crop in the system is not popular. Excessive use offertilizers is responsible for health and environmental hazards. Adoption of legume in cereal based croppingsystems and improvement of organic fertilizer are needed to reduce chemical fertilizer use. Pot experimentsin the greenhouse were carried out with green manure (GM) and compost of green pea (Pisum sativum L.)plant residue (PP) with dried chicken manure (CM) and/or rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) oil residue (RR) atGifu University, Japan during 2004-2007. The goal of the experiments was to assess: the effectiveness of GMand compost on growth and yield of wheat and ii) the efficiency of GM and compost to supply nutrients. Af-ter pod harvest, PP was mixed with CM or RR or half of CM plus half of RR, or nothing was mixed with PPfor making GM and compost for wheat. Results of two pea-wheat cycles revealed that composts of PP withCM and CM plus RR were enriched by higher microbial activity; maintained the activity at a higher rate inthe soil and supplied sufficient nutrients to wheat. As a result, wheat harvested higher amount of N P K withefficient recovery rate, which improved yield components and yield. Apparent nutrient recovery efficienciesof the composts could save fertilizer use and environment. Although higher value was found from compostthan GM of similar organic materials, but among the GM treatments, PP with CM plus RR also gave higheryield. Moreover, instead of having enough nutrients, RR can not supply nutrients satisfactorily due to delayrelease but CM itself is efficient and stimulates RR to release nutrients. Therefore, pea compost with CM orCM plus RR is recommended for wheat.

A.K. Eusuf Zai, T. Horiuchi and T. Matsui

276 Compost Science & Utilization Autumn 2008

farmers do not have profitable leguminous crops to cul-tivate in cereal dominated systems, then they prefer tokeep their lands fallow without cultivating legume.Some farmers of Indo-Gangetic plains cultivate pea inhomestead gardens and get financial benefit from it butthey burn the residue. Burning of residue reduces N P Kand S by up to 80% (Raison 1979), 25%, 21% (Ponnam-peruma 1984) and 4-60% (Lefroy et al. 1994), respective-ly, which could be recycled in the system. Burning alsocauses atmospheric pollution (Samar et al. 1999) andharms beneficial soil organisms (Kumar and Goh 2002).If pea is incorporated before wheat and nutrient sup-plying ability of pea residue is improved, then it mightbe accepted by the farmers as one option to increasetheir income and save chemical fertilizer, respectively.

Assessment of nutrient supplying ability of pea asGM and compost could be helpful to select better waysof nutrient cycling. Thus, the present investigation hasbeen initiated to evaluate the effectiveness of GM andcompost of pea residue with CM and/or RR on growthand yield of wheat, and to supply nutrients.

Materials and Methods

Cultivation of Pea for Materials of Green Manuring and Composting

Pea (cv. Akabana Tsuruari Kinusaya Endo) wasgrown on Wagner 1/2000a pot (0.05 m2 area) having airdried and sieved Brown-low-land sandy loam soil. Thesoil was enriched with a commercial compost (N=4%,P=3% and K=2%) by applying at the rate of 20 g pot-1.Pea seeds were sown on last week of November 2004(for 1st cycle) and 2005 (for 2nd cycle), targeting to usethe plant residue (after pod harvest) as materials forgreen manuring and composting to grow wheat of pea-green manuring and composting-wheat cycles. Pea wasgrown in a green house of Faculty of Applied Biologi-cal Science, Gifu University, Japan. Five seeds weresown and after emergence 3 good seedlings were keptin each pot. Irrigation was done several times with tapwater. The soil was collected from the Nagara Rivernear Gifu University and average data of characteristicsof the soil after pea cultivation (both) are shown inTable 1. Due to severe cold in both years, flowering was

late and started from 2nd week of March whilst podswere harvested on mid to last week of April (2005 from1st pea and 2006 from 2nd pea) from all 3 plants of everypot. Average 10 pods were harvested from every plant,which was 4.5 g each with small and immature seeds.

Approximately 0.4 g N was fixed by pea plants ineach pot (Rochester et al. 2001), which was estimatedby subtracting the removed N (by pea plants) from re-ceived N by each pot (through soil and commercialcompost) which was compared with the remaining Nat the end of pea cultivation. Pea of the second cyclewas grown on the fresh soil of same source, not on thesoil where wheat of first cycle was grown. Properties ofgreen pea plant residue (PP), CM and RR are shown inTable 2.

Green Manuring for Wheat with Pea Plant Residue

After young pod harvest, PP was cut into 3-5 cmpieces, weighed and put in pots (Wagner 1/2000a)having 12 kg soil with optimum moisture, where peawas grown. One hundred fifty gram PP was kept in allpots other than control and 30 g CM or 30 g RR or 15 gCM plus 15 g RR were mixed with it or nothing wasmixed with PP. There were 5 treatments to measure theeffect of GM on wheat, which were replicated 4 times(Table 3). Among the treatments, organic materials

TABLE 1.Physical and chemical properties of soil after cultivation of pea but before addition of compost and green manure as well

as before wheat sowing (average of two cycles).

Sand Silt Clay pH Total N Total C P K Ca Mg Na

(%) PDa (H2O) ECb (g kg-1) C/N (mg kg-1)

52.4 30.3 17.3 2.52 6.41 0.26 1.3 8.8 6.77 82.7 130 900 224 38

aParticle density (g cm-3), bElectrical conductivity (mS cm-1)

TABLE 2.Properties of green pea plant residue (PP), dried chicken

manure (CM) and rapeseed oil residue (RR), which were measured on dry weight basis (pooled data).

Characteristic PP CM RR

pH (H2O) 7.81 6.30 5.65

EC (mS cm-1) 5.90 6.22 3.27

TN (g kg -1) 25.30 42.70 66.60

TC (g kg-1) 395.50 372.90 428.50

C/N 15.63 8.73 6.43

P (g kg -1) 2.87 4.53 19.90

K (g kg -1) 20.61 20.66 18.67

Ca (g kg -1) 10.50 0.25 1.04

Mg (g kg -1) 3.00 0.23 0.33

Na (g kg -1) 0.33 0.50 0.48

Volatile solid (%) 87.40 84.60 76.40

were mixed with 4 treatments, on the other hand, noth-ing was mixed with soil of another one (control).Chicken manure was collected from Oku Mikawachicken farm, near Gifu, Japan and RR was collectedfrom local market. One hundred fifty gram PP means 3plants of every pot (i.e. PP of 1 ha can supply approxi-mately 230 kg N on dry weight basis) were mixed ineach pot directly as GM, thus farmers can use all PP intheir total field. If 150 g PP is mixed in each pot, theo-retically it can supply about 27 kg P ha-1, not sufficientfor wheat if fixed P is not released and available by anymeans, so, CM and RR were mixed with PP. After de-composition of organic materials, soil condition im-proves and naturally soil contributes good amount ofnutrients to plant. Compost of rice straw + RR + CM(4:3:3) at the rate of 10 t ha-1 was the best for faba bean(Vicia faba L.) in the same soil we used (Abdelhamid etal. 2004). Green manuring materials were allowed todecompose until maturation of compost, because samecombinations of organic materials were allowed to de-compose as compost simultaneously with green ma-nuring. Wheat was grown on GM enriched soil togeth-er with compost treated soil.

Composting for Wheat with Pea Plant Residue

After pod harvest, similar amounts of PP, CM andRR were mixed exactly like green manuring but theonly exception is there was no soil during decomposi-tion. Organic materials were put into pots (Wagner1/2000a) without soil, mixed and covered with lid butnot airtight. Moisture content was kept 60% throughoutthe decomposition period by frequent checking through

Hydrosence (Sweden) moisture meter (Liang et al.2003). Composting materials were turned at a fortnightinterval. The period for complete decomposition wasabout 100 days. After maturation, composts weremixed with pot soils (where pea was grown) 3 weeksbefore wheat sowing. There were also 5 treatments and4 replications. Four treatments received mature com-posts but another treatment received nothing other thannative nutrients with soil, which was control (Table 3).

Microbial Enumeration

Microbial activity was measured by microbialnumber, which was done by spread plate countingmethod. Small amounts of soil with organic materi-als were collected several times from GM pots andonce from rhizospheres of wheat plants (both GMand compost), and small quantity of decomposingorganic materials were also collected from composttreatments. After making dilution series, 10-3 dilu-tion level was used for fungi but for bacteria andactinomycetes it was 10-6. One hundred µl solutionswere spread over petri dish having media (Rose Ben-gal agar medium for fungi, Tryptic Soy agar mediumfor bacteria and water agar medium for actino-mycetes). Incubation duration was 2-3 days for fungiat 25°C and 5-7 days for bacteria and actinomycetesat 28°C. After incubation, isolated colonies werecounted by visual observation. Microbes were enu-merated several times during decomposition (aver-age data are shown), on the other hand, they werecounted once at maturity of compost (GM as well)and once at tillering stage of wheat (both cycles).

Effects of Green Manure and Compost of Pea Plant on Wheat


TABLE 3.Treatment combinations for wheat cultivation with green manure and compost compiled by green pea plant residue (PP),

dried chicken manure (CM) and rapeseed oil residue (RR). Gross total amount of nutrient (N or P or K), which was applied to each treatment (TNta) through soil, PP, CM and/or RR before wheat cultivation (pooled data).

TNtaa (g pot-1)Treatments Abbreviation N P K

Green manuring

150 g PP TG1 14.18 0.96 2.26

150 g PP + 30 g CM TG2 15.46 1.10 2.88

150 g PP + 30 g RR TG3 16.18 1.56 2.82

150 g PP + 15 g CM + 15 g RR TG4 15.82 1.33 2.85

Control (native nutrients only) TG0 13.00 0.83 1.30

Composting

150 g PP TC1 14.18 0.96 2.26

150 g PP + 30 g CM TC2 15.46 1.10 2.88

150 g PP + 30 g RR TC3 16.18 1.56 2.82

150 g PP + 15 g CM + 15 g RR TC4 15.82 1.33 2.85

Control (native nutrients only) TC0 13.00 0.83 1.30aTNta was measured as the oven-dry weight of soil and organic materials (PP, CM and RR), and concentration of the nutrient element in soil and the organicmaterials.



Cultivation of Wheat on GM and Compost Treated Soil

Winter wheat (Triticum aestivum var. Norin 61)was sown during 1st week of November (2005 for 1st

and 2006 for 2nd cycle) in pots having 12 kg soil, wherepea was grown but the soil was enriched with GM andcompost. Wheat was grown in the same green houseof pea. Five seeds were sown and after emergencethree good seedlings were kept in each pot. For mea-suring nutrient content of shoot and shoot dry matter(SDM) at vegetative stage, one plant from each potwas cut at ground level at tillering stage (TS) and twoplants were kept in every pot for grains. Plant heightwas measured from the standing crop at prefloweringstage. After harvest, grains were air dried andweighed to determine the yield but grain, straw andhusk were oven dried at 70°C for 3 days up to a con-stant weight to measure straw weight and nutrientharvest by wheat plant. Total above ground dry mat-ter (TDM) is the cumulative weight of straw, grain andhusk. The pots were kept weed free and wheat was ir-rigated by tap water. There was no infestation of pestand disease. Grains were harvested on 28 May 2006(1st cycle) and 15 May 2007 (2nd cycle) from 2 hills pot-

1 of both GM and compost treatments. Total crudeprotein of grain (TCP %) was calculated as total N%x6.25. Statistical calculations were carried out usingstatistical techniques appropriate for completely ran-domized design. All data of two cycles were pooledand analyzed by analysis of variance and the treat-ment means were compared at 1% level of significanceusing Duncan’s Multiple Range test (Abdelhamid etal. 2004). Although effects of GM and compost wereevaluated separately on the basis of common parame-ters but results of considered parameters are present-ed in similar table and figure.

Chemical and Physical Analyses

Soil, organic materials and plant organs (shoot,straw, grain and husk) were air dried first and thenoven dried at 70°C for 72 hours, and ground to pass 0.5mm sieve for chemical analysis. Electrical conductivi-ty (EC) and pH were measured in the aqueous extractsof PP, CM and RR in a solid:distilled water of 1:20(w/v dry weight basis). EC and pH of soil were mea-sured in 1:4 mixture of soil and distilled water. EC wasdetermined by using a conductivity meter (CM-25R)and pH using a HORIBA (F-14) pH meter. Total N andC were measured using a CN analyzer, SumigraphNC-95A of Shimadzu Corporation, Japan. The ex-changeable cations (K+, Ca+2, Mg+2 and Na+) weremeasured using a Polarized Zeeman Atomic Absorp-tion Spectrophotometer (HITACHI 180-60) after ex-

traction in 1 M ammonium acetate (pH 7.0). Phos-phate was determined colorimetrically (HITACHI U-1000) according to Bray and Kurtz (1945). Specificgravity of soil was determined by pycnometer.Volatile solid was measured as the gravimetric loss-on-ignition produced by ashing the samples (previ-ously oven dried) in a muffle furnace for 6 h at 600°C.

Nutrient Harvest

Amount of harvested nutrient was calculated asthe dry matter of the above ground plant organ (shoot,straw, grain and husk) and concentration of the nutri-ent element in the organ. Harvested nutrient (N P K)was measured from their concentration in shoot andweight of shoot at tillering stage (TS). On the otherhand, cumulative nutrient harvest by straw, grain andhusk was used as total harvest by wheat plant at har-vesting stage (HS).

Equations for Measuring Nutrient Use and Recovery Efficiency

Nutrient use efficiency for dry matter production =(dmt–dmc)/TNta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1

dmt = dry matter of fertilized treatment

dmc = dry matter of control

TNta = gross total amount of nutrient (N or P or K), ap-plied to each treatment (Table 3)

Nutrient use efficiency for grain production =(gyt–gyc)/TNta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2

gyt = grain yield of fertilized treatment

gyc = grain yield of control

Apparent nutrient (N or P or K) recovery efficien-cy (ANtRE) of wheat plant, which also indicates the ef-ficiency of the treatment, was measured by the formu-la of Hirzel et al. (2007) with some modifications,because they measured ANtRE of the supplied nutri-ents other than soil. Plants uptake nutrients from bothsoil and supplied nutrients, where GM and compostincrease the efficiency of soil. For these reasons, wemeasured the efficiency of the combination of organicwastes with soil.

ANtRE (%) = {(Ntht–Nthc)100}/(TNta–Ntrt) . . . . . . (3

Ntht = nutrient harvest by the GM or compost treatedplant

Nthc = nutrient harvest by control plant

Ntrt = nutrient removed by wheat plant at TS

For measuring ANtRE at HS, the above equationwas used, on the other hand, at TS, Ntrt was not de-ducted. Gross total amount of nutrient, which was ap-plied (through soil and other source materials of GMand compost) to each treatment (TNta) before wheatsowing, was measured as the oven-dry weight of soiland other source materials, and concentration of theelement (Table 3). Three plants were grown in eachpot, so, TNta was divided by 3 to make it hill-1 basis.

Results and Discussion

Nitrogen Dynamics

Nitrogen content of plant tissue, N harvest byabove ground organs, N use and recovery efficienciesof wheat are presented in Table 4 and 5. Among theGM treatments at TS, significantly higher N concentra-tions were monitored in the treatments where only CM(TG2) and both CM plus RR were mixed with PP (TG4)than all. Plants grown with only RR enriched GM of PP(TG3) should accumulate higher quantity of N than allGM treated plants, because RR contains higher N thanCM, but practically it did not happen might be due toRR (Table 2 to 4). Mobility of N in the physiological sys-tem might be slow when plants receive N from RR,thus leftover N in straw was significantly higher (i.e.comparatively lower TCP than TG2 and TG4) in TG3.On the other hand, among the GM treatments, TCPwas significantly higher when PP received supplemen-tation with CM either in presence (TG4) or absence(TG2) of RR. Although wheat plants accumulated ap-

parently required N from all GM treated soil at TS butall treatments were not able to supply sufficient Nthroughout the whole life cycle. Only TG4 was excep-tional in this respect and plants harvested significantlygreater N from it at HS than other GM treatments, andit required smaller amount of N for grain yield thanTG2 and TG3. Among the green manures, TG4 andTG2 showed significantly higher N use efficiencies forTDM and grain yield (Table 5). Similarly, in terms of



TABLE 4.Effects of green manure and compost on N concentration (NC) of shoot and straw,

total crude protein of wheat grain (TCP), N harvest by wheat plant at tillering stage (TS) and harvesting stage (HS), and required amount of N in mg (NR) for wheat plant to produce each gram

of total above ground dry matter (TDM: straw + grain + husk) and grain (pooled data of two cycles).

NC (%) N harvest (g hill-1) NRTreatments Shoot at TS Straw TCP (%) TS HS TDM Grain

Green manure

TG1 2.49c 0.63d 16.62c 0.27a 0.70d 14.95b 35.78d

TG2 2.74a 0.81b 18.52a 0.29a 0.97b 17.00a 40.60b

TG3 2.67b 0.97a 17.82b 0.28a 0.82c 16.86a 42.11a

TG4 2.74a 0.73c 18.54a 0.28a 1.03a 17.05a 39.67c

TG0 1.78d 0.28e 11.74d 0.06b 0.27e 10.34c 24.83e

Compost

TC1 2.70b 0.52c 18.12c 0.30b 0.88b 15.18c 37.32b

TC2 2.88a 0.54c 18.79a 0.31b 1.20a 15.90b 38.22ab

TC3 2.68b 0.70a 18.19b 0.32b 0.96b 16.18a 39.36a

TC4 2.89a 0.57b 18.77a 0.38a 1.25a 16.32a 38.85a

TC0 1.79c 0.27d 11.80d 0.06c 0.26c 10.18d 24.16c

Green manures and composts were evaluated separately and values followed by the same letter within a column of same group (green manure or compost)are not statistically different according to Duncan’s test at P<0.01.

TABLE 5.Effects of green manure and compost on N use efficiency

(NUE) of wheat plant for shoot dry matter (SDM) at tillering stage (TS), total above ground dry matter

(TDM: straw + grain + husk) and grain yield, and apparent N recovery efficiency (ANRE) of wheat plant at TS and

harvesting stage (HS)-pooled data of two cycles.

NUE For ANRE (%)Treatments SDM TDM Grain TS HS

Green manure

TG1 1.58a 4.47b 1.87b 4.44 9.27c

TG2 1.40b 6.11a 2.57a 4.46 13.84a

TG3 1.32b 4.25b 1.62b 4.08 10.38b

TG4 1.30b 6.63a 2.91a 4.17 14.67a

Compost

TC1 1.64ab 7.00b 2.77b 5.08b 13.40b

TC2 1.44b 9.89a 4.09a 4.85b 18.61a

TC3 1.59b 6.39b 2.58b 4.82b 13.24b

TC4 1.86a 9.92a 4.16a 6.07a 19.23a

Green manures and composts were evaluated separately and valuesfollowed by the same letter within a column of same group (green manureor compost) are not statistically different according to Duncan’s test atP<0.01.



apparent N recovery efficiency (ANRE) of wheat, TG2and TG4 showed significantly higher efficiencies at HSdue to CM (Hirzel et al. 2007). Otherwise, TG3 shouldshow similar or higher efficiency. Higher microbial ac-tivity, especially bacterial activity in presence of CM,also might be responsible for the efficiency (Table 8).

Wheat plants also harvested significantly higheramount of N from composts of PP with CM (TC2) andboth CM plus RR (TC4), and used them properly toachieve higher TCP than rest composts (Table 4). Al-though having less N in the source materials, TC2 andTC4 performed well might be due to CM, appropriatedecomposition of composting materials and mineral-ization of N by higher microbial activity (Table 8).Jeyabal and Kuppuswamy (2001) found higher yielddue to higher mineralization and nutrient uptake byenhanced microbial population in rice-legume crop-ping system. Nitrogen contents of TC2 and TC4 com-posts were also increased due to N fixing bacteria(Wong et al. 2001). Moreover, mineralization rate is thegreatest in poultry litter than others (Bowden et al.2007) and the readily available N (ammonium-N+uricacid-N) in poultry manure can supply 30-50% of thetotal N to plants (Nicholson et al. 1996). Plants grownwith TC2 and TC4 composts harvested sufficient N tomeet higher yield demand; as a result they requiredhigher N for each unit of grain production. On the oth-er hand, in scarcity, plants try to use N rationally; thuscontrol plants required significantly smaller amountof N than all for each unit of TDM and grain produc-tion. ANRE and N use efficiency of TC4 and TC2 werehigher (exception; TC2 at TS), because of less leaching(sedimentation at the bottom of pot) from CM (Hirzel

et al. 2007). Higher the N in fertilizer source, higher theN harvest by plant (Oscarson 2000), was not true inour experiment due to RR. Zmora-Nahum et al. (2007)observed that plants grown on oilcake exhibited lowfresh weight due to unique chemical composition ofthe oilcake, which slows its degradation and nutrientrelease. On the other hand, CM itself is efficient andmitigates slow releasing character of RR, as a result,TG4 and TC4 performed well. Numerous microbes inCM supplemented treatments also prevent loss by im-mobilizing the unused N (Sturite et al. 2007).

Although RR contains higher nutrients, it can notperform well for the first crop but it could contributefor the next crop as slow releasing fertilizer. Resultsshow that pea based organic fertilizer supplied suffi-cient N for wheat but there is a question whether thisfertilizer can contribute to minimize chemical fertilizeruse or not. According to Fortuna et al. (2003) compostis even better than inorganic N fertilizer for N uptakeby plant due to decreased NO

3leaching. So, composts

of PP with CM and CM plus RR could be effective forN supply to subsequent wheat.

Phosphorus and Potassium Dynamics

Phosphorus level in plant tissue should be higherin the treatment having higher amount of RR, becauseit contains higher amount of P than CM (Table 2).Phosphorus harvest from RR treated GM (TG3) wasnot superior but even inferior to TG2 and TG4 (Table 6). Mobility of accumulated P from TG3 mightbe less as a result TG3 required significantly higheramount of P for each unit of grain production and it

TABLE 6.Effects of green manure and compost on P harvest (PH) by wheat, required amount of P (mg) for each gram of grain yield

(PR), P use efficiency for grain yield (PUE), apparent P recovery efficiency (APRE) of wheat, K harvest (KH) by wheat,required amount of K (mg) for each gram of grain yield (KR), K use efficiency for grain yield (KUE), and apparent K

recovery efficiency (AKRE) of wheat plant (pooled data of two cycles).

PH APRE KH AKRETreatments (mg hill-1) PR PUE (%) (mg hill-1) KR KUE (%)

Green manure

TG1 12.89c 0.66b 27.28c 1.81b 367b 18.76b 12.00c 24.44b

TG2 15.99a 0.67b 35.79a 2.44a 447a 18.70b 13.96b 27.55a

TG3 14.37b 0.74a 16.61d 1.40c 392b 20.13a 9.41d 22.10c

TG4 15.79a 0.61b 32.24b 1.96b 440a 16.95d 16.33a 27.05a

TG0 7.13d 0.66b - - 190c 17.48c - -

Compost

TC1 17.12b 0.73a 40.29c 3.18b 536b 22.73a 17.80c 48.74c

TC2 20.86a 0.66ab 56.44a 3.81a 705a 22.45a 22.29b 56.17b

TC3 17.13b 0.70ab 26.35d 1.96c 531b 21.77b 15.04d 38.18d

TC4 21.36a 0.66ab 48.65b 3.27ab 736a 22.88a 23.52a 60.54a

TC0 6.99c 0.65b - - 185c 17.19c - -

All were measured at harvesting stage. Green manures and composts were evaluated separately and values followed by the same letter within a column ofsame group (green manure or compost) are not statistically different according to Duncan’s test at P<0.01.



showed inferior P use efficiency for grain yield (PUE)and apparent P recovery efficiency (APRE) than allGM treatments. On the other hand, TG2 exhibited sig-nificantly greater P use and recovery efficiencies thanother GM treatments. In this respect, TG4 was differentfrom TG2 might be due to presence of higher P in RR.

Influence of CM was also distinct when it wasapplied to soil after making compost with PP. Wheatplants, treated with TC2 and TC4, harvested signifi-cantly higher P than all plants of compost group andused moderate amount for g-1 grain yield (Table 6).APRE of TC2 was greater than other composts ex-cept TC4, which might be due to efficient release ofP from CM by higher microbial activity (Table 6 and8). Profuse fungal and bacterial activities were mon-itored in presence of CM, i.e. P solubilizing microor-ganisms and arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi whichmight be higher there, increasing P level of soil andplant uptake (Zaidi et al. 2003). Phosphate solubiliz-ing microorganisms produce organic acids, namelycitric, oxalic, tartaric, acetic, lactic, gluconic, etc. (Ba-bana and Antoun 2006). These acids are sources ofH+ ion, which dissolve phosphate and make it avail-able for plants. According to Hirzel et al. (2007),APRE from CM is even higher than inorganic fertil-izer, in spite of having comparatively less P in it(Tewari et al. 2007). Results proved that availableform and rate of release of nutrients are more im-portant than the total amount of nutrients in the fer-tilizer material.

Among the GM treatments, plants accumulatedsignificantly higher K from TG2 and TG4 (Table 6).Wheat plant required significantly fewer amount of Kfor per gram grain yield and showed greater K use ef-ficiency than all GM treated plants when K was re-

ceived from TG4. Combined effect of CM and RRplays a vital role for the higher mobility of K in thephysiological system. Blake et al. (1999) informed thatintegrated application was superior to single applica-tion for K uptake. On the other hand, mobility of ac-cumulated K from TG3 might be less, thus instead ofhaving almost similar amount of K like TG4; TG3 re-quired significantly higher K than other GM treat-ments for g-1 grain yield.

TC4 and TC2 harvested significantly higher Kthan all composts, like GM combinations of the two.Combined application of CM plus RR exhibited supe-riority to all composts for K use and recovery efficien-cies. On the other hand, K use and recovery efficien-cies of TC3 were poor, possibly due to RR. Potassiumuptake may be attributed to release of organic acids bymicrobes which might help to release and uptakemore K. Although TC2 was inferior to TC4 for K useand recovery efficiencies, TC2 also showed good effi-ciency. Potassium harvest is also positively related toP harvest, due to enhanced root proliferation by P. Ac-cording to Abdelhamid et al. (2004), CM and RR en-riched compost of rice straw improves soil chemical,physical and biological properties and the compost iseffective without chemical fertilizer.

Yield and Yield Components of Wheat

Because of differences in nutrient uptake, yieldand yield components also varied. Plant height wasincreased due to supplementation to PP with CM orCM plus RR (Table 7). Plants grown with TG4 aug-mented significantly higher TDM than all GM treatedplants due to harvest of sufficient N P and K. Thetreatment (TG4) had the ability to produce compara-

TABLE 7.Effects of green manure and compost on total above ground dry matter (TDM: straw + grain + husk)

and other yield components of wheat (pooled data of two cycles).

Plant height TDM No. of Spike No. of Spikelet No. of Grain 100 Grain Wt. Treatments (cm) (g hill-1) Hill-1 Spike-1 Spikelet-1 (g)

Green manureTG1 60.8b 46.81d 17.44b 16.20c 1.91abc 3.64aTG2 63.9a 57.00b 18.93a 17.15b 2.00ab 3.69aTG3 58.7c 48.63c 19.10a 17.42ab 1.77c 3.32bTG4 64.6a 60.42a 18.90a 18.06a 2.04a 3.74aTG0 46.3d 26.09e 11.15c 13.82d 1.83bc 3.87a

CompostTC1 62.1c 57.96c 19.66b 17.18b 1.92ab 3.64bTC2 71.1a 75.49a 23.11a 18.10a 2.01a 3.76abTC3 66.6b 59.34b 19.65b 17.51ab 1.94ab 3.66abTC4 70.4a 76.60a 23.19a 18.15a 2.03a 3.79abTC0 47.1d 25.55d 11.15c 13.55c 1.82b 3.92a

Green manures and composts were evaluated separately and values followed by the same letter within a column of same group (green manure or compost)are not statistically different according to Duncan’s test at P<0.01.

tively higher number of spikelet and grain, which leadto production of significantly greater grain yield i.e.25.96 g hill-1 (>58% increased yield against control)than all GM treatments (Table 7 and Figure 1).

Yield of GM treated plant was not the potential ofthe crop, because compost was better than its GMcombination for yield (Figure 1). Among the com-posts, TC2 and TC4 showed significantly higher TDMand number of spike due to balanced nutrients. OnlyRR supplemented compost (TC3) should show similarresult (Table 7). Control plant accumulated smallamount of nutrients and produced less spike and

spikelet, and distributed the nutrients among fewergrains, which cause comparatively higher individualgrain weight than any treated plant. On the otherhand, enormous nutrients were distributed amongmany grains of TC2 and TC4 plants, thus their grainswere slightly lighter than control. Yield componentsof TC4 and TC2 were better than all treatments, rea-sonably higher yields were achieved from them, i.e.TC4 and TC2 augmented higher grain yields of 32.17and 31.40 g hill-1 (>65% increased yield over control),respectively (Figure 1), due to sufficient and efficientnutrient harvest. TC3 could not produce higher grain

yield due to less number of spike,comparatively lesser number ofspikelet and grain than TC2 and TC4,and also might be due to slowtranslocation of nutrients throughthe physiological system. Compostof only PP showed good influence onwheat yield by producing 54% in-creased grains against control.

Above results indicated thatTG4 among green manures, and TC4and TC2 among composts were su-perior to others in almost all parame-ters. Moreover, compost showedhigher value than its GM combina-tion, creates chance to select betteroption from same resource. Aboveresults exhibited the feasibility ofadoption of pea in wheat based crop-ping system. Similarly, Kumar andGoh (2002) used pea residue on



FIGURE 1. Effects of green manure (GM) and compost on grain yield of wheat (pooleddata of two cycles) and yield increase over control. Green manures and composts wereevaluated separately and values followed by the same letter within the same group(GM or compost) are not statistically different according to Duncan’s test at P<0.01.□: GM, TG0: control of GM group, �: compost, TC0: control of compost group.

TABLE 8.Number of microbes (pooled data of two cycles) in green manure and compost during decomposition (DD)

of green pea plant residue, dried chicken manure and rapeseed oil residue (average of whole decomposition period),the number at mature stage (M) and in wheat soil at tillering stage.

No. of Fungi No. of Bacteria No. of Actinomycetes(cfu x 103 g-1 dw) (cfu x 106 g-1 dw) (cfu x 106 g-1 dw)

Treatments DD M Soil DD M Soil DD M Soil

Green manure

TG1 98.88b 90.24b 76.14b 71.99b 56.58b 45.41b 13.20b 17.56c 14.76c

TG2 181.36a 175.67a 150.53a 94.03a 82.39a 60.56a 18.16a 21.85b 19.27b

TG3 81.70b 91.70b 79.26b 45.70c 58.70b 49.37b 20.83a 25.11a 21.74a

TG4 192.61a 178.49a 163.83a 95.87a 85.40a 62.98a 20.10a 24.10ab 22.66a

TG0 - - 12.60c - - 13.08c - - 2.90d

Compost

TC1 145.57b 107.85b 78.97b 85.11b 65.85b 53.92b 15.35d 22.51c 20.36c

TC2 243.09a 206.70a 159.54a 149.65a 104.80a 80.32a 19.41c 25.87b 23.78b

TC3 128.75b 120.69b 87.86b 56.18c 73.60b 54.03b 23.03b 29.61a 25.10ab

TC4 263.09a 208.58a 160.84a 151.29a 107.99a 83.70a 26.06a 31.69a 25.99a

TC0 - - 12.62c - - 14.37 - - 3.40d

cfu = colony forming unit, dw = dry weight. Green manures and composts were evaluated separately and values followed by the same letter within a columnof same group (green manure or compost) are not statistically different according to Duncan’s test at P<0.01.

wheat-wheat cropping system and found positive Nbalance after two crops. Kostov et al. (1995) foundsharp impact of compost over manure in respect ofnutrient release and yield of cucumber. Thus, incor-poration of pea in pea-wheat-rice cropping systemand use of compost of pea with CM or CM plus RRwould give greater benefit than wheat cultivationwith GM or other composts. If someone does not wantto practice composting then green manuring of PPwith CM plus RR could be suggested. Miller et al.(2006) monitored equal or greater positive croppingsequence effect of pea on subsequent wheat than mus-tard or wheat in cropping sequence, which supportsour idea of incorporation of pea in wheat-rice crop-ping system. Rapeseed oil residue does not release nu-trients quickly but it would contribute nutrients forthe next crop. Further research to reduce decomposi-tion period would help the cropping system. Finally,very strong positive correlations between nutrientharvest versus TDM and grain yield means the treat-ment, from which plant harvested higher nutrients,genuinely supplied available nutrients, thus satisfac-tory yield was achieved (Figure 2 to 4).

Conclusions

From the results, it can be concluded that com-posts of PP with CM and CM plus RR were enrichedby profuse microbial activity and the composts main-tained the activity higher in soil and supplied neces-sary nutrients, thus both wheat harvested higher N PK with efficient recovery rates. The composts ulti-mately improved yield contributing characters andyield of wheat. Higher nutrient recovery efficienciesof the composts are important for wheat yield andsaving fertilizer use and environment. Strong positivecorrelation between nutrient harvest and yield, justi-fied the nutrient supply and higher yield producingability of treatment. Higher value was observed fromcompost than GM on a specific parameter but GM ofPP with CM plus RR also supplied satisfactory nutri-ents to wheat, so, plant harvested them efficiently andgave higher yield among green manures. Instead ofhaving enough nutrients, RR can not supply them sat-isfactorily due to delay release but CM itself is effi-cient and stimulates RR to release nutrient. Therefore,pea compost with CM or CM plus RR is recommend-ed for higher yield of wheat.

Acknowledgement

The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribu-tion of International Harmony Club, Hashima, Gifu,Japan for financial support to the principal author.



FIGURE 2. Correlations between nitrogen harvest by wheat plantvs. total above ground dry matter (TDM) and grain yield as influ-enced by green manure (GM) and compost. TC1 to TC4: composts(solid lines), TC0: control of compost group, TG1 to TG4: greenmanures (dotted lines) and TG0: control of GM group.

FIGURE 3. Correlations between phosphorus harvest by wheatplant vs. total above ground dry matter (TDM) and grain yield asinfluenced by green manure (GM) and compost. TC1 to TC4: com-posts (solid lines), TC0: control of compost group, TG1 to TG4:green manures (dotted lines) and TG0: control of GM group.

FIGURE 4. Correlations between potassium harvest by wheatplant vs. total above ground dry matter (TDM) and grain yield asinfluenced by green manure (GM) and compost. TC1 to TC4: com-posts (solid lines), TC0: control of compost group, TG1 to TG4:green manures (dotted lines) and TG0: control of GM group.

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