tlingit verb conjugation - tlingit language

Tlingit Verb Conjugationan interactive look at verb components

X̱ʼunei Lance Twitchell

Golbelt Heritage FoundationJanuary 4, 2016

Tlingit Verb Conjugation

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Tlingit Verb Conjugation: an interactive look at verb components

© 2016 Goldbelt Heritage Foundation, and X̱ʼunei Lance Twitchell

Printed in the United States of AmericaAll rights reserved.

Publisher’s Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Twitchell, Lance A.Tlingit Verb Conjugation: an interactive look at verb components / X̱ʼunei (Lance A. Twitchell). pages cmA handbook for using and interpreting Tlingit verbs.Includes bibliographical references.ISBN 978-0-000-00000-0 (alk. paper) 1. Tlingit language--Grammar. 2. Tlingit language--Study and teaching.I. Goldbelt Heritage Foundation. II. Title. III. Title: Tlingit Verb Conjugation.PM2455.T858 2015497.27--dc23

First Printing 2015

Address correspondence to:

Goldbelt Heritage Foundation X̱ʼunei Lance Twitchell 3200 Hospital Dr #203 University of Alaska SoutheastJuneau, AK 99801 11120 Glacier Highway(907) 790-1424 Juneau, AK 99801 [email protected]

The University of Alaska is an AA/EO employer and educational institution.

Frontmatter

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ContentsPreface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

why write this book? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii

The Tlingit Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Introducing the Tlingit Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

The Perfective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19The Perfective (+) Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Perfective & Related Verb Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Perfective (+) Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Perfective Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31The Perfective With Thematic Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

The Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49The Future (+) and Future (–) Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51Future (+) Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52The Future (–) Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55Future (+) Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Future Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59The Future With Thematic Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Components of the Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Breaking Down a Tlingit Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77Basic Verbal Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77Identifying Components of Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Prefacewáanáx̱ sáwé yá xʼúxʼ kax̱wshixít?

Has du eetí xʼaakeidíx̱ áyá haa sitee uháan yáa yagiyee.Yéi áyá a daa tux̱ditaan x̱áach.Ách áyá wa.éich tsúi toowú tóoxʼ tlax̱ wáa sá x̱ʼalitseen. Ách áyá a daat eehán tsu yáa yagiyeedé.– Ḵaajaaḵwtí, Lʼeeneidí

We are the seeds in their remains today.This is how I think about it.

This is why you too,inside you feel how very valuable it is.

This is why you are standing up for it even up to today.– Walter Soboleff1

1 Soboleff, Walter. “Walter Soboleff and George Ramos.” Documenting Tlingit Conversations in Video and Time-aligned Text by Alice Taff. (Juneau: University of Alaska Southeast).


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Gusʼduteen Bessie Jim (Carcross), Lugóon Sophie Smarch (Whitehorse) , X̱’unei Lance Twitchell (Juneau), ḵa Shayawdusteed Deborah Baerg (Carcross) – photo by Si’sele Collyne Bunn.

G̱áx̱, Yéil, ḵa Dzísk’w (Carcross) – photo by Si’sele Collyne Bunn.

Preface

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why write this book?

Tlingit verbs are complex, and are basically a series of components that become activated or shift as the verb changes person, mode, and/or becomes a relative clause that is linked to another verb. Many students of Tlingit become frustrated at the complexity of the Tlingit verb, and primary reasons are the number of elements that can change and the ways that those chang-es create contraction.

This workbook is designed to take a step-by-step approach to verb con-jugation, and relies on a fictional switchboard that will show where those changes are taking place. While doing this sort of work, we should always keep in mind that the verbal complexity is one of the ways that the Tlingit language was dynamic and powerful, and if we ignore this part of the lan-guage we will speak a simplified form of Tlingit that fails to do justice to the rich and powerful language that has been created for us, the speakers and the learners.

In order to be able to speak Tlingit fluently, you need to understand how verbs work in Tlingit, and then how other parts of grammar work in relation to verbs. At the center of this is mastering how to change objects and sub-jects of verbs, how to move the verb into different modes, and how to quickly internalize the components of a verb so you can keep adding more verbs to your vocabulary.

One of the real threats we face is losing a large number of verbs. Tlingit is a highly categorical language, meaning there are times when a verb will change depending on a type of object or action, and that there are some-times specific verbs for certain types of activities. You should be learning new verbs on a regular basis, and you should also understand what changes result in a new verb based as opposed to just changing an existing verb.

However, grammar is only one component of becoming fluent in Tlingit. You need to spend as much time as possible with fluent elders, and doing so while using the language. At this point, speaking with fluent speakers in English is essentially wasting time as far as language learning and revitaliza-tion is concerned. All time with them is valuable, but you need to be enter-ing into environments where Tlingit is the privileged language, and pushing yourself to try new things and to understand the language in all contexts and situations.


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This workbook will begin by looking at what the components are in the switchboard, and then will move through the different components in each one and how they interact with one another. The order is determined by the information most commonly requested by students, starting with Objects and Subjects, and then moving into the components that create new verbs, and the components that create new conjugations. After that, we will look at how verb forms are created, and then what the prefixes look like for those verbs.

This workbook is inspired and informed by the works of James Crippen, Keri Eggleston, Seth Cable, Nora Marks Dauenhauer, Richard Dauenhauer, Jeff Leer, Constance Naish, and Gillian Story. Their work and my work would not exist if not for our fluent speakers, who have all of these wonderful patterns embedded in their ways of thinking and knowing, and are willing to share them with us and put up with question after question that helps us understand a little bit more than we did before.

In addition, the hardworking and determined students of the Tlingit lan-guage, who combine with our elders to create a future for our language, are to be commended for their courage and ability to stand up to linguistic and cultural genocide. They are the ones who never gave up, who may have taken some breaks now and then, but who made sure that Tlingit is a part of their lives and they live up the enormous responsibility that comes with the title: language warrior.

Gunalchéesh!

The Tlingit Verbyéi daadunéiyi át

Chʼas tula.aan, ḵa ḵusax̱án ḵwa i téix̱ʼ yéi na.oo! – Kaxwaan Éesh, Tʼaḵdeintaan

Only kindness,and love for people, though,

put that in your heart! – George Davis1

1 Davis, George. Pers. Comm.


2

Dolores Jackson (Teslin and Whitehorse), Keiyishí Bessie Cooley (Teslin), Yeidulitseen Millie Hall (Teslin and Haines Junction) and Ḵaaganei Connie Jules (Teslin) – photo by Si’sele Collyne Bunn.

Gusʼduteen Bessie Jim & Ḵaaklig̱é Norman James (Carcross) – photo by Si’sele Collyne Bunn.

The Tlingit Verb

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Introducing the Tlingit Verb

Tlingit is a polysynthetic language, meaning that it often consists of long strings of complex words that are made up of interlocking pieces that each have meaning or special functions. It is important to keep this in mind as you continue to put the pieces together in your mind. The areas that tend to get learners hung up is the amount of components, the reasons they might change, and the ways those changes create contractions in the verb prefix. In addition to this is the ways in which Tlingit categorizes the world and adjusts its grammar to those categorizations.

Once the learner has reached an intermediate level of Tlingit, then the goals shift from focusing on pronunciation and basic concepts to the follow-ing language learning methods, which should be happening in more or less equal portions:

• listening to fluent birth speakers as much as possible

• speaking with birth speakers and trying to learn how to say new things

• speaking with peers and pushing one another to stay in the language as much as possible

• expanding vocabulary in nouns, relational terms (independent bases, relational bases, relational nouns, relational suffixes), particles, adjec-tives, adverbs, and numbers

• internalizing the Tlingit verbal structure system and common prefix combinations

• adding new verbs to your vocabulary by memorizing the root, classifier, conjugation prefix, verb type, and stem variation

This workbook assumes that you have the resources to do all but the final two items, and will focus on those. In order to continue learning about verbs and committing more of them to memory, you should regularly be browsing and referencing the following sources:

• Crippen, James. “Tlingit Verbal Structure Handbook.” Vancouver: De-partment of Linguistics, University of British Columbia, 2013.

• — “Tlingitology Seminar Notes: Background and Morphology.” Vancou-ver: Department of Linguistics, University of British Columbia, 2013.

• — “Segmenting and glossing Tlingit.” Vancouver: Department of Lin-


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guistics, University of British Columbia, 2013.

• Dauenhauer, Nora & Richard. Beginning Tlingit. Juneau: Sealaska Heri-tage Foundation, 2000.

• — Lingít X̱ʼéináx̱ Sá – Say It in Tlingit: A Tlingit Phrasebook. Juneau: Seal-aska Heritage Institute, 2002.

• Eggleston (nee Edwards), Keri. Dictionary of Tlingit. Juneau: Sealaska Heritage Institute, 2009.

• — “575+ Tlingit Verbs.” Goldbelt Heritage Foundation. 2009. Retrieved from http://www.goldbeltheritage.org/verbs

• — “575 Tlingit Verbs: A Study Of Tlingit Verb Paradigms.” Ph.D. thesis., University of Alaska Fairbanks, 2013.

• — “575 Tlingit Verbs: The Paradigms – A Component of ‘575 Tlingit Verbs: A Study Of Tlingit Verb Paradigms.’” Ph.D. thesis, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 2013.

• — “Continuing Tlingit Verb Documentation.” Alaska Native Knowledge Network. University of Alaska Fairbanks, 2016.

• Leer, Jeff. “Tlingit stem list.” Unpublished manuscript. Alaska Native Language Archive, 1978.

• — “Tlingit verb catalog.” Unpublished manuscript. Alaska Native Lan-guage Archive, 1976.

• — “The Schetic Categories of the Tlingit Verb.” Chicago: University of Chicago, PhD dissertation, 1991.

• — Interior Tlingit Noun Dictionary: the Dialects Spoken by Tlingit Elders of Carcross, and Teslin, Yukon, and Atlin, British Columbia. Whitehorse: Yukon Native Language Centre, 2001.

• Story, Gillian and Constance Naish. Tlingit Verb Dictionary. College: University of Alaska: Alaska Native Language Center, 1973.

Coming back to the verb, we should start with some basic structural descriptions, and then begin moving into more detail from there. To start with, the verb template is made up of several components, and we will start from the largest pieces and begin moving in to more detail from there. The first concept we should cover is the verb phrase, which is all the information needed to fully understand the verb.

For our purposes, we will say that the verb phrase includes all the things

The Tlingit Verb

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you must have in order to understand the verb. For example, look at the following sentences:

• Aatx̱ ḵug̱astée áwé du yádi, tle noow yáx̱ gíwé wootee wé Yéil ḵu.aa, yá lingitʼaaní awliyex̱i Yéil.1

The first step in breaking down these sentences is to separate them into clauses. In Tlingit grammar, a clause consists of the verb phrase and all related information. It is helpful to see how Tlingit is structured by analyzing sentences in this manner, because then you can begin to construct similar patterns in your own speech, gradually increasing the complexity and the number of verbs that you have mastered.

This sentence, by Kaasgeiy Susie James, has two clauses, which we can identify by finding the verb and all related information. It helps that a com-ma separates the clauses here, but that is certainly not always the case:

• Aatx̱ ḵug̱astée áwé du yádi, |

• tle noow yáx̱ gíwé wootee wé Yéil ḵu.aa, yá lingitʼaaní awliyex̱i Yéil.

Each of these clauses contains a verb. The last one might appear to contain two verbs, but the second has become an adjective: «yá lingitʼaaní awliyex̱i Yéil» → this Raven who created the world. Coming back to our two clauses, we now can isolate the verb phrase by taking away everything that is not part of the functioning verb. This can sometimes be a slippery slope, because there is often information that shows specifics of the verb phrase, but are not essential for the verb to function.

For example, in the first clause the verb phrase is «aatx̱ ḵug̱astée» and the rest gives details about who was born. The second verb phrase is «noow yáx̱ gíwé wootee» because the information here is essential for the verb, and the remaining information informs the listener on details that are not grammat-ically tied to the function of the verb. To take this idea farther, we can change the specifying noun phrase, but it does not alter what the verb is doing.

• noow yáx̱ gíwé wootee wé xóots ḵu.aa → that brown bear was like a fortress, I guess

• noow yáx̱ gíwé wootee wé kutsʼeen ḵu.aa → that mouse was like a for-tress, I guess

While these changes certainly affect meaning, the verb is doing the same thing. One could argue that the same thing could be said for «noow», but

1 James, Susie Kaasgeiy. “Yéil ḵa Du Káak / Raven and his Uncle.” Du Yaa Kanagoodí: His Walking Along. Ed. X̱ʼaagi Sháawu Keri Eggleston and Dzéiwsh James Crippen. Trans. Ḵeixwnéi Nora Marks Dauenhauer.


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that is tied in by the «N yáx̱ yatee» component of the verb theme.

Here is another example:

• Yáa ḵaa kéilkʼ, uwayáa, has du eetí xʼaakeidíx̱ áyá haa sitee uháan yáa yagiyee.2

Our first step is to locate the clauses by identifying where the verbs are, and then to narrow it down to the verb phrase:

• Yáa ḵaa kéilkʼ, uwayáa,

• has du eetí xʼaakeidíx̱ áyá haa sitee uháan yáa yagiyee

As in the previous examples, the verb is in a box and the verb phrase is underlined with a dashed line. If we look at verbs this way, by isolating the verb phrase, then it can help us learn to use verbs more dynamically and to also understand the components that are embedded in the verb theme. Keri Eggleston covers the verb theme very well in her doctoral dissertation, "575 Tlingit Verbs: A Study Of Tlingit Verb Paradigms," and some review will be given here so we can learn to spot the clause, then verb phrase, and then the verb.

Narrowing things down like this can reveal many intricacies about Tlingit grammar, especially how verbs function and are related to other parts of speech. When doing exercises like this, it is best to get your language from fluent speakers. For those new to working on Tlingit in this manner, it is best to work with material that has already been translated so you have a bit of an answer key, but you should be working towards translating new material with assistance to see how much you can accomplish on your own.

The main purposes of exercises like this are to learn to spot verbs, increase our understanding of Tlingit grammar and verbal structure, and to increase our vocabulary of verbs. One of your goals as an experienced langauge learn-er should be to internalize as many verbs as possible, and a steady, consis-tent, and unending manner. As we will come to learn through our grammar exercises, mastering a verb means learning the following qualities: verb root, classifier group, +d component, thematic prefix(es), conjugation prefix, and stem variation. There are thousands of verb roots, four classifier groups, +d & –d , four conjugation prefixes, fourteen common thematic prefixes, and five stem types. The end result is a seemingly infinite variety of variables, but the reality is that it is manageable with consistent practice. That practice should come through grammar exercises, listening to speakers and under-2 Soboleff, Walter Ḵaajaaḵwtí. “Walter Soboleff and George Ramos.” Documenting Tlingit Conversations in Video

and Time-aligned Text. Ed. Alice Taff.

The Tlingit Verb

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standing what they are saying, and trying to use more and more verbs and verb modes in your speech.

With that in mind, letʻs take a look at some sentences and work on find-ing the clauses, verb phrases, and verbs. The suggested method would be to rewrite the sentences in the space provided, separating the clauses, under-lining the verb phrase, and drawing a box around the verb.

• Chʼa yéi gugéinkʼ áwé a kaax̱ shukaylisʼúx̱ haa tlagoo ḵwáanxʼi aadéi s ḵunoogu yé. — Kichnáalx̱ 3

• Chʼáagu yáx̱ wooch kaanáx̱ kei du.átji noojéen. Yan at wudux̱aayídáx̱ aag̱áa áyú has du ée sh kadulnik nooch. — Ḵaajaakwtí 4

3 Dauenhauer, Nora & Richard, trans. “Because We Cherish You ...” Sealaska Elders Speak to the Future (Juneau: Sealaska Heritage Foundation Press, 1981), 53-53a.

4 Soboleff, Walter. “Walter Soboleff and George Ramos.” Documenting Tlingit Conversations in Video and Time-aligned Text by Alice Taff. (Juneau: University of Alaska Southeast).


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• Ax̱ x̱ʼagáaxʼi áwé yéi kg̱watée: chʼu tleix̱ ḵug̱aag̱astee, Lingít. — Ḵaalḵáawu 5

• Sagú yáx̱ ḵaa yayík du.ax̱ji nuch héendei yaa ana.ádi. — Taakw Kʼwátʼi 6

5 George, Cyril. “Ḵaalḵáawu X̱ ʼéidáx̱ Lingít Yoo X̱ ʼatángi Daat (Tlingit Language).” trans. Lance Twitch-ell. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4DP2EVBtUrc.

6 Johnson, Frank. “Duktʼootlʼ / Strong Man.” Haa Shuka: Tlingit Oral Narratives. trans. Nora Dauenhauer & Richard Dauenhauer. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981), 138–139.

The Tlingit Verb

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• Ḵustí ladzée nooch. Tlél kei kg̱idaleet! — Kingeistí 7

• Oon yoo x̱ʼadudli.átk, «líl xʼwán ḵáaḵwx̱ x̱at wuneeḵ léelkʼw,» yéi daayaduḵá. Á áwé ḵaa x̱ʼaya.áx̱ch wé át, wé shaa tsú. — Seidayaa 8

7 Katzeek, David. “Taan ḵa X̱ ʼeisʼawáa – Sea Lion & Ptarmigan.” trans. Lance Twitchell. Retrieved from http://youtu.be/A9FO6S3GTbI.

8 Nyman, Elizabeth. “Ḵudziteeyi Át Ḵulagaawú – The Battle of the Giants.” Gágiwdul.aat: Brought Forth to Reconfirm the Legacy of a Taku River Tlingit Clan. trans. Jeff Leer (Whitehorse: Yukon Native Language Centre, 1993), 6-7.


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• Á áwé a daa yoo x̱ʼatula.átgi nooch, yá elʼkaadéi haa wulgáasʼi. A daa yoo x̱ʼatula.átgi nuch. 9 — Shaadaaxʼ

• Eeshaandéin ágé haa daa tuwatee uháan tsú ax̱ káalkʼw hás ax̱ éesh hás? — Naa Tláa 10

9 Zuboff, Robert. “Táaxʼaa / Mosquito.” Haa Shuka: Tlingit Oral Narratives. Nora Dauenhauer & Richard Dauenhauer, trans. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981), 74–75.

10 Dauenhauer, Nora & Richard, trans. Haa Tuwunáagu Yís: For Our Healing Spirit. (Seattle: University of Wash-ington Press, 1990), 242-243.

The Tlingit Verb

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• Keitl tóo akayanook. Yú neilx’ áyú g̱agaan x̱’oos áwé oowayáa. Neildéi koodagánch neildéi. — Tseexwáa 11

• Tléil daatnáx̱ sá kwshí yéi yándei kagux̱dayáa. Wooch isx̱án, chʼa tléixʼ tí, ach asgíwé wooch x̱oo yakagux̱dadáa haa ḵusteeyí. — Wóochx̱ Kaduhaa 12

11 Fawcett, J.B. “Kaats’.” Haa Shuka: Tlingit Oral Narratives. trans. Nora Dauenhauer & Richard Dauenhau- er. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981), 224–225.

12 George, Jimmie. “Ḵéix̱ʼ 1971 / Kake 1971ʼ.” Haa Tuwunáagu Yís—For Our Healing Spirit: Tlingit Orato-ry. trans. Nora Dauenhauer & Richard Dauenhauer. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1990), 168–169.


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• Yagéiyi átx̱ ḵudzitee, Yá Aas Ḵwáani chʼa haa jiyís jeewanáḵ. Ách áwé at kookéidich wuháanch tsú tulayéx̱ nuch. Haa yoo x̱ʼatángi tóoxʼ hél a káx̱ aa seixʼáḵw nooch, aadé a tóonáx̱ ḵutudziteeyi yé. — Keiheenákʼw 13

• Yakʼéiyi lʼéiwt g̱alaháash yá yáay. — Yakwx̱waan Tláa 14

13 Martin, John. “Kingeistí ḵa Keiheenákʼw Aas Ḵwáani Daat Yoo Has X̱ ʼawli.át (Tlingit Language).” trans. Lance Twitchell. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ip2iwSSSoQE.

14 Mills, Katherine. “Raven and Whale.” Raven Stories (unpublished manuscript). trans. Nora Dauenhauer & Richard Dauenhauer

The Tlingit Verb

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• Aadóo sgí ḵáa kaanáx̱ kéi ag̱axáash? — Yakwx̱waan Tláa 14

• Yéi áwé yan shuwjix̱ín yáatʼaa. — Yakwx̱waan Tláa 14


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• Tléix’ yateeyi aa áwé, yá Yéil áwé át woogoot. — Yakwx̲waan Tláa 14

• Chʼa ldakát át, a yakg̱wahéiyagu ḵudzitee. Yéi áyá haa ee wudulitóow. — Ḵaalḵáawu 15

15 George, Cyril. “Ḵaalḵáawu X̱ ʼéidáx̱ Shkalneek — Daaxʼoon — Ḵákʼw (Tlingit Language).” trans. Lance Twitchell. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4DP2EVBtUrc.

The Tlingit Verb

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• Tlél tsu ḵut aa x̱wag̱éexʼ tle a saaxʼóo teen. — Kooxíchxʼ 16

• Ḵaa yáa at wooné, haa wooch.een yéi jeewaneiyi, aadé yateeyí yé haa yoo x̱ʼatángi. Haa ḵusteeyí xʼéig̱aa Lingít á. — Kingeistí 7

16 Dauenhauer, Nora, Richard Dauenhauer, and Lydia Black. “The Battle at Indian River.” Anóoshi Lingít Aaní Ká: Russians in Tlingit America. trans. Nora Dauenhauer, et al. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008), 329.


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We will continue using these sentences as examples as we introduce other concepts about the Tlingit verb. Words like this were left for us, so as we move through them in ways that reveal the underlying structures, it will al-low us to see the deeper meanings and ways that the language is functioning in these examples.

Our initial focus is on finding the bigger pieces, and in later chapters and exercises we will be examining with different goals. After you have had a chance to go through and identify the clauses, verb phrases, and verbs, check your work with the following answers.

• Chʼa yéi gugéinkʼ áwé a kaax̱ shukaylisʼúx̱ haa tlagoo ḵwáanxʼi aadéi s ḵunoogu yé.

• Chʼáagu yáx̱ wooch kaanáx̱ kei du.átji noojéen.

Yan at wudux̱aayídáx̱ aag̱áa áyú has du ée sh kadulnik nooch.

• Ax̱ x̱ʼagáaxʼi áwé yéi kg̱watée:

chʼu tleix̱ ḵug̱aag̱astee, Lingít.

• Sagú yáx̱ ḵaa yayík du.ax̱ji nuch

héendei yaa ana.ádi.

• Ḵustí ladzée nooch.

Tlél kei kg̱idaleet!

• Oon yoo x̱ʼadudli.átk,

«líl xʼwán ḵáaḵwx̱ x̱at wuneeḵ léelkʼw,»

yéi daayaduḵá.

Á áwé ḵaa x̱ʼaya.áx̱ch wé át, wé shaa tsú.

• Eeshaandéin ágé haa daa tuwatee uháan tsú ax̱ káalkʼw hás ax̱ éesh hás?

• Keitl tóo akayanook.

Yú neilx’ áyú g̱agaan x̱’oos áwé oowayáa.

Neildéi koodagánch neildéi.

The Tlingit Verb

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• Tléil daatnáx̱ sá kwshí yéi yándei kagux̱dayáa.

Wooch isx̱án, chʼa tléixʼ tí, ach asgíwé wooch x̱oo yakagux̱dadáa haa ḵusteeyí.

• Yagéiyi átx̱ ḵudzitee,

Yá Aas Ḵwáani chʼa haa jiyís jeewanáḵ.

Ách áwé at kookéidich wuháanch tsú tulayéx̱ nuch.

Haa yoo x̱ʼatángi tóoxʼ hél a káx̱ aa seixʼáḵw nooch,

aadé a tóonáx̱ ḵutudziteeyi yé.

• Yakʼéiyi lʼéiwt g̱alaháash yá yáay.

• Aadóo sgí ḵáa kaanáx̱ kéi ag̱axáash?

• Yéi áwé yan shuwjix̱ín yáatʼaa.

• Tléix’ yateeyi aa áwé, yá Yéil áwé át woogoot.

• Chʼa ldakát át, a yakg̱wahéiyagu ḵudzitee.

Yéi áyá haa ee wudulitóow.

• Tlél tsu ḵut aa x̱wag̱éexʼ tle a saaxʼóo teen.

• Ḵaa yáa at wooné,

haa wooch.een yéi jeewaneiyi,

aadé yateeyí yé haa yoo x̱ʼatángi.

Haa ḵusteeyí xʼéig̱aa Lingít á.


18

The Perfectiveyéi at woonei

Wáa nanée sáwé, ch'áaaakw dultínitx̱ áwé, s’íksh, áwé wuduwalʼíxʼ, s’íksh. A tóonáx̱ áwé ḵuyawduwawál, áwé téix̱ ḵoonastéeg̱aa áwé; a tóonáx̱ dultín.

– Aasx̱ʼaak, Kaagwaantaan

At one point after they had watched for a loooong time, they took false hellebore

and broke the stalks, false hellebore.

They poked holes though them so that they wouldn't turn to stone;

they watched through them.

– George Betts 1

1 Betts, George. “Gusʼkʼḵwáan / The Coming of the First White Man.” Haa Shuká: Tlingit Oral Nar-ratives. trans. Nora Dauenhauer & Richard Dauenhauer. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981), 304–305.

The Perfective Mode

20

Shaadootlaa (Seattle) and Óoxjaa Yádi Kanaan Bausler (Juneau) • photo by Ryan Cortes

Kingeistí David Katzeek (Juneau), Yaxduláḵt’ Lillian Austin (Juneau), Kinkawduneek Paul Marks (Juneau), Shaawát G̱uwakaan George Bennet (Sitka), and Lʼéiwtu Éesh Herman Davis (Sitka) • photo by Cody Dennis

The Perfective Verb

21

The Perfective (+) Mode

The method we are using to comprehend and use Tlingit verbs involves structural analysis of the language and the reconstruction of language using the patterns and elements that we are studying. If we were doing the same thing teaching English, we would spend a chapter on pronouns (i, you, s/he, we, you all, they) and then practice using them with different verbs, such as the following table. Tlingit is included so we can look at how the structure and philosophies of the languages differ.

We will start with a verb that has a relatively fixed object. When we learn to change the subject, we begin to use verbs in dynamic ways to shift who might be doing the action. For example:

S english tlingit

1s i sewed it x̱waaḵáa1p we sewed it wutuwaḵáa2s you sewed it yeeḵáa2p you all sewed it yeeyḵáa3s s/he sewed it aawaḵáa3p they sewed it has aawaḵáa4h it was sewed wuduwaḵáa

The verb in English does not change, but what changes is the subject pronoun before the verb. In Tlingit, the switch is the same, but because the subject pronoun is located fairly deep into the prefix, it causes some contrac-tion of some of the other elements in the prefix. If we were to pull the prefix apart in the above examples, they would look like this:

preverb prefix stem

3 pl object perfective subject classifier root

x̱waaḵáa – ∅ ÿu x̱a ÿa √ḵáawutuwaḵáa – ∅ ÿu tu ÿa √ḵáa

yeeḵáa – ∅ ÿu i ÿa √ḵáayeeyḵáa – ∅ ÿu yi ÿa √ḵáaaawaḵáa – a ÿu ∅ ÿa √ḵáa

has aawaḵáa has a ÿu ∅ ÿa √ḵáawuduwaḵáa – ∅ ÿu du ÿa √ḵáa

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22

You might notice in these prefixes the presence of the perfective mark-er, which may appear as any «wu», «w», or «y», but we write as «ÿu» when segmenting in Tlingit. Segmenting is writing out all the components that are present, including the zero marker (∅), and doing so in an uncontracted form. We write it with the character «ÿ» to show a sound that is no longer in Tlingit and now is a character that changes its sound to match what is around it. The default form is «w» and the «y» form only appears in the sec-ond person singular and plural forms.

The perfective «ÿu» is a grammatical marker that allows us to look at the verb as an event, and the event is marked as completed by the +i form of the classifier. When looking at translations, we might think that the perfective marker is showing past tense, but that is not the case. Tlingit looks at events more so than the time in which they may have occurred. We can see this in verbs that are perfective but can be translated into either simple past or present tense English, such as:

prefix

tlingit translation object perf subject classifier

awsikóo s/he knows it a ÿu ∅ +i

ix̱wsiteen i see you; i saw you i ÿu x̱a +i

ix̱ʼeiwa.áx̱ s/he understands you; s/he understood you: i ÿu ∅ +i

kawdigán it's bright; it was bright — ÿu — +i

A perfective (+) signals that the verb has been completed, and is signaled using the perfective marker (ÿu) and a +i classifier. You can spot these classifiers by learning the +i form of the classifier groups, as listed below. The «ÿa» classifier will change its shape depending on what precedes it, as we will see in the verb examples later in this chapter. Look at the tables below, that show the +i classifier for each of the classifier groups. If you see this classifier, and the perfective marker, then you know the verb is perfective (+), which means we look at it as an event and the verb has been completed.

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group +i classifier group +i classifier

∅ ÿa l li

d+∅ di d+l dli


s si sh shi

d+s dzi d+sh ji

Perfective & Related Verb Modes

There are four verb modes that contain the perfective marker. The tables below show the approximate translation of the verb mode, and also the components that are in that mode. We will keep our focus on the perfec-tive, but we will look at the other modes in later chapters as we continue looking at components of the Tlingit verb and how they function.

mode english equivalent example translation

perfective (+) s/he did it aawax̱áa s/he ate it

perfective (–) s/he didnʼt do it tlél awux̱á s/he didn't eat it

perfective habitual (+) s/he does it (every time) oox̱áaych s/he eats it (every time)

perfective habitual (–) s/he hasnʼt done it yet tlél oox̱áaych s/he hasn't eaten it yet

prefix

mode preverb irr con pre perf classifier suffix

perfective (+) + +iperfective (–) tlél + + –iperfective habitual (+) + + –i chperfective habitual (–) tlél + + + –i ch

There are three verb modes that have a +i classifier, and they are listed below. The last one has many variations, and they are also listed below. We touch on these now because one of the keys to becoming a masterful Tlingit speaker comes with using these modes dynamically to create meaning and metaphor, and then tying concepts together with relational phrases and oth-er means that indicate sequence, cause & effect, and other alterations.

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mode english equivalent example translation

perfective (+) s/he did it aawax̱áa s/he ate it

imperfective (+) state verb only s/he is (in a state) yakʼéi s/he is good/fine

realizational ² ? shunliháash the end floated

potentials

potential (+) s/he might do it ag̱waax̱aayi s/he might eat it

potential (–) s/he might not do it tlél ag̱waax̱aayi s/he might not eat it

potential attributive

no way s/he can do it tlél aadé ag̱waax̱aayi yé no way can s/he

eat it

² The realizational describes a past event or state, but is not well understood in terms of how it may differ from other motes. James Crippen notes this mode in his dissertation, and it can be found in the notes of Jeff Leer. It is an essentially obsolete form, mostly found in songs. It has the conjugation prefix, +i form of the classifier, and a long and high stem variation.

prefix

mode preverb irr con pre perf class. postverb

perfective (+) + +iimperfective (+) state verb only +i

potential (+) + + +ipotential (–) tlél + + +ipotential attributive tlél + aadé + + +i yé

As with all things in Tlingit, there are exceptions. If the perfective (+) verb is in a dependent clause, then the classifier will switch to –i, but ev-erything else remains the same. You probably know some of the dependent clauses listed below.1 They are given here to show how the classifier changes when it becomes a dependent clause.

prefix

tlingit obj pfv sub clas. translation

ix̱wsiteen i ÿu x̱a +i i see you

yakʼéi ix̱wsateení i ÿu x̱a –i it's good to see you

x̱waax̱aa ∅ ÿu x̱a +i i ate it

x̱wasikóo x̱wax̱aayí ∅ ÿu x̱a –i i know i ate it

yú sʼeek x̱waajáḵ ∅ ÿu x̱a +i i killed a black bear

yú sʼeek x̱wajaag̱í ax̱ tuwáa sigóo ∅ ÿu x̱a –i i want to kill that black bear

1 The last two come from "Dependent Clause Notes" by Dzéiwsh James Crippen.

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Perfective (+) Examples

Coming back to the perfective mode, we should think about the im-portance of being able to hear this mode and put it together. Much of the information we communicate is about things that would be perfective (+) in Tlingit. If we wanted to talk about something that happened yesterday, or tell a story, then we are going to need perfective modes. In order to use event verbs in the present tense, we also need to know the perfective mode.

As you learn more about this mode, you should begin looking through Tlingit materials and spot the perfectives, taking some time to figure out how they work. Many of the examples and much of the information pre-sented here comes from the works of Crippen and verb documentation of Eggleston.

The above illustration is a metaphor for how to conjugate verbs in Tlingit. Starting from the top left and moving to the right is like starting at the left side of a verb phrase in Tlingit and moving towards the end. The idea here is to show the areas where things might change in a Tlingit verb, and then to show the most common things that might appear in that area. This is our starting point, and it will get us pretty far. There are some advanced pro-nouns and thematic prefixes that are not present, but when you are ready for those you can consult the works of Crippen, Eggleston, Leer, and Cable. Those advanced elements are used in oratory, and you might hear them

The Perfective Mode

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when working with master speakers, but we will start with bite sized pieces with the goal of getting you conjugating verbs in dynamic ways beginning with the most common modes.

The Tlingit verb undergoes the most changes in the prefix, which is where nearly all conjugation takes place. As things are added or changed here, they interact with everything around them and often undergo contraction in ways that are complex but predictable. As we can see in the illustration, each switch can be activated or can change its content, but each switch can only have one thing at a time. The top three on the left are preverb items, and the object is also in the preverb except for the «ḵu,» «a,» «i,» and «∅» which are in the prefix. From there, we have ten switches that are all in the preverb, and those are: thematic 1, thematic 2, thematic 3, self-benefactive, outer conjugation, irrealis, inner conjugation, perfective & g̱a mode, subject, and classifier group. The last two—d component & i component—change the qualities of the classifier.

We will be discussing each of these switches in future chapters, and also looking at different verb modes and how they are activated on the switch-board. There are basically two types of components in a Tlingit verb: ones that have meaning and ones that only have a grammatical function. For example, most of the thematic prefixes have embedded meanings and add their meaning to the verb. Other parts of the verb exist to put the verb into certain modes. This can be confusing in some instances because a compo-nent may have meaning but is present only because of the verb mode.

components with meaning components with grammatical function only

preverbs outer conjugationreciprocal inner conjugation3p plural g̱a mode

objectthematic 1thematic 2thematic 3

self-benefactiveirrealis

perfectivesubject

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The areas that activate for the perfective (+) are the perfective mark-er and the +i component. The object and subject can change, and their presence depends on the transitivity of the verb. Keep in mind, though, that if there is an object (O) or subject (S) in the theme, then it must be there unless the transitivity of the verb has changed. The thematic prefixes can change, but doing so creates a new verb. As you learn to use the perfec-tive (+), what you are really doing is learning all the possible combinations of objects, thematic prefixes, perfective marker, subjects, and the classifier. In order to learn this information, we start with the subject and classifier combinations, then look at adding thematic prefixes, changing objects. By studying their patterns and practicing various combinations, we can learn to use the perfective (+) mode and then start looking at some of the specifics of verb components and how to form other modes.

Prefixes with the perfective marker and +i component have complex, but predictable prefixes. We can learn the patterns and apply them to other verbs. There are patterns for ∅ group classifiers and then slightly different patterns for the other classifiers (s group, l group, sh group) that are iden-tical except for a consonant change. Once we have the classifier, then we should be able to learn, predict, and use different subject pronouns. Most modern resources will give us the third person object and subject, and we can change object and subject and accurately predict the prefix.

Stem variation is predictable in the perfective. There are six stem types, which are marked in the theme. If there is no consonant at the end, then the stem is either open or fading. The open stem is unmarked and the fading stem is marked by the superscript letter h, as in:

O-shu-ka-S-∅-√jaa ʰ (∅ act verb – transitive)for S to instruct, show O (by word); for S to advise, give advice to, counsel O

Stems that end in a consonant are closed and there are three types: closed, glottal, and ejective. Both glottal and ejective are marked in the stem with a high tone mark, and the closed is unmarked. The final type is invariable, which is marked with a superscript cross ˟.

Invariable stems never change, so they are the exception to the rules. For all others, there are three factors that determine stem variation. The stem type and conjugation prefix, which are marked in the theme, and then the verb mode. Once you know the stem type and conjugation prefix, then it is a matter of learning the variables for the verb mode. As we will see, there is a familiar patter: ∅ and everything else.

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28

This is a lot of information to take in, but there are tables provided to guide you as you internalize the patterns of stem variation. When it comes to the perfective, the rules of stem variation are highly predictable: all open and fading stems will be long and high (cv́v) for ∅ conjugation verbs, and long and low (cvv) for non-∅ (na, ga, g̱a) conjugation verbs; closed stems will be short and high (cv́c) for ∅ conjugation verbs and long and low (cvvc) for non-∅; and both glottal and ejective stems will be short and high (cv́c/cv́cʼ) for ∅ and long and high (cv́vc/cv́vcʼ) for non-∅ verbs.

type theme con pre pattern type theme con pre pattern

open cvv ∅ cv́v closed cvvc ∅ cv́cna, ga, g̱a cvv na, ga, g̱a cvvc

fading cvv ʰ ∅ cv́v glottal cv́vc ∅ cv́cna, ga, g̱a cvv na, ga, g̱a cv́vc

ejective cv́vcʼ ∅ cv́cʼna, ga, g̱a cv́vcʼ

With practice, you will discover that the verb theme gives all the informa-tion needed to properly conjugate a verb. It shows the prefix content and stem type, and then you can adjust as needed for verb mode and person. The table below shows what the stem types look like in the theme, what the predicted stem variation should be, and then the perfective form of the verb. When thinking about stem variation, remember that the stem type is given in the theme (cvv, cvv ʰ, cvvc, cv́vc, cv́vcʼ, xxx ˟).

type theme con pre pattern theme perfective

open cvv ∅ cv́v (yéi) + O-S-∅-√saa ² (∅ event) yéi aawasáana, ga, g̱a cvv O-ka-S-s-√nei ³ (na act) akawsinei

fading cvv ʰ ∅ cv́v O-S-l-√lʼaa ʰ (∅ act) awlilʼáana, ga, g̱a cvv S-∅-√taa ¹ ʰ (na act) wootaa

closed cvvc ∅ cv́c O-S-∅-√look (∅ act) aawalúkna, ga, g̱a cvvc O-S-sh-√kʼaan (ga state) awshikʼaan

glottal cv́vc ∅ cv́c ya-d+∅-√g̱éel (∅ event) yawdig̱íl

na, ga, g̱a cv́vc O-S-l-√sháat (g̱a act) awlisháatejective cv́vcʼ ∅ cv́cʼ a-S-∅-√lóoxʼ (∅ act) aawalúxʼ

na, ga, g̱a cv́vcʼ sh + ka-S-d+l-√háachʼ (na state) sh kawdliháachʼinvariable — — — O-l-√tseen ˟ (ga state) wulitseen

O-S-s-√x̱án ˟ (ga state) awsix̲án

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29

O-S-∅-√tʼei ˟ (ga event verb – transitive)or S to find O (usually as the result of searching)

S-d+∅-√ḵaa (∅ act verb – subject intransitive)for S to sew

tlingit pattern tlingit pattern

x̱waatʼei ∅-ÿu-x̱a-ÿa x̱wadiḵáa ÿu-x̱a-diwutuwatʼei ∅-ÿu-tu-ÿa wutudiḵáa ÿu-tu-di

yeetʼei ∅-ÿu-i-ÿa yidiḵáa ÿu-i-diyeeytʼei ∅-ÿu-yi-ÿa yeeydiḵáa ÿu-yi-diaawatʼei a-ÿu-∅-ÿa wudiḵáa ÿu-∅-di

has aawatʼei has + a-ÿu-∅-ÿa has wudiḵáa has + ÿu-∅-diwuduwatʼei ∅-ÿu-du-ÿa wuduwaḵáa ÿu-du-ÿa

O-S-s-√teen ² (g̱a event verb – transitive)for S to see, behold O (usually specific)

a + géi⁓ + S-d+s-√geet ² (∅ event verb – subject intransitive)for S to violate, break (law or custom), to do something wrong


x̱wasiteen ∅-ÿu-x̱a-si a géit x̱wadzigít ÿu-x̱a-dziwutusiteen ∅-ÿu-tu-si a géit wutudzigít ÿu-tu-dzi

yisiteen ∅-ÿu-i-si a géit yidzigít ÿu-i-dziyeeysiteen ∅-ÿu-yi-si a géit yeeydzigít ÿu-yi-dziawsiteen a-ÿu-∅-si a géit wudzigít ÿu-∅-dzi

has awsiteen has + a-ÿu-∅-si a géit has wudzigít has + ÿu-∅-dziwududziteen ∅-ÿu-du-dzi a géit wududzigít ÿu-du-dzi

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O-S-l-√kʼoots (na event verb – transitive)for S to break O (esp. rope-like objects)

S-d+l-√ḵooʰ (na act verb – subject intransitive)for S to vomit, throw up


x̱walikʼoots ∅-ÿu-x̱a-li x̱wadliḵoo ÿu-x̱a-dliwutulikʼoots ∅-ÿu-tu-li wutudliḵoo ÿu-tu-dli

yilikʼoots ∅-ÿu-i-li yidliḵoo ÿu-i-dliyeeylikʼoots ∅-ÿu-yi-li yeeydliḵoo ÿu-yi-dliawlikʼoots a-ÿu-∅-li wudliḵoo ÿu-∅-dli

has awlikʼoots has + a-ÿu-∅-li has wudliḵoo has + ÿu-∅-dliwududlikʼoots ∅-ÿu-du-dli wududliḵoo ÿu-du-dli

O-S-sh-√kʼaan (ga state verb – transitive)for S to hate O

O-S-d+sh-√ḵoox̱ ² (∅ act verb – transitive)for S to contribute O (food to share) to a potluck or gathering


x̱washikʼaan ∅-ÿu-x̱a-shi x̱wajiḵúx̱ ∅-ÿu-x̱a-jiwutushikʼaan ∅-ÿu-tu-shi wutujiḵúx̱ ∅-ÿu-tu-ji

yishikʼaan ∅-ÿu-i-shi yijiḵúx̱ ∅-ÿu-i-jiyeeyshikʼaan ∅-ÿu-yi-shi yeeyjiḵúx̱ ∅-ÿu-yi-jiawshikʼaan a-ÿu-∅-shi awjiḵúx̱ a-ÿu-∅-ji

has awshikʼaan has + a-ÿu-∅-shi has awjiḵúx̱ has + a-ÿu-∅-jiwudujikʼaan ∅-ÿu-du-ji wudujiḵúx̱ ∅-ÿu-du-ji

After looking at these examples, take note of the transitivity of the verb. If there is an object (O) in the theme, then it must be there. If there is a sub-ject, then it must be there. Even for verbs where the object would never re-ally change, we must keep in mind that it is there so we can make the proper third person object & subject combination (a- ... ∅-). For example, table below shows how English drops a pronoun when specifying the verb, how Tlingit does not, and what English would look like with Tlingit grammatical rules regarding pronoun use.

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english tlingit prefix english w/ tlingit grammar

i saw a cat dóosh x̱wasiteen ∅-ÿu-x̱a-si i saw it cat

we saw a cat dóosh wutusiteen ∅-ÿu-tu-si we saw it cat

you saw a cat dóosh yisiteen ∅-ÿu-i-si you saw it cat

you all saw a cat dóosh yeeysiteen ∅-ÿu-yi-si you all saw it cat

s/he saw a cat dóosh awsiteen a-ÿu-∅-si s/he saw it cat

they saw a cat dóosh has awsiteen has + a-ÿu-∅-si they saw it cat

a cat was seen dóosh wududziteen ∅-ÿu-du-dzi cat it was seen

Now that we have looked at examples of perfective verbs without the-matic prefixes, fill in the blanks with what you think would be the correct conjugation for the subject in the following examples, and also give the expanded pattern for the prefix. Make sure to note the verb transitivity—whether or not there is an object. You can check your work at the end of the chapter.

Perfective Exercises

O-S-∅-√.aax̱ ¹ (∅ event verb – transitive)for S to hear O

O-S-∅-√.een ¹ (∅ act verb – transitive)for S to pick O (esp. berries) into a container

S tlingit pattern tlingit pattern

1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

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S-d+∅-√shooch (∅ act verb – subject intransitive)for S to bathe, take a bath

káx̱ + O-S-d+∅-√tee ʰ ⁴ (g̱a event verb – transitive)for S to put on O (shirt, dress, etc.)


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

O-S-s-√koo ʰ ¹ (∅ event verb – transitive)for S to know, be acquainted with, make known O (esp. people, facts); for S to learn O (esp. facts)

O-S-s-√néekw ˟ ¹ (ga state verb – transitive)for S to make O sick


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

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33

O-S-d+s-√g̱áax̱ (g̱a act verb – transitive)for S to cry for, ask for O

O-S-d+s-√néexʼ (∅ act verb – transitive)for S to sense the odor of O


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

O-S-l-√.aax̱ ¹ (∅ act verb – transitive)for S to play O (musical instrument)

O-S-l-√chʼéix̱ʼw ¹ (∅ event verb – transitive)for S to dirty, soil O (esp. clothing or person)


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

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34

S-d+l-√saa ³ (∅ event verb – subject intransitive)for S to rest

sh + S-d+l-√kʼáatlʼ (∅ event verb – subject intransitive)for S to become quiet, keep quiet; for S to stop talking or crying


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

O-S-sh-√góok ¹ ˟ (ga state verb – transitive)for S to know, learn how to do O

N-t + S-d+sh-√kʼéin (na motion verb – subject intransitive)for (singular) S to jump around at N


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

The Perfective With Thematic Prefixes

The thematic prefix adds consonants to the prefix, but the results are still predictable. A verb can have up to three thematic prefixes, but only the last one will contract with the perfective marker, subject, and the classifier (for ∅ group). In the ∅ group classifier verbs below we see identical prefixes with each verb. Keeping the prefix (object, thematic prefixes, conjugating prefix-es, subject, classifier) and stem (√root, stem variation) separate helps us see the cut and paste nature of these patterns. That means that you can learn

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35

these prefixes patterns and add them to the stem.

Again, we see two types prefixes here: the ∅ group classifier, and the others. The ∅ group behaves differently than others, but there are some sim-ilarities. While it may seem like a lot to process, the beauty is that once you have it you can plug any consonant-vowel combination (CV) in before the perfective marker and the verb will conjugate the same from the final the-matic prefix until the stem. The exception to this are thematic prefixes «sa-» (voice) and x̱ʼa (mouth/opening), which change to «sei-» and «x̱ʼei-» for a ∅ group classifier perfective without a subject marker, or with the 3rd person ∅ marker, as in «x̱at seiwa.átʼ» (i am cold) and «yoo x̱ʼeiwatán» (s/he spoke).

To begin looking at perfectives with thematic prefixes, note the identical prefixes in the following verbs, and then look through the various examples:

kax̱waa- + -√haa kax̱waa- + -√héesʼ prefix stem prefix stem

O-ka-S-∅-√haa ¹ (na act verb – transitive)for S to plant O

O-ka-S-∅-√héesʼ (ga act verb – transitive)for S to borrow O (esp. round, spherical object)

tlingit pattern prediction of other verb

kax̱waahaa ∅-ka-ÿu-x̱a-ÿa kax̱waahéesʼkawtuwahaa ∅-ka-ÿu-tu-ÿa kawtuwahéesʼ

keeyahaa ∅-ka-ÿu-i-ÿa keeyahéesʼkayeeyhaa ∅-ka-ÿu-yi-ÿa kayeeyhéesʼakaawahaa a-ka-ÿu-∅-ÿa akaawahéesʼ

has akaawahaa has + a-ka-ÿu-∅-ÿa has akaawahéesʼkawduwahaa ∅-ka-ÿu-du-ÿa kawduwahéesʼ

The Perfective Mode

36

ya-ka-S-d+∅-√náash ˟ (∅ act? verb – subject intransitive) for S to shake her/his own head (often to signal 'no')

yan~ + x̱ʼa-S-d+∅-√tsʼéin (∅ motion verb – subject intransitive) for S to quieten down, stop talking


yakax̱wdináash ya-ka-ÿu-x̱a-di yan x̱ʼax̱wditsʼán x̱ʼa-ÿu-x̱a-diyakawtudináash ya-ka-ÿu-tu-di yan x̱ʼawtuditsʼán x̱ʼa-ÿu-tu-di

yakaydináash ya-ka-ÿu-i-di yan x̱ʼayditsʼán x̱ʼa-ÿu-i-diyakayeeydináash ya-ka-ÿu-yi-di yan x̱ʼayeeyditsʼán x̱ʼa-ÿu-yi-di

yakawdináash ya-ka-ÿu-∅-di yan x̱ʼawditsʼán x̱ʼa-ÿu-∅-dihas yakawdináash has + ya-ka-ÿu-∅-di yan has x̱ʼawditsʼán has + x̱ʼa-ÿu-∅-diyakawduwanáash ya-ka-ÿu-du-ÿa yan x̱ʼawduwatsʼán x̱ʼa-ÿu-du-ÿa

O-ka-S-s-√kei (g̱a act verb – transitive)for S to trail, follow tracks of O; for S to untangle O; for S to rip back, undo O (sewing, knitting)

O-ka-S-l-√neek (na act verb – transitive)for S to tell the story of O; for S to talk into O


kax̱wsikei ka-ÿu-x̱a-si kax̱wlineek ka-ÿu-x̱a-likawtusikei ka-ÿu-tu-si kawtulineek ka-ÿu-tu-li

kaysikei ka-ÿu-i-si kaylineek ka-ÿu-i-likayeeysikei ka-ÿu-yi-si kayeeylineek ka-ÿu-yi-liakawsikei ka-ÿu-∅-si akawlineek ka-ÿu-∅-li

has akawsikei has + ka-ÿu-∅-si has akawlineek has + ka-ÿu-∅-likawdudzikei ka-ÿu-du-dzi kawdudlineek ka-ÿu-du-dli

The Perfective Verb

37

ka-S-d+s-√nei ³ (∅ act verb – subject intransitive)for S to knit, weave, or crochet

ash + ka-u-S-d+l-√yát ˟ (na act verb – subject intransitive)for S to play (esp. active games)


kax̱wdzinéi ka-ÿu-x̱a-dzi ash kax̱wdliyát ka-ÿu-x̱a-dlikawtudzinéi ka-ÿu-tu-dzi ash kawtudliyát ka-ÿu-tu-dli

kaydzinéi ka-ÿu-i-dzi ash kaydliyát ka-ÿu-i-dlikayeeydzinéi ka-ÿu-yi-dzi ash kayeeydliyát ka-ÿu-yi-dli

kawdzinéi ka-ÿu-∅-dzi ash kawdliyát ka-ÿu-∅-dlihas kawdzinéi has + ka-ÿu-∅-dzi has ash kawdliyát has + ka-ÿu-∅-dlikawdudzinéi ka-ÿu-du-dzi ash kawdudliyát ka-ÿu-du-dli

O-ka-S-sh-√xeet (∅ act verb – transitive)for S to write, draw, or paint a picture of O; for S to print O by hand; for S to photograph, take pictures, X-rays of O

ka-S-d+sh-√xeet (∅ act verb – subject intransitive)for S to write, draw, or paint; for S to take a photograph


kax̱wshixít ka-ÿu-x̱a-shi kax̱wjixít ka-ÿu-x̱a-jikawtushixít ka-ÿu-tu-shi kawtujixít ka-ÿu-tu-ji

kayshixít ka-ÿu-i-shi kayjixít ka-ÿu-i-jikayeeyshixít ka-ÿu-yi-shi kayeeyjixít ka-ÿu-yi-jiakawshixít ka-ÿu-∅-shi kawjixít ka-ÿu-∅-ji

has akawshixít has + ka-ÿu-∅-shi has kawjixít has + ka-ÿu-∅-jikawdujixít ka-ÿu-du-ji kawdujixít ka-ÿu-du-ji

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38

O-x̱ʼa-S-∅-√déexʼ (∅ event verb – transitive)for S to cork up (bottle), shut mouth of O

O-sa-S-∅-√.aax̱ ¹ (∅ event verb – transitive)for S to hear O (a voice, esp. singing)


x̱ʼax̱waadíxʼ ÿa-ÿu-x̱a-ÿa sax̱waa.áx̱ sa-ÿu-x̱a-ÿax̱ʼawtuwadíxʼ ÿa-ÿu-tu-ÿa sawtuwa.áx̱ sa-ÿu-tu-ÿa

x̱ʼeeyadíxʼ ÿa-ÿu-i-ÿa seeya.áx̱ sa-ÿu-i-ÿax̱ʼayeeydíxʼ ÿa-ÿu-yi-ÿa sayeey.áx̱ sa-ÿu-yi-ÿaax̱ʼeiwadíxʼ ÿa-ÿu-∅-ÿa aseiwa.áx̱ sa-ÿu-∅-ÿa

has ax̱ʼeiwadíxʼ has + ÿa-ÿu-∅-ÿa has aseiwa.áx̱ has + sa-ÿu-∅-ÿax̱ʼawduwadíxʼ ÿa-ÿu-du-ÿa sawduwa.áx̱ sa-ÿu-du-ÿa

The last pattern to look at is the a-theme verbs, which have different results than other thematic prefixes because they do not start with a consonant.

N + éekʼ + a-S-∅-√heen ¹ ˟ (ga state verb – subject intransitive) for S to believe, trust, believe in N

a-S-∅-√lʼeix̱ ˟ (na act verb – subject intransitive)for S to dance


du éekʼ ax̱waaheen a-ÿu-x̱a-∅ ax̱waalʼeix̱ a-ÿu-x̱a-∅du éekʼ awtuwaheen a-ÿu-yi-∅ awtuwalʼeix̱ a-ÿu-yi-∅

du éekʼ iyaheen a-ÿu-tu-∅ iyalʼeix̱ a-ÿu-tu-∅du éekʼ ayeeyheen a-ÿu-∅-∅ ayeeylʼeix̱ a-ÿu-∅-∅du éekʼ aawaheen a-ÿu-i-∅ aawalʼeix̱ a-ÿu-i-∅

du éekʼ has aawaheen has + a-ÿu-∅-∅ has aawalʼeix̱ has + a-ÿu-∅-∅du éekʼ awduwaheen a-ÿu-du-∅ awduwalʼeix̱ a-ÿu-du-∅

The Perfective Verb

39

shóo-t⁓ + a-S-d+∅-√.aak ² (∅ event verb – subject intransitive)for S to build a fire (using wood)

N-ch + a-S-s-√woo ¹ (∅ event verb – subject intransitive)for S to send N (often by mail)


shóot ax̱wdi.ák a-ÿu-x̱a-di ách ax̱wsiwóo a-ÿu-x̱a-sishóot awtudi.ák a-ÿu-tu-di ách awtusiwóo a-ÿu-tu-si

shóot aydi.ák a-ÿu-i-di ách aysiwóo a-ÿu-i-sishóot ayeeydi.ák a-ÿu-yi-di ách ayeeysiwóo a-ÿu-yi-si

shóot awdi.ák a-ÿu-∅-di ách awsiwóo a-ÿu-∅-sishóot has awdi.ák has + a-ÿu-∅-di ách has awsiwóo has + a-ÿu-∅-sishóot awduwa.ák a-ÿu-du-∅ ách awdudziwóo a-ÿu-du-dzi

The Perfective Mode

40

Now that we have looked at the thematic prefix perfective options, fill in the blanks as you did before. Keep in mind the classifier, transitivity, and how the CV system works to predict the prefix, even if the vowel chang-es. You can check your answers in the back of this chapter.

O-ya-S-∅-√dlaaḵ (na event verb – transitive)for S to gain, get, obtain, acquire O; for S to succeed, accomplish O; for S to defeat, beat O

O-ya-S-∅-√g̱éelʼ (∅ act verb – transitive)for S to sharpen O (with a grindstone)


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

ya-S-d+∅-√náaḵw ¹ (∅ act verb – subject intransitive)for S to bait hooks, put bait on fish hooks

tu-S-d+∅-√.oos ¹ (∅ event verb – subject intransitive)for S to pout, sulk, refuse to speak; for a machine to refuse to run


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

The Perfective Verb

41

(yóo) + O-ya-S-s-√ḵaa ¹ (na event verb – transitive)for S to tell, say (that) to O; for S to ask O to do (that)

O-ka-S-s-√nei ³ (na act verb – transitive)for S to make O (cloth of any kind) (by weaving, knitting, or crocheting); for S to make or mend O (net)


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

sha-S-d+s-√yaa ³ (na event verb – subject intransitive)for S to anchor, lower anchor

a-S-d+s-√g̱eiwú ˟ (na act verb – subject intransitive)for S to fish with net, seine


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

The Perfective Mode

42

O-ka-S-l-√séiḵʼw (∅ act verb – transitive)for S to stain, dye, color the surface of O

O-ka-S-l-√.eesh (∅ act verb – subject intransitive)for S to thread O (esp. beads), string together


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

sh + ka-S-d+l-√neek (na act verb – subject intransitive)for S to preach, narrate, tell a story

sha-S-d+l-√x̱óotʼ ¹ (na act verb – subject intransitive)for S to fish with rod, sportfish, cast


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

The Perfective Verb

43

O-ka-S-sh-√x̱ʼáalʼ (∅ event verb – transitive)for S to cook O (herring eggs) by dipping in boiling water and oil

O-ka-S-sh-√kʼaan (∅ act verb – transitive)for S to push O away; for S to shoo O away; for S to drive O away


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

sh + ka-S-d+sh-√xʼaaḵw ² (na event verb – subject intransitive)for S to be comfortable, sit or lie comfortably

sh + ka-S-d+sh-√g̱eiy (∅ event verb – subject intransitive)for S to dress up, smarten up, make an effort to look different


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

The Perfective Mode

44

answers


x̱waa.áx̱ ∅-ÿu-x̱a-ÿa x̱waa.ín ∅-ÿu-x̱a-ÿawutuwa.áx̱ ∅-ÿu-tu-ÿa wutuwa.ín ∅-ÿu-tu-ÿa

iya.áx̱ ∅-ÿu-i-ÿa iya.ín ∅-ÿu-i-ÿayeey.áx̱ ∅-ÿu-yi-ÿa yeey.ín ∅-ÿu-yi-ÿaaawa.áx̱ a-ÿu-∅-ÿa aawa.ín a-ÿu-∅-ÿa

has aawa.áx̱ has + a-ÿu-∅-ÿa has aawa.ín has + a-ÿu-∅-ÿawuduwa.áx̱ ∅-ÿu-du-ÿa wuduwa.ín ∅-ÿu-du-ÿa


x̱wadishúch ÿu-x̱a-di káx̱ x̱waditee ∅-ÿu-x̱a-diwutudishúch ÿu-tu-di káx̱ wutuditee ∅-ÿu-tu-di

yidishúch ÿu-i-di káx̱ yiditee ∅-ÿu-i-diyeeydishúch ÿu-yi-di káx̱ yeeyditee ∅-ÿu-yi-diwudishúch ÿu-∅-di káx̱ awditee a-ÿu-∅-di

has wudishúch has + ÿu-∅-di káx̱ has awditee has + a-ÿu-∅-diwuduwashúch ÿu-du-ÿa káx̱ wuduwatee ∅-ÿu-du-ÿa


x̱wasikóo ∅-ÿu-x̱a-si x̱wasinéekw ∅-ÿu-x̱a-siwutusikóo ∅-ÿu-tu-si wutusinéekw ∅-ÿu-tu-si

yisikóo ∅-ÿu-i-si yisinéekw ∅-ÿu-i-siyeeysikóo ∅-ÿu-yi-si yeeysinéekw ∅-ÿu-yi-siawsikóo a-ÿu-∅-si awsinéekw a-ÿu-∅-si

has awsikóo has + a-ÿu-∅-si has awsinéekw has + a-ÿu-∅-siwududzikóo ∅-ÿu-du-dzi wududzinéekw ∅-ÿu-du-dzi

The Perfective Verb

45


x̱wadzig̱áax̱ ∅-ÿu-x̱a-dzi x̱wadziníxʼ ∅-ÿu-x̱a-dziwutudzig̱áax̱ ∅-ÿu-tu-dzi wutudziníxʼ ∅-ÿu-tu-dzi

yidzig̱áax̱ ∅-ÿu-i-dzi yidziníxʼ ∅-ÿu-i-dziyeeydzig̱áax̱ ∅-ÿu-yi-dzi yeeydziníxʼ ∅-ÿu-yi-dziawdzig̱áax̱ a-ÿu-∅-dzi awdziníxʼ a-ÿu-∅-dzi

has awdzig̱áax̱ has + a-ÿu-∅-dzi has awdziníxʼ has + a-ÿu-∅-dziwududzig̱áax̱ ∅-ÿu-du-dzi wududziníxʼ ∅-ÿu-du-dzi


x̱wali.áx̱ ∅-ÿu-x̱a-li x̱walichʼéx̱ʼw ∅-ÿu-x̱a-liwutuli.áx̱ ∅-ÿu-tu-li wutulichʼéx̱ʼw ∅-ÿu-tu-li

yili.áx̱ ∅-ÿu-i-li yilichʼéx̱ʼw ∅-ÿu-i-liyeeyli.áx̱ ∅-ÿu-yi-li yeeylichʼéx̱ʼw ∅-ÿu-yi-liawli.áx̱ a-ÿu-∅-li awlichʼéx̱ʼw a-ÿu-∅-li

has awli.áx̱ has + a-ÿu-∅-li has awlichʼéx̱ʼw has + a-ÿu-∅-liwududli.áx̱ ∅-ÿu-du-dli wududlichʼéx̱ʼw ∅-ÿu-du-dli


x̱wadlisáa ÿu-x̱a-dli sh x̱wadlikʼátlʼ ÿu-x̱a-dliwutudlisáa ÿu-tu-dli sh wutudlikʼátlʼ ÿu-tu-dli

yidlisáa ÿu-i-dli sh yidlikʼátlʼ ÿu-i-dliyeeydlisáa ÿu-yi-dli sh yeeydlikʼátlʼ ÿu-yi-dliwudlisáa ÿu-∅-dli sh wudlikʼátlʼ ÿu-∅-dli

has wudlisáa has + ÿu-∅-dli has sh wudlikʼátlʼ has + ÿu-∅-dliwududlisáa ÿu-du-dli sh wududlikʼátlʼ ÿu-du-dli


x̱washigóok ∅-ÿu-x̱a-shi át x̱wajikʼéin ÿu-x̱a-jiwutushigóok ∅-ÿu-tu-shi át haa kawduwakʼéin haa + ka-ÿu-du-∅

yishigóok ∅-ÿu-i-shi át yijikʼéin ÿu-i-jiyeeyshigóok ∅-ÿu-yi-shi át yee kawduwakʼéin yee + ka-ÿu-du-∅awshigóok ∅-ÿu-∅-shi át wujikʼéin ÿu-∅-ji

has awshigóok has + a-∅-ÿu-∅-shi át has kawduwakʼéin has + ∅-ka-ÿu-du-ÿawudujigóok ∅-ÿu-du-shi át ḵaa kawduwakʼéin a-ka-ÿu-du-ÿa

The Perfective Mode

46


yax̱waadlaaḵ ∅-ÿa-ÿu-x̱a-ÿa yax̱waag̱ílʼ ∅-ka-ÿu-x̱a-ÿayawtuwadlaaḵ ∅-ÿa-ÿu-tu-ÿa yawtuwag̱ílʼ ∅-ÿa-ÿu-tu-ÿa

yeeyadlaaḵ ∅-ÿa-ÿu-i-ÿa yeeyag̱ílʼ ∅-ÿa-ÿu-i-ÿayayeeydlaaḵ ∅-ÿa-ÿu-yi-ÿa yayeeyg̱ílʼ ∅-ÿa-ÿu-yi-ÿaayaawadlaaḵ a-ÿa-ÿu-∅-ÿa ayaawag̱ílʼ a-ÿa-ÿu-∅-ÿa

has ayaawadlaaḵ has + a-ÿa-ÿu-∅-ÿa has ayaawag̱ílʼ has + a-ÿa-ÿu-∅-ÿayawduwadlaaḵ ∅-ÿa-ÿu-du-ÿa yawduwag̱ílʼ ∅-ÿa-ÿu-du-ÿa


yax̱wdináḵw ÿa-ÿu-x̱a-di tux̱wdi.ús tu-ÿu-x̱a-diyawtudináḵw ÿa-ÿu-tu-di tuwtudi.ús tu-ÿu-tu-di

yaydináḵw ÿa-ÿu-i-di tuydi.ús tu-ÿu-i-diyayeeydináḵw ÿa-ÿu-yi-di tuyeeydi.ús tu-ÿu-yi-di

yawdináḵw ÿa-ÿu-∅-di tuwdi.ús tu-ÿu-∅-dihas yawdináḵw has + ÿa-ÿu-∅-di has tuwdi.ús has + tu-ÿu-∅-diyawduwanáḵw ÿa-ÿu-du-ÿa tuwduwa.ús tu-ÿu-du-ÿa


yóo yax̱wsiḵaa ∅-ÿa-ÿu-x̱a-si kax̱wsinei ∅-ka-ÿu-x̱a-siyóo yawtusiḵaa ∅-ÿa-ÿu-tu-si kawtusinei ∅-ka-ÿu-tu-si

yóo yaysiḵaa ∅-ÿa-ÿu-i-si kaysinei ∅-ka-ÿu-i-siyóo yayeeysiḵaa ∅-ÿa-ÿu-yi-si kayeeysinei ∅-ka-ÿu-yi-siyóo ayawsiḵaa a-ÿa-ÿu-∅-si akawsinei a-ka-ÿu-∅-si

yóo (ha)s ayawsiḵaa has + a-ÿa-ÿu-∅-si has akawsinei has + a-ka-ÿu-∅-siyóo yawdudziḵaa ∅-ÿa-ÿu-du-dzi kawdudzinei ∅-ka-ÿu-du-dzi


shax̱wdziyaa sha-ÿu-x̱a-dzi ax̱wdzig̱eiwú a-ÿu-x̱a-dzishawtudziyaa sha-ÿu-tu-dzi awtudzig̱eiwú a-ÿu-tu-dzi

shaydziyaa sha-ÿu-i-dzi aydzig̱eiwú a-ÿu-i-dzishayeeydziyaa sha-ÿu-yi-dzi ayeeydzig̱eiwú a-ÿu-yi-dzi

shawdziyaa sha-ÿu-∅-dzi awdzig̱eiwú a-ÿu-∅-dzihas shawdziyaa has + sha-ÿu-∅-dzi has awdzig̱eiwú has + a-ÿu-∅-dzishawdudziyaa sha-ÿu-du-dzi awdudzig̱eiwú a-ÿu-du-dzi

The Perfective Verb

47


kax̱wliséḵʼw ∅-ka-ÿu-x̱a-li kax̱wli.ísh ∅-ka-ÿu-x̱a-likawtuliséḵʼw ∅-ka-ÿu-tu-li kawtuli.ísh ∅-ka-ÿu-tu-li

kayliséḵʼw ∅-ka-ÿu-i-li kayli.ísh ∅-ka-ÿu-i-likayeeyliséḵʼw ∅-ka-ÿu-yi-li kayeeyli.ísh ∅-ka-ÿu-yi-liakawliséḵʼw a-ka-ÿu-∅-li akawli.ísh a-ka-ÿu-∅-li

has akawliséḵʼw has + a-ka-ÿu-∅-li has akawli.ísh has + a-ka-ÿu-∅-likawdudliséḵʼw ∅-ka-ÿu-du-dli kawdudli.ísh ∅-ka-ÿu-du-dli


sh kax̱wdlineek ka-ÿu-x̱a-dli shax̱wdlix̱óotʼ sha-ÿu-x̱a-dlish kawtudlineek ka-ÿu-tu-dli shawtudlix̱óotʼ sha-ÿu-tu-dli

sh kaydlineek ka-ÿu-i-dli shaydlix̱óotʼ sha-ÿu-i-dlish kayeeydlineek ka-ÿu-yi-dli shayeeydlix̱óotʼ sha-ÿu-yi-dli

sh kawdlineek ka-ÿu-dli shawdlix̱óotʼ sha-ÿu-∅-dli

has sh kawdlineek has + ka-ÿu-dli has shawdlix̱óotʼ has + sha-ÿu-∅-dli

sh kawdudlineek ka-ÿu-du-dli shawdudlix̱óotʼ sha-ÿu-du-dli


kax̱wshix̱ʼálʼ ∅-ka-ÿu-x̱a-shi kax̱wshikʼán ∅-ka-ÿu-x̱a-shikawtushix̱ʼálʼ ∅-ka-ÿu-tu-shi kawtushikʼán ∅-ka-ÿu-tu-shi

kayshix̱ʼálʼ ∅-ka-ÿu-i-shi kayshikʼán ∅-ka-ÿu-i-shikayeeyshix̱ʼálʼ ∅-ka-ÿu-yi-shi kayeeyshikʼán ∅-ka-ÿu-yi-shiakawshix̱ʼálʼ a-ka-ÿu-∅-shi akawshikʼán a-ka-ÿu-∅-shi

has akawshix̱ʼálʼ has + a-ka-ÿu-∅-shi has akawshikʼán has + a-ka-ÿu-∅-shikawdujix̱ʼálʼ ∅-ka-ÿu-du-ji kawdujikʼán ∅-ka-ÿu-du-ji


sh kax̱wjixʼaaḵw ka-ÿu-x̱a-ji sh kax̱wjig̱éiy ka-ÿu-x̱a-jish kawtujixʼaaḵw ka-ÿu-tu-ji sh kawtujig̱éiy ka-ÿu-tu-ji

sh kayjixʼaaḵw ka-ÿu-i-ji sh kayjig̱éiy ka-ÿu-i-jish kayeeyjixʼaaḵw ka-ÿu-yi-ji sh kayeeyjig̱éiy ka-ÿu-yi-ji

sh kawjixʼaaḵw ka-ÿu-∅-ji sh kawjig̱éiy ka-ÿu-∅-jihas sh kawjixʼaaḵw has + ka-ÿu-∅-ji has sh kawjig̱éiy has + ka-ÿu-∅-jish kawdujixʼaaḵw ka-ÿu-du-ji sh kawdujig̱éiy ka-ÿu-du-ji

The Perfective Mode

48

The Futureyéi at gug̱aneiyí

«Aadóo sá ax̱ een? Dei x̱áa kei gux̱lanáa.» Ḵaa x̱oot áwé woochʼéex̱ʼ, tsu sh wududlikʼátlʼ, ḵaa tóox̱ ḵoowateeyi yáx̱ áwé yatee.

– Kooxíchxʼ

“Who is with me?This is what's going to destroy me.”

He was shouting this out among the people; they were silent,as if they were frightened.

– Alex Andrews 1

1 Andrews, Alex. “The Battle at Indian River.” Anóoshi Lingít Aaní Ká / Russians in Tlingit America. trans. Nora Dauenhauer & Richard Dauenhauer. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2015), 341.

The Future Mode

50

Participants of the Juneau Tlingit Language Nest working group at the Juneau Valley Library.

Tlingit language class presentation by Shaadootlaa (Seattle). Photo by Ryan Cortez.

The Tlingit Verb

51

The Future (+) and Future (–) Mode

Once we have begun identifying how to create the prefix patterns for verb mode and then adjust them for the subject, we can begin internalizing the patterns of other verb modes. The future (+) mode, while it can create longer prefixes, is the most predictable mode because the prefix combina-tions create a limted number of variations and the stem variation has fewer overall rules.

Returning to our original example verb, we will see how the prefix changes shape when the subject changes. The first person singular (1s) and second person singular (2s) have variations that may vary regionally or according to dialect or personal preference, but the most commonly used forms are the first ones listed here and used in the examples.

S english tlingit

1s i will sew it kḵwaḵáa / kwḵaḵáa / kuḵaḵáa1p we will sew it gax̱tooḵáa2s you will sew it kg̱eeḵáa / gag̱eeḵáa2p you all will sew it gax̱yiḵáa3s s/he will sew it akg̱waḵáa3p they will sew it has akg̱waḵáa4h it will be sewed gax̱duḵáa

If we were to pull the prefix apart in the above examples, they would look like this:

preverb prefix stem

3 pl object ga-md irr g̱a-md subject class root

kḵwaḵáa – ∅ ga u g̱a x̱a ∅ √ḵáagax̱tooḵáa – ∅ ga u g̱a tu ∅ √ḵáa

kg̱eeḵáa – ∅ ga u g̱a i ∅ √ḵáagax̱yiḵáa – ∅ ga u g̱a yi ∅ √ḵáa

akg̱waḵáa – a ga u g̱a ∅ ∅ √ḵáahas akg̱waḵáa has a ga u g̱a ∅ ∅ √ḵáa

gax̱duḵáa – ∅ ga u g̱a du ∅ √ḵáa

The Future Mode

52

Future (+) Mode

The prefix is long, but highly predictable in the future mode. To begin understanding this pattern and how the future mode functions, we should revisit basic verbal structure. For future verbs, we need to pay attention to the preverb, conjugation, classifier, and stem.

In the preverb, all future modes require «kei» for all ga conjugation verbs and «yei» for all g̱a conjugation verbs. There is nothing in the pre-verb for na conjugation and ∅ conjugation verbs. This is shown in the table below:

prefix

con p tlingit translation preverb object conj subject class

∅ adaagux̱sa.áax̱w s/he will wrap it up — a ga-u-g̱a ∅ –i

na agux̱lakʼóots s/he will break it (rope-like object) — — ga-u-g̱a ∅ –i

ga kei tugux̱la.aan s/he will be kind kei ∅ ga-u-g̱a — –i

g̱a yei at gug̱wachoox̱ s/he will freeload yei — ga-u-g̱a ∅ –i

The Tlingit Verb

53

The conjugation sequence for all future verbs is «ga-u-g̱a» which is ga-mode + irrealis + g̱a-mode. These prefixes do not have meaning, but instead have grammatical function. They activate in this combination to create the future mode. This conjugation sequence will always appear between the object and subject, or for verbs with thematic prefixes between the thematic and subject.

All future verbs will have a –i classifier, which means the classifier is stable and must be one of the options below:

group –i classifier group –i classifier

∅ ∅ l la ~ lⱥ

d+∅ da d+l l


s sa ~ sⱥ sh sha ~ shⱥ

d+s s d+sh sh

In rare cases, the «sa», «la» and «sha» classifiers will contract to «s», «l», and «sh». This vowel deletion can cause confusion about the classifier and whether or not it is +d. Vowel deletion in the classifier occurs when the clas-sifier is immediately preceded by any of the following:

prefix appearance classifier vowel deleted form

a-thematic a- sa s

irrealis u- la l

na-con, na-mode na- sha sh

g̱a-con, g̱a-mode g̱a-

perfective ÿu-

distributive dag̱a-

4th person human du-

These factors make the prefix highly predictable in the future mode, and the prefix does not change for the future (–) mode. There are two types of variables for the future prefix. The first is a personal preference or perhaps a dialect choice, and the second is determined by whether or not the classifier has a vowel.

The Future Mode

54

The first person singular (1sg), second person singular (2sg), and third person (3) subjects have optional variations when there is no themetic pre-fix. In the examples given in this chapter, one variation is used, but keep in mind that the other variations are correct. If you hear it said more often in a certain way among speakers in your community, then model their method. As we look at the prefixes, note similarities in the patterns, which show you the diference between classifiers with a vowel (sa, la, sha) and those with-out a vowel (∅, s, l, sh). Classifiers with a vowel have a different third person (3) prefix, and classifiers without a vowel with push the final vowel in the second person (3) prefix to be long.

1sg 2sg 3

class prefix class prefix class prefix

∅kḵwakuḵakwḵa

∅ kg̱eegag̱ee ∅ kg̱wa

gug̱a

Ca(da, sa, la, sha)

kḵwaCakuḵaCakwḵaCa

Ca(da, sa, la, sha)

kg̱iCagag̱iCa

Ca(da, sa, la, sha) gux̱Ca

C ~ Cⱥ(s, l, sh)

kḵwaCkuḵaCkwḵaC

C ~ Cⱥ(s, l, sh)

kg̱eeCgag̱eeC

C ~ Cⱥ(s, l, sh)

kg̱wagug̱a

As you look at these examples, keep in mind that the capital letter «C» shows a consonant. That means that «Ca» can be «sa», «la», or «sha» and «C ~ Cⱥ» can be «s», «l», or «sh». For example, if you see «gux̱Ca» then the consonant is the only part that changes, depending on the classifier, as in the following:

pattern class. prefix class. prefix class. prefix class. prefix

gux̱Ca da gux̱da sa gux̱sa la gux̱la sha gux̱sha

Adding a thematic prefix intdrocudes another vowel, which eliminates the optional forms but keeps the variance

1sg 2sg 3

class prefix class prefix class prefix

∅ CVkḵwa ∅ CVkg̱ee ∅ CVkg̱waCa CVkḵwaCa Ca CVkg̱iCa Ca CVgux̱Ca

C ~ Cⱥ CVkḵwaC C ~ Cⱥ CVkg̱eeC C ~ Cⱥ CVkg̱wa

The Tlingit Verb

55

Stem variation in the future is the most consistent. All future (+) verb stems are long and high except for invariable stems.


open cvv ∅, na, ga, g̱a cv́v closed cvvc ∅, na, ga, g̱a cv́vcfading cvv ʰ ∅, na, ga, g̱a cv́v glottal cv́vc ∅, na, ga, g̱a cv́vc

ejective cv́vcʼ ∅, na, ga, g̱a cv́vcʼ

The Future (–) Mode

There are only two changes for the future (–) mode. The addition of «tlél» in the preverb creates the negative, and then open, fading, and closed stems are long and low and glottal and ejective stems are long and high (except for invariable stems). The prefix is identical because it contains all of the same components (ga-mode, irrealis, g̱a-mode).


open cvv ∅, na, ga, g̱a cvv closed cvvc ∅, na, ga, g̱a cvvcfading cvv ʰ ∅, na, ga, g̱a cvv glottal cv́vc ∅, na, ga, g̱a cv́vc

ejective cv́vcʼ ∅, na, ga, g̱a cv́vcʼ

Similar to the perfective exercises, we will now look at the same verbs that were listed above, except this time they are listed in the future (+) mode. To change them to future (–) mode you would add «tlél» to the prefix and change the stem to long and low, as shown below.

future (+) future (–)

yei kḵwasatéen i will see it tlél yei kḵwasateen i wonʼt see it

yei gax̱tusatéen we will see it tlél yei gax̱tusateen we wonʼt see it

yei kg̱isatéen you will see it tlél yei kg̱isateen you wonʼt see it

yei gax̱yisatéen you all will see it tlél yei gax̱yisateen you all wonʼt see it

yei agux̱satéen s/he will see it tlél yei agux̱sateen s/he wonʼt see it

yei has agux̱satéen they will see it tlél yei has agux̱sateen they wonʼt see it

yei gax̱dustéen it will be seen tlél yei gax̱dusteen it wonʼt be seen

The Future Mode

56

Stem variation for future (+) verbstype theme con pre pattern theme perfective

open cvv ∅ cv́v (yéi) + O-S-∅-√saa ² (∅ event) yéi akg̱wasáa

na, ga, g̱a cv́v O-ka-S-s-√nei ³ (na act) akagux̱sanéi

fading cvv ʰ ∅ cv́v O-S-l-√lʼaa ʰ (∅ act) agux̱lalʼáa

na, ga, g̱a cv́v S-∅-√taa ¹ ʰ (na act) gug̱atáa

closed cvvc ∅ cv́vc O-S-∅-√look (∅ act) akg̱walóok

na, ga, g̱a cv́vc O-S-sh-√kʼaan (ga state) kei agux̱shakʼáan

glottal cv́vc ∅ cv́vc ya-d+∅-√g̱éel (∅ event) yagux̱dag̱éel

na, ga, g̱a cv́vc O-S-l-√sháat (g̱a act) yei agux̲lasháat

ejective cv́vcʼ ∅ cv́vcʼ a-S-∅-√lóoxʼ (∅ act) akg̱walóoxʼ

na, ga, g̱a cv́vcʼ sh + ka-S-d+l-√háachʼ (na state) sh kakg̱walháachʼ

invariable — — — O-l-√tseen ˟ (ga state) kei gux̱latseen

O-S-s-√x̱án ˟ (ga state) kei agux̱sax̱án

Stem variation for future (–) verbstype theme con pre pattern theme perfective

open cvv ∅ cv́v (yéi) + O-S-∅-√saa ² (∅ event) tlél yéi akg̱wasaa

na, ga, g̱a cv́v O-ka-S-s-√nei ³ (na act) tlél akagux̱sanei

fading cvv ʰ ∅ cv́v O-S-l-√lʼaa ʰ (∅ act) tlél agux̱lalʼaa

na, ga, g̱a cv́v S-∅-√taa ¹ ʰ (na act) tlél gug̱ataa

closed cvvc ∅ cv́vc O-S-∅-√look (∅ act) tlél akg̱walook

na, ga, g̱a cv́vc O-S-sh-√kʼaan (ga state) tlél kei agux̱shakʼaan

glottal cv́vc ∅ cv́vc ya-d+∅-√g̱éel (∅ event) tlél yagux̱dag̱éel

na, ga, g̱a cv́vc O-S-l-√sháat (g̱a act) tlél yei agux̲lasháat

ejective cv́vcʼ ∅ cv́vcʼ a-S-∅-√lóoxʼ (∅ act) tlél akg̱walóoxʼ

na, ga, g̱a cv́vcʼ sh + ka-S-d+l-√háachʼ (na state) tlél sh kakg̱walháachʼ

invariable — — — O-l-√tseen ˟ (ga state) tlél kei gux̱latseen

O-S-s-√x̱án ˟ (ga state) tlél kei agux̱sax̱án

The Tlingit Verb

57

Future (+) Examples

O-S-∅-√tʼei ˟ (ga event verb – transitive)or S to find O (usually as the result of searching)

S-d+∅-√ḵaa (∅ act verb – subject intransitive)for S to sew


kei kḵwatʼei kei + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅ kḵwadaḵáa ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-dakei gax̱tootʼei kei + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-∅ gax̱tudaḵáa ga-u-g̱a-tu-da

kei kg̱eetʼei kei + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-∅ kg̱idaḵáa ga-u-g̱a-i-dakei gax̱yitʼei kei + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-∅ gax̱yidaḵáa ga-u-g̱a-yi-da

kei akg̱watʼei kei + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅ gux̱dak̲áa ga-u-g̱a-∅-dakei (ha)s akg̱watʼei kei + has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅ has gux̱daḵáa has + ga-u-g̱a-∅-da

kei gax̱dutʼei kei + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅ gax̱duḵáa ga-u-g̱a-du-∅

O-S-s-√teen ² (g̱a event verb – transitive)for S to see, behold O (usually specific)

a + géi⁓ + S-d+s-√geet ² (∅ event verb – subject intransitive)for S to violate, break (law or custom), to do something wrong


yei kḵwasatéen ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sa a géide kḵwasgéet ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-s

yei gax̱tusatéen ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sa a géide gax̱tusgéet ga-u-g̱a-tu-s

yei kg̱isatéen ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-sa a géide kg̱eesgéet ga-u-g̱a-i-syei gax̱yisatéen ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sa a géide gax̱yisgéet ga-u-g̱a-yi-syei agux̱satéen ∅-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa a géide kg̱wasgéet ga-u-g̱a-∅-s

yei (ha)s agux̱satéen has + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa a géide (ha)s kg̱wasgéet has + ga-u-g̱a-∅-syei gax̱dustéen ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-s a géide gax̱dusgéet ga-u-g̱a-du-s

The Future Mode

58

O-S-l-√kʼoots (na event verb – transitive)for S to break O (esp. rope-like objects)

S-d+l-√ḵooʰ (na act verb – subject intransitive)for S to vomit, throw up


kḵwalak'óots ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-la kḵwalḵóo ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-lgax̱tulakʼóots ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-la gax̱tulḵóo ga-u-g̱a-tu-l

kg̱ilakʼóots ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-la kg̱eelḵóo ga-u-g̱a-i-lgax̱yilakʼóots ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-la gax̱yilḵóo ga-u-g̱a-yi-lagux̱lakʼóots a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-la kg̱walḵóo ga-u-g̱a-∅-l

has agux̱lakʼóots has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-la has kg̱walḵóo has + ga-u-g̱a-∅-lgax̱dulkʼóots ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-l gax̱dulḵóo ga-u-g̱a-du-l

O-S-sh-√kʼaan (ga state verb – transitive)for S to hate O

O-S-d+sh-√ḵoox̱ ² (∅ act verb – transitive)for S to contribute O (food to share) to a potluck or gathering


kei kḵwashakʼáan ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sha kḵwashḵóox̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-shkei gax̱tushakʼáan ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sha gax̱tushḵóox̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sh

kei kg̱ishakʼáan ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-sha kg̱eeshḵóox̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-shkei gax̱yishakʼáan ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sha gax̱yishḵóox̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-shkei agux̱shakʼáan a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sha akg̱washḵóox̱ a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sh

kei (ha)s agux̱shakʼáan has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sha has akg̱washḵóox̱ has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-shkei gax̱dushkʼáan ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-sh gax̱dushḵóox̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-sh

The Tlingit Verb

59

Future Exercises

Now that we have looked at examples of future verbs without thematic prefixes, fill in the blanks with what you think would be the correct conjuga-tion for the subject in the following examples, and also give the expanded pattern for the prefix. Make sure to note the verb transitivity—whether or not there is an object. You can check your work at the end of the chapter.

O-S-∅-√.aax̱ ¹ (∅ event verb – transitive)for S to hear O

O-S-∅-√.een ¹ (∅ act verb – transitive)for S to pick O (esp. berries) into a container


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

S-d+∅-√shooch (∅ act verb – subject intransitive)for S to bathe, take a bath

káx̱ + O-S-d+∅-√tee ʰ ⁴ (g̱a event verb – transitive)for S to put on O (shirt, dress, etc.)


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

The Future Mode

60

O-S-s-√koo ʰ ¹ (∅ event verb – transitive)for S to know, be acquainted with, make known O (esp. people, facts); for S to learn O (esp. facts)

O-S-s-√néekw ˟ ¹ (ga state verb – transitive)for S to make O sick


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

O-S-d+s-√g̱áax̱ (g̱a act verb – transitive)for S to cry for, ask for O

O-S-d+s-√néexʼ (∅ act verb – transitive)for S to sense the odor of O


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

The Tlingit Verb

61

O-S-l-√.aax̱ ¹ (∅ act verb – transitive)for S to play O (musical instrument)

O-S-l-√chʼéix̱ʼw ¹ (∅ event verb – transitive)for S to dirty, soil O (esp. clothing or person)


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

S-d+l-√saa ³ (∅ event verb – subject intransitive)for S to rest

sh + S-d+l-√kʼáatlʼ (∅ event verb – subject intransitive)for S to become quiet, keep quiet; for S to stop talking or crying


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

The Future Mode

62

O-S-sh-√góok ¹ ˟ (ga state verb – transitive)for S to know, learn how to do O

N-t + S-d+sh-√kʼéin (na motion verb – subject intransitive)for (singular) S to jump around at N


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

The Future With Thematic Prefixes

The thematic prefix adds consonants to the prefix, but the results are still predictable. A verb can have up to three thematic prefixes, but only the last one will contract with the conjugation prefixes, subject, and classifier (for ∅ group). As stated earlier, this eliminates some of the optional prefix-es, and the prefixes might get very long, but they are still highly predictable once you can see the pattern.

To begin looking at perfectives with thematic prefixes, note the identical prefixes in the following verbs, and then look through the various examples:

kakḵwa- + -√háa kakḵwa- + -√héesʼ prefix stem prefix stem

The Tlingit Verb

63

O-ka-S-∅-√haa ¹ (na act verb – transitive)for S to plant O

O-ka-S-∅-√héesʼ (ga act verb – transitive)for S to borrow O (esp. round, spherical object)

tlingit pattern prediction of other verb

kakḵwaháa ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅ kei kakḵwahéesʼkagax̱tooháa ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-tu-∅ kei kagax̱toohéesʼ

kakg̱eeháa ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-∅ kei kakg̱eehéesʼkagax̱yiháa ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-∅ kei kagax̱yihéesʼ

akakg̱waháa a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅ kei akakg̱wahéesʼhas akakg̱waháa has + a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅ kei (ha)s akakg̱wahéesʼ

kagax̱duháa ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅ kei kagax̱duhéesʼ

ya-ka-S-d+∅-√náash ˟ (∅ act? verb – subject intransitive) for S to shake her/his own head (often to signal ʼnoʼ)

yan~ + x̱ʼa-S-d+∅-√tsʼéin (∅ motion verb – subject intransitive) for S to quieten down, stop talking


yakakḵwadanáash ya-ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-da yánde x̱ʼakḵwadatsʼáan x̱ʼa-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-da

yakagax̱tudanáash ya-ka-ga-u-g̱a-tu-da yánde x̱ʼagax̱tudatsʼáan x̱ʼa-ga-u-g̱a-tu-da

yakakg̱idanáash ya-ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-da yánde x̱ʼakg̱idatsʼáan x̱ʼa-ga-u-g̱a-i-da

yakagax̱yidanáash ya-ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-da yánde x̱ʼagax̱yidatsʼáan x̱ʼa-ga-u-g̱a-yi-da

yakagux̱danáash ya-ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-da yánde x̱ʼagux̱datsʼáan x̱ʼa-ga-u-g̱a-∅-da

has yakagux̱danáash has + ya-ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-da yánde has x̱ʼagux̱datsʼáan has + x̱ʼa-ga-u-g̱a-∅-da

yakagax̱dunáash ya-ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅ yánde x̱ʼagax̱dutsʼáan x̱ʼa-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅

The Future Mode

64

O-ka-S-s-√kei (g̱a act verb – transitive)for S to trail, follow tracks of O; for S to untangle O; for S to rip back, undo O (sewing, knitting)

O-ka-S-l-√neek (na act verb – transitive)for S to tell the story of O; for S to talk into O


yei kakḵwasakéi ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sa kakḵwalanéek ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-la

yei kagax̱tusakéi ka-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sa kagax̱tulanéek ka-ga-u-g̱a-tu-la

yei kakg̱isakéi ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-sa kakg̱ilanéek ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-la

yei kagax̱yisakéi ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sa kagax̱yilanéek ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-la

yei akagux̱sakéi ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa akagux̱lanéek ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-la

yei (ha)s akagux̱sakéi has + ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa has akagux̱lanéek has + ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-la

yei kagax̱duskéi ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-s kagax̱dulnéek ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-l

ka-S-d+s-√nei ³ (∅ act verb – subject intransitive)for S to knit, weave, or crochet

ash + ka-u-S-d+l-√yát ˟ (na act verb – subject intransitive)for S to play (esp. active games)


kakḵwasnéi ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-s ash kakḵwalyát ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-lkagax̱toosnéi ka-ga-u-g̱a-tu-s ash kagax̱toolyát ka-ga-u-g̱a-tu-l

kakg̱eesnéi ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-s ash kakg̱eelyát ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-lkagax̱yisnéi ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-s ash kagax̱yilyát ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-lkakg̱wasnéi ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-s ash kakg̱walyát ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-l

has kakg̱wasnéi has + ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-s has ash kakg̱walyát has + ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-lkagax̱dusnéi ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-s ash kagax̱dulyát ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-l

The Tlingit Verb

65

O-ka-S-sh-√xeet (∅ act verb – transitive)for S to write, draw, or paint a picture of O; for S to print O by hand; for S to photograph, take pictures, X-rays of O

ka-S-d+sh-√xeet (∅ act verb – subject intransitive)for S to write, draw, or paint; for S to take a photograph


kakḵwashaxéet ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sha kakḵwashxéet ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sh

kagax̱tushaxéet ka-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sha kagax̱tooshxéet ka-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sh

kakg̱ishaxéet ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-sha kakg̱eeshxéet ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-sh

kagax̱yishaxéet ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sha kagax̱yishxéet ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sh

akagux̱shaxéet ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sha kakg̱washxéet ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sh

has akagux̱shaxéet has + ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sha has kakg̱washxéet has + ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sh

kagax̱dushxéet ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-sh kagax̱dushxéet ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-sh

O-x̱ʼa-S-∅-√déexʼ (∅ event verb – transitive)for S to cork up (bottle), shut mouth of O

O-sa-S-∅-√.aax̱ ¹ (∅ event verb – transitive)for S to hear O (a voice, esp. singing)


x̱ʼakḵwadéexʼ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅ sakḵwa.áax̱ sa-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅x̱ʼagax̱toodéexʼ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-∅ sagax̱too.áax̱ sa-ga-u-g̱a-tu-∅

x̱ʼakg̱eedéexʼ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-∅ sakg̱ee.áax̱ sa-ga-u-g̱a-i-∅x̱ʼagax̱yidéexʼ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-∅ sagax̱yi.áax̱ sa-ga-u-g̱a-yi-∅

ax̱ʼakg̱wadéexʼ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅ asakg̱wa.áax̱ sa-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅has ax̱ʼakg̱wadéexʼ has + ∅-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅ has asakg̱wa.áax̱ has + sa-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅

x̱ʼagax̱dudéexʼ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅ sagax̱du.áax̱ sa-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅

The Future Mode

66

The last pattern to look at is the a-theme verbs, which have different results than other thematic prefixes because they do not start with a consonant.

N + éekʼ + a-S-∅-√heen ¹ ˟ (ga state verb – subject intransitive) for S to believe, trust, believe in N

a-S-∅-√lʼeix̱ ˟ (na act verb – subject intransitive)for S to dance


du éekʼ kei akḵwaheen a-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅ akḵwalʼeix̱ a-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅du éekʼ kei agax̱tooheen a-ga-u-g̱a-tu-∅ agax̱toolʼeix̱ a-ga-u-g̱a-tu-∅

du éekʼ kei akg̱eeheen a-ga-u-g̱a-i-∅ akg̱eelʼeix̱ a-ga-u-g̱a-i-∅du éekʼ kei agax̱yiheen a-ga-u-g̱a-yi-∅ agax̱yilʼeix̱ a-ga-u-g̱a-yi-∅du éekʼ kei akg̱waheen a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅ akg̱walʼeix̱ a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅

du éekʼ has kei akg̱waheen has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅ has akg̱walʼeix̱ has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅du éekʼ kei agax̱duheen a-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅ agax̱dulʼeix̱ a-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅

shóo-t⁓ + a-S-d+∅-√.aak ² (∅ event verb – subject intransitive)for S to build a fire (using wood)

N-ch + a-S-s-√woo ¹ (∅ event verb – subject intransitive)for S to send N (often by mail)


shóode akḵwada.áak a-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-da ách akḵwasawóo a-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sa

shóode agax̱tuda.áak a-ga-u-g̱a-tu-da ách agax̱tusawóo a-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sa

shóode akg̱ida.áak a-ga-u-g̱a-i-da ách akg̱isawóo a-ga-u-g̱a-i-sa

shóode agax̱yida.áak a-ga-u-g̱a-yi-da ách agax̱yisawóo a-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sa

shóode agux̱da.áak a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-da ách agux̱sawóo a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa

shóode has agux̱da.áak has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-da ách has agux̱sawóo has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa

shóode agax̱du.áak a-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅ ách agax̱duswóo a-ga-u-g̱a-du-s

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67

Now that we have looked at the thematic prefix perfective options, fill in the blanks as you did before. Keep in mind the classifier, transitivity, and how the CV system works to predict the prefix, even if the vowel chang-es. You can check your answers in the back of this chapter.

O-ya-S-∅-√dlaaḵ (na event verb – transitive)for S to gain, get, obtain, acquire O; for S to succeed, accomplish O; for S to defeat, beat O

O-ya-S-∅-√g̱éelʼ (∅ act verb – transitive)for S to sharpen O (with a grindstone)


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

ya-S-d+∅-√náaḵw ¹ (∅ act verb – subject intransitive)for S to bait hooks, put bait on fish hooks

tu-S-d+∅-√.oos ¹ (∅ event verb – subject intransitive)for S to pout, sulk, refuse to speak; for a machine to refuse to run


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

The Future Mode

68

(yóo) + O-ya-S-s-√ḵaa ¹ (na event verb – transitive)for S to tell, say (that) to O; for S to ask O to do (that)

O-ka-S-s-√nei ³ (na act verb – transitive)for S to make O (cloth of any kind) (by weaving, knitting, or crocheting); for S to make or mend O (net)


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

sha-S-d+s-√yaa ³ (na event verb – subject intransitive)for S to anchor, lower anchor

a-S-d+s-√g̱eiwú ˟ (na act verb – subject intransitive)for S to fish with net, seine


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

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69

O-ka-S-l-√séiḵʼw (∅ act verb – transitive)for S to stain, dye, color the surface of O

O-ka-S-l-√.eesh (∅ act verb – subject intransitive)for S to thread O (esp. beads), string together


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

sh + ka-S-d+l-√neek (na act verb – subject intransitive)for S to preach, narrate, tell a story

sha-S-d+l-√x̱óotʼ ¹ (na act verb – subject intransitive)for S to fish with rod, sportfish, cast


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

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70

O-ka-S-sh-√x̱ʼáalʼ (∅ event verb – transitive)for S to cook O (herring eggs) by dipping in boiling water and oil

O-ka-S-sh-√kʼaan (∅ act verb – transitive)for S to push O away; for S to shoo O away; for S to drive O away


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

sh + ka-S-d+sh-√xʼaaḵw ² (na event verb – subject intransitive)for S to be comfortable, sit or lie comfortably

sh + ka-S-d+sh-√g̱eiy (∅ event verb – subject intransitive)for S to dress up, smarten up, make an effort to look different


1s

1p

2s

2p

3s

3p

4h

The Tlingit Verb

71

answers


kḵwa.áax̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅ kḵwa.éen ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅gax̱too.áax̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-∅ gax̱too.éen ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-∅kg̱ee.áax̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-∅ kg̱ee.éen ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-∅gax̱yi.áax̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-∅ gax̱yi.éen ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-∅

akg̱wa.áax̱ a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅ akg̱wa.éen a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅has akg̱wa.áax̱ has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅ has akg̱wa.éen has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅

gax̱du.áax̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅ gax̱du.éen ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅


kḵwadashóoch ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-da káx̱ yei kḵwadatée ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-dagax̱tudashóoch ga-u-g̱a-tu-da káx̱ yei gax̱tudatée ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-da

kg̱idashóoch ga-u-g̱a-i-da káx̱ yei kg̱idatée ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-dagax̱yidashóoch ga-u-g̱a-yi-da káx̱ yei gax̱yidatée ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-dagux̱dashóoch ga-u-g̱a-∅-da káx̱ yei agux̱datée a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-da

has gux̱dashóoch has + ga-u-g̱a-∅-da káx̱ yei (ha)s agux̱datée has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-dagax̱dushóoch ga-u-g̱a-du-∅ káx̱ yei gax̱dutée ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅


kḵwasakóo ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sa kei kḵwasanéekw ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sagax̱tusakóo ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sa kei gax̱tusanéekw ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sa

kg̱isakóo ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-sa kei kg̱isanéekw ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-sagax̱yisakóo ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sa kei gax̱yisanéekw ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-saagux̱sakóo a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa kei agux̱sanéekw a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa

has agux̱sakóo has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa kei (ha)s agux̱sanéekw has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sagax̱duskóo ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-s kei gax̱dusnéekw ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-s

The Future Mode

72


yei kḵwasg̱áax̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-s kḵwasnéexʼ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-syei gax̱toosg̱áax̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-s gax̱toosnéexʼ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-s

yei kg̱eesg̱áax̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-s kg̱eesnéexʼ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-syei gax̱yisg̱áax̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-s gax̱yisnéexʼ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-s

yei akg̱wasg̱áax̱ a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-s akg̱wasnéexʼ a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-syei (ha)s akg̱wasg̱áax̱ has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-s has akg̱wasnéexʼ has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-s

yei gax̱dusg̱áax̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-s gax̱dusnéexʼ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-s


kḵwala.áax̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-la kḵwalachʼéix̱ʼw ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-lagax̱tula.áax̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-la gax̱tulachʼéix̱ʼw ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-la

kg̱ila.áax̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-la kg̱ilachʼéix̱ʼw ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-lagax̱yila.áax̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-la gax̱yilachʼéix̱ʼw ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-laagux̱la.áax̱ a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-la agux̱lachʼéix̱ʼw a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-la

has agux̱la.áax̱ has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-la has agux̱lachʼéix̱ʼw has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-lagax̱dul.áax̱ ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-l gax̱dulchʼéix̱ʼw ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-l


kḵwalsáa ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-l sh kḵwalkʼáatlʼ ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-lgax̱toolsáa ga-u-g̱a-tu-l sh gax̱toolkʼáatlʼ ga-u-g̱a-tu-l

kgeelsáa ga-u-g̱a-i-l sh kg̱eelkʼáatlʼ ga-u-g̱a-i-lgax̱yilsáa ga-u-g̱a-yi-l sh gax̱yilkʼáatlʼ ga-u-g̱a-yi-lkg̱walsáa ga-u-g̱a-∅-l sh kg̱walkʼáatlʼ ga-u-g̱a-∅-l

has kg̱walsáa has + ga-u-g̱a-∅-l has sh kg̱walkʼáatlʼ has + ga-u-g̱a-∅-lgax̱dulsáa ga-u-g̱a-du-l sh gax̱dulkʼáatlʼ ga-u-g̱a-du-l


kei kḵwashagóok ∅-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sha át kḵwashkʼéin ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sh

kei gax̱tushagóok ∅-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sha át haa kagax̱dukʼéin haa + ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅

kei kg̱ishagóok ∅-ga-u-g̱a-i-sha át kg̱eeshkʼéin ga-u-g̱a-i-sh

kei gax̱yishagóok ∅-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sha át yee kagax̱dukʼéin yee + ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅

kei agux̱shagóok ∅-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sha át kg̱washkʼéin ga-u-g̱a-∅-sh

kei (ha)s agux̱shagóok has + a-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sha át has kagax̱dukʼéin has + ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅

kei gax̱dushgóok ∅-ga-u-g̱a-du-sha át ḵaa kagax̱dukʼéin a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅

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73


yakḵwadláaḵ ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅ yakḵwag̱éelʼ ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-∅

yagax̱toodláaḵ ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-tu-∅ yagax̱toog̱éelʼ ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-tu-∅

yakg̱eedláaḵ ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-i-∅ yakg̱eeg̱éelʼ ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-i-∅

yagax̱yidláaḵ ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-yi-∅ yagax̱yig̱éelʼ ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-yi-∅

ayakg̱wadláaḵ a-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅ ayakg̱wag̱éelʼ a-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅

has ayakg̱wadláaḵ has + a-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅ has ayakg̱wag̱éelʼ has + a-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-∅-∅

yagax̱dudláaḵ ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅ yagax̱dug̱éelʼ ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅


yakḵwadanáaḵw ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-da tukḵwada.óos tu-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-da

yagax̱tudanáaḵw ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-tu-da tugax̱tuda.óos tu-ga-u-g̱a-tu-da

yakg̱idanáaḵw ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-i-da tukg̱ida.óos tu-ga-u-g̱a-i-da

yagax̱yidanáaḵw ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-yi-da tugax̱yida.óos tu-ga-u-g̱a-yi-da

yagux̱danáaḵw ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-∅-da tugux̱da.óos tu-ga-u-g̱a-∅-da

has yagux̱danáaḵw has + ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-∅-da has tugux̱da.óos has + tu-ga-u-g̱a-∅-da

yagax̱dunáaḵw ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅ tugax̱du.óos tu-ga-u-g̱a-du-∅


yóo yakḵwasaḵáa ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sa kakḵ̱wasanéi ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sa

yóo yagax̱tusaḵáa ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sa kagax̱tusanéi ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sa

yóo yakg̱isaḵáa ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-i-sa kakg̱isanéi ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-sa

yóo yagax̱yisaḵáa ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sa kagax̱yisanéi ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sa

yóo ayagux̱saḵáa a-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa akagux̱sanéi a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa

yóo (ha)s ayagux̱saḵáa has + a-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa has akagux̱sanéi has + a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sa

yóo yagax̱dusḵáa ∅-ÿa-ga-u-g̱a-du-s kagax̱dusnéi ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-s


shakḵwawsyáa sha-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-s akḵwasg̱eiwú a-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sshagax̱toosyáa sha-ga-u-g̱a-tu-s agax̱toosg̱eiwú a-ga-u-g̱a-tu-s

shakg̱eesyáa sha-ga-u-g̱a-i-s akg̱eesg̱eiwú a-ga-u-g̱a-i-sshagax̱yisyáa sha-ga-u-g̱a-yi-s agax̱yisg̱eiwú a-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sshakg̱wasyáa sha-ga-u-g̱a-∅-s akg̱wasg̱eiwú a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-s

has shakg̱wasyáa has + sha-ga-u-g̱a-∅-s has akg̱wasg̱eiwú has + a-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sshagax̱dusyáa sha-ga-u-g̱a-du-s agax̱dusg̱eiwú a-ga-u-g̱a-du-s

The Future Mode

74


kakḵwalaséiḵʼw ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-la kakḵwala.éesh ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-la

kagax̱tulaséiḵʼw ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-tu-la kagax̱tula.éesh ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-tu-la

kakg̱ilaséiḵʼw ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-la kakg̱ila.éesh ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-la

kagax̱yilaséiḵʼw ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-la kagax̱yila.éesh ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-la

akagux̱laséiḵʼw a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-la akagux̱la.éesh a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-la

has akagux̱laséiḵʼw has + a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-la has akagux̱la.éesh has + a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-la

kagax̱dulséiḵʼw ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-l kagax̱dul.éesh ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-l


sh kakḵwalnéek ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-l shakḵwalx̱óotʼ sha-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-lsh kagax̱toolnéek ka-ga-u-g̱a-tu-l shagax̱toolx̱óotʼ sha-ga-u-g̱a-tu-l

sh kakg̱eelnéek ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-l shakg̱eelx̱óotʼ sha-ga-u-g̱a-i-lsh kagax̱yilnéek ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-l shagax̱yilx̱óotʼ sha-ga-u-g̱a-yi-lsh kakg̱walnéek ka-ga-u-g̱a-l shakg̱walx̱óotʼ sha-ga-u-g̱a-∅-l

has sh kakg̱walnéek has + ka-ga-u-g̱a-l has shakg̱walx̱óotʼ has + sha-ga-u-g̱a-∅-l

sh kagax̱dulnéek ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-l shagax̱dulx̱óotʼ sha-ga-u-g̱a-du-l


kakḵwashax̱ʼáalʼ ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sha kakḵwashakʼáan ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sha

kagax̱tushax̱ʼáalʼ ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sha kagax̱tushakʼáan ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sha

kakg̱ishax̱ʼáalʼ ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-sha kakg̱ishakʼáan ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-sha

kagax̱yishax̱ʼáalʼ ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sha kagax̱yishakʼáan ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sha

akagux̱shax̱ʼáalʼ a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sha akagux̱shakʼáan a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sha

has akagux̱shax̱ʼáalʼ has + a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sha has akagux̱shakʼáan has + a-ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sha

kagax̱dushx̱ʼáalʼ ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-sh kagax̱dushkʼáan ∅-ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-sh


sh kakḵwashxʼáaḵw ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sh sh kakḵwashg̱éiy ka-ga-u-g̱a-x̱a-sh

sh kagax̱tooshxʼáaḵw ka-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sh sh kagax̱tooshg̱éiy ka-ga-u-g̱a-tu-sh

sh kakg̱eeshxʼáaḵw ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-sh sh kakg̱eeshg̱éiy ka-ga-u-g̱a-i-sh

sh kagax̱yishxʼáaḵw ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sh sh kagax̱yishg̱éiy ka-ga-u-g̱a-yi-sh

sh kakg̱washxʼáaḵw ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sh sh kakg̱washg̱éiy ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sh

has sh kakg̱washxʼáaḵw has + ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sh has sh kakg̱washg̱éiy has + ka-ga-u-g̱a-∅-sh

sh kagax̱dushxʼáaḵw ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-sh sh kagax̱dushg̱éiy ka-ga-u-g̱a-du-sh

tlingit verb conjugation - tlingit language

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