tm history xii

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History, Grade XII

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History

Grade: XII

An Introduction to World HistoryFull marks : 100

Teaching hours : 150

Course Description

This course is designed to make students familiar with the development of

the human civilization, prominent religions of the world and main politicalevents of the modern world. The whole course is divided into two units. The

first unit entitled, Ancient Civilization includes the contribution as well as

the social, economic and religious life of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, Indus

Valley, Vedic Era, Greece and Rome. The topics like the teaching of

Bhagawat Gita, Gautam Buddha, Mahavir Vardhamana, Jesus Christ and

Hajrat Muhammad are also included in the first unit.

The second unit of this course entitled, Medieval and Modern World includes

topics like the rise and fall of feudalism, causes, nature and effects of

renaissance and reformation, causes and effects of different revolutions such

as Glorious revolution,1688; American War of independence 1776-83,

Industrial Revolution, French Revolution, 1789 and Russian Revolution of

1917. The topics like the causes and the effects of the First and Second World

Wars and the establishment, objectives and organs of the League of Nations

and United Nations are also included in this unit.

The first topics of the first unit entitled Egyptian Civilization includes the

contributions as well as the social economic and religious life of Egypt.

Egyptian Civilization is regarded as one of the oldest civilization in the

World. Egypt would have become desert without Nile river. Egypt lies in


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history of its own. The Chinese legend highlight its golden age three

thousands years before the birth of Christ. However, the actual evidence of

the Chinese history mentions the date as 1000 B.C. Chinese civilization has

its own origin. It has glorious history of the past. However, it may be

comparable in some respect with the other civilization of the world. In this

regard, H.A. Davies in his book entitled, "An outline History of the World"

mentions "like Sumeria and Egypt, China was originally a land of city, states,

the art of writing originated with pictorial signs in China as in Egypt, there

was a feudal age in China as in Egypt, followed by a centralizing empire,

Chinese Civilization, like that of the Egyptian and the Sumerians, owed

much to its river the Hwang-ho (Huang-ho or Yellow River) and the Yang-

tse-Kiang."

The fourth topic of the same unit includes contributions as well as the social,

economic and religious life of Indus Valley Civilization. This civilization was

unknown to modern world before the excavation in 1922. The excavation

works were carried on in Punjab, Sind and Baluchistan and spread over an

area of 1200 x 700 miles. Mohanjodaro on the banks of the Indus, Harappa

on the banks of Ravi and Lothal on the Kathiawar coast were three most

important sites among one hundred forty discovered so far.

The fifth topic includes contributions as well as the social economic and

religious life of the Vedic people.

The Aryans were regarded as the founder of the Vedic Civilization. It is

believed that the Aryans originated in western part of Asia. One group of

the Aryan migrated to Europe and other group to Iran. They entered into

India around 2000 B.C. The four Vedas such as Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur

Veda and Atharva Veda describe the Vedic civilization. The Rig Veda hasbeen regarded as the collection of the earliest and most important hymns


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composed about 1500-1200 B.C. It is the source book of the development of

Hindu culture. The Sama Veda is the collection of melodies. The Yajur Veda

is something like a 'guide book' for rituals. Atharva Veda is the descriptions

of the belief and superstitions of the Aryans.

The sixth topic of this unit mentions contributions as well as the social,

economic and religious life under the Greek Civilization.

The Greek Peninsula lies in the south-eastern part of Europe and is separated

from the Asia Minor by the Aegean Sea. This peninsula is surrounded by a

large number of islands on all the three sides. Crete is the largest island

below the peninsula.

The mainland of Greece is full of rugged mountain. Therefore the people

developed number of small Greek city states. The majority of the people

were dependent on farming on the limited land. The scarcity of the

cultivable land and nearness of the sea forced the people to sea-farming and

trade. They came in contact with Phoenicians who supplied them necessary

goods. Hence, the Phoenicians alphabet has some impact on the Greek

script.

The seventh topic of this unit is the social, economic and religious life of the

Romans.

The Roman civilization has many common features with the Greek. The

Greek gave the idea of democracy, art, philosophy, science and literature to

the world and the Romans added their legal system. Like Greece, the Roman

civilization was also influenced by geographical or natural factors. The Alps

in the north and sea in all the three sides gave Rome a protection from theenemy. However, there were some differences between these two. The


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Greeks always remained disunited but the Romans had faith in unity and

consolidation. The former believed in theory and philosophy whereas the

latter in practice and reality of life.

It is said that group of people called Italics came to Italy about 1800 B.C. One

of their tribes was the Latins who settled in the south of river Tibar. Another

tribes who were called Itruscans, settled in the north of river Tiber. These

Tribes were regarded as the civilized people from the Asia Minor. Beside

these two there were other tribes who settled in Italy.

Rome was founded by twin brothers named Romulus and Remus on the

Palatine hill in 753 B.C, according to the legends.

Apart from civilization, this unit also mentions some philosophical thoughts

of the ancient times.

The Bhagawat Gita is one major focus in this unit. The literal meaning of the

Gita is singing or saying of the God, meaning Krishna. But the Bhagawat

Gita is related to the events of the Mahabharata. It is said that the Bhagawat

Gita is the divine word of Sri Krishna spoken to Arjuna, the third Pandava,in the battle of Kuruchhetra.

The whole text of the Bhagawat Gita has been divided into forty-seven

verses. In its first or the opening verse, King Dhritarastra, who is blind and

unable to assess the situation of the battlefield interrogates Sanjaya about the

details of the war. Thereupon Sanjaya describe in the second verse as to

how, approaching Dronacharya, Duryodhana starts his conversation. In the

third verse Duryodhana invites Dronacharya to observe the mighty army of

the Pandavas and devotes verses four to six to a recital of the names of theprominent warriors on the Pandava side. In the seventh verse Duryodhan


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asked Dronacharya the name of the main warriors and generls of his own

army, he gives in verses eight and Nine the names of some of them and

describes their heroism and skill in warfare. In the tenth verse Duryodhana

declared his own army as incomparable, and that of the Pandavas as

comparatively weaker, in the eleventh he requested all his warriors to guard

Bhimsen on all sides. The twelfth verse speaks of Bhisma blowing his conch

and thirteenth describes the noise produced by the sudden blaring forth of

conches, kettle drum, drums and trumpets, etc. in the Kaurava army.

Fourteenth to eighteen in verses speak of Bhagavan Sri Krishna, Arjun, Bhim,

Yudhistir, Nakula, Sahadeva and all other important warriors of the Pandava

camp blowing their respective conches.

The verse Nineteen tells about the terrible sound echoing through heaven

and earth and rending the heart of Duryodhan and his followers a feeling of

shock. Seeing the sons of Dhritarastra arrayed for battle Arjun requested Sri

Krishna, in verses twenty and twenty one to place the chariot between the

two armies, and in verses twenty two and twenty three he requested that the

chariot should be kept there till eh observed and scanned the warriors

assembled for the fight. The verses twenty-four and twenty-five describe

how placing the chariot between the two armies, as desired by Arjuna, SriKrishna invites the latter to behold the warriors assembled for the fight.

Then, up to the verse thirty there is a description, first by Sanjaya and then

by Arjun himself, of the latters perplexity and grief at the right of his

relations in battlearray. In verse thirty-one Arjun pointed out the evil

consequences of war and verses thirty-two and thrity-three are devoted to

his reasons for not covering either victory or the pleasures attending

sovereignty. In verse thirty-four and thirty-five Arjun stated his close

relationship with the warriors. viz, their being his teachers, uncles, etc, and

declared that he did not want to kill them though he might be killed by them.He proceeded in verses thirty-six and thirty-seven to say that even though


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Duryodhana and his brothers were desperadoes, their killing would result

only in sin and happiness could never be expected from it.

In verses thirty-eight and thirty-nine he pointed out why the Pandavas

should desist from the sin of destruction of their own race and enmity

towards friends, and devotes verses forty to forty four to a detail

enumeration of the evils resulting from the destruction of a family and its

traditions. In verses forty-five and forty sin Arjun argued that the

preparation for war with a view to kill his own relatives for throne and

enjoyment was nothing but preparation for the commission of a great sin,

and expressing regret for it he declared that it was better that the sons of

Dhritarastra should kill him. In the last forty-seven verse Sanjaya described

how having determined not to fight, and agitated by grief, Arjun laid down

his arms, and sank into his chariot.

The teachings of Gautam Buddha have long and lasting effects in the society

of our region. In fact, Gautam Buddha was the worthy and respected son of

Nepal. He was born in 563 B.C. in Lumbini in Nepal. Min Bahadur Shakya

aptly writes "Lumbini, the birthplace of Lord Shakyamuni Buddha is the

scared palce for Buddhist from all over the world." Mr. Shakya has alsoquoted from a veteran Asian traveller and author as saying "as millions of

Chiristians look to Jerusalem for inspiration, as millions of Muslim turn to

Mecca, so do the three hundred million Buddhists see in the sacred kingdom

of Nepal hollowed thicket marked by a pillar left by the great Ashoka where

the Shakyamuni was born. Buddhist know that the Site was in Nepal."

Like Gautam Buddha, Mahavira Vardhamana was the worthy son of this

subcontinent. He was the founder of Jainism. His native place was

Kundapura near Vaisali in Bihar. He was born in a Kshatriya family.Siddhartha and Trisala were his father and mother respectively.


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Mahavira received the usual education and training in literature, philosophy,

military, administration, music and fine arts. During his youth he started to

make a plan for renunciation. His parents were unhappy to listen to the

plan. They tried to solve the problem by marrying him to a beautiful young

woman named Yasoda. Yasoda gave a birth of a daughter named Anoja.

However, after the death of his parents Mahavira left his residence for

renunciation at the age of thirty.

Mahavira started traveling from place to place, wearing no clothes. The most

prominent places of his visit were Nalanda, Rajagriha, Champaran, Vaisali

and Sravasti. He attained supreme enlightenment at the age of forty three,

in the thirteenth year after his renunciation. He was enlightened on the tenth

day of the bright fortnight in the month of Vaisakha, under a Sal tree in a

field near the village Jimbhikagrama (Jambhi gaon near the Damodar in

Hajaribagh). He started preaching soon after attaining the enlightenment.

He continued it until his death at the age of seventy at Pavapuri in district of

Patna. His first converts were eleven Brahmans. It is said that there were

14,000 monks and 36,000 nuns at the demise of Mahavira. He never forbid

women to be nun. As they wore no clothes, the nuns must have livedseparately. Although Mahavira organized a Sangha, he never allowed

monks to live together in monasteries. They used to spend their lives either

in the forest or in solitary place near towns and villages.

Jesus Christ was the founder of Christianity. He was born a Jew at

Bethlehem, a small village near Jerusalem in 4th B.C. He was born in a stable

and died a criminal's death at the age of 33. His father was Joseph of

Nazareth (a dessendant of King David) and his mother was Virgin Mary.

Jesus was born at a time when the Jews were under Roman control.


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Jesus Christ was very much influenced by his cousin, John the Baptist. John

was executed for his preaching as a baptised. Therefore, Jesus took the

responsibilities of his cousin and started preaching here and there. He talked

about the kingdom of God where there would be Justice, Love and Kindness.

He used to help those who were sick and exploited. His disciples called him

Messiah. Some of his teaching was against the spirit of the Jewish Laws. The

popularity of Jesus caused alarm and suspicion. He was executed by

crucifixion along with two thieves at Golgotha. While being nailed to the

cross, he said "Father, forgive them, for they know not what they are doing.

The book entitled, "My world and I, the way of Unification" mentions "He

did not leave any written works, and we have no description of what he

looked like. Yet our calendar starts from the year of his birth. Across the

world, people who are not even his followers, celebrate his birthday every

year. Who was this man who wrought such an incredible change in the

world history? Many years after Jesus died, accounts of his life were

committed to record his life and teaching for posterity. These are called

Gospels, meaning Good News. The earliest may have been written in about

50 A.D., although some scholars date them much later. The only sources of

the life of Jesus was the Gospels in the New Testament."

Hajrat Muhammad was born at Mecca in 570 A.D. His parents died in his

early childhood. He was looked after by his grandfather and later by his

uncle, Abu Talib. He could not receive any formal education because of his

poverty. However he was trained to look after sheep and camels. He

entered into the service of a wealthy widow named Khadija. Later on he

married her. They had two sons and many daughters. His sons died in their

early age. His daughter Fatima was very popular.

Muhammad was very popular for his honesty and sincerity. Therefore hewas called 'Amin' by his fellows. During his early youth he visited many


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places including southern Arabia and Syria. He met the Jews and the

Christians and was influenced by their ideas. He spent most of his time in

religious meditations. He started to visit Mount Hira, near Mecca, for

meditation and fasting. He fell into fits many times and uttered words

which became Koran, the religious text of Islam. Muhammad realised that

he had received divine messages from the God and he must spread it among

his fellow men. He declared "there is no other God but Allah, and

Muhammad is his Prophet". But his preaching made the priest of Mecca

especially the Temple of Kaaba, hostile against him. His life was in danger

and therefore he had to retreat to Medina in 622 A.D. It was the most

significant year for Islam and they called it Hijira, a new year in the Muslim

Calendar. He got warm welcome in Medina. He captured Mecca whose

citizens followed his faith. In this way Muhammad sowed the seed of new

religion called Islam (meaning Peace with God) in Arabia and it became the

great religion of the world. It is the main religion in most of the Middle East,

Northern Africa, Central Asia, Malaysia and Indonesia. Indonesia is the

largest Muslim country in the world. Today, about one billion people

around the world profess the Islamic faith. Mecca and Medina are the two

religious sites for all the Muslims of the world. Muhammad died in Medina

in 632 A.D.

The second unit of this course starts with the topic like the Rise and the Fall of

Feudalism. Feudalism was one of the most significant developments of the

Middle Age in Europe. It was based on the principles of decentralization of

political powers to fulfill the need of disturbed society. It began in France

after the death of Emperor Charlemagne (814 A.D.) and spread to many

parts of Europe. Feudalism was developed in Europe as a response to check

the disturbance created by the barbarian invaders.


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The second topic of this second unit is about the nature, causes and effects of

two important historical events in Europe and popularly known to outside

world as Renaissance and Reformation.

The term 'Renaissance' is used to describe the changes brought by the people

after the end of the Middle Age. it is a rebirth of Greco-Roman spirit of

scientific curiosity and of humanism in arts and letters. It was an intellectual

movement and spread all over Italy and remained in western Europe from

the middle of the fourteenth century to the end of the sixteenth century. It

enabled the people of Europe to have a new and rational approach towards

life.

The Reformation Movement in Europe was primarily aimed at reforming the

Roman Catholic Church. Like any other religion, Roman Catholic Church

became vulnerable in medieval period. The Pope became so powerful that

even the kings of all the countries of the Europe, found it difficult to defy the

orders of the church or stop its interference in matters exclusively coming

under state jurisdiction.

After the Renaissance and Reformation people of Europe felt the need forchanging their way of life. They tried to make their life more comfortable.

Therefore, they challenged and questioned the authority of Pope, Priest,

Kings and rulers alike. Hence, the revolution in different names and forms

started in Europe, the prominent among them were the Glorious Revolution

of England in 1688, the American war of independence, Industrial

Revolution of England, French Revolution 1789 and the Russian Revolution

of 1917.

The revolution of 1688 in England was called The Glorious Revolutionbecause it was bloodless. The king of the middle ages were helped by the


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feudal lords in the task to administration. But gradually the feudal lords

became weaker and the Tudor king abolished the feudalism. Afterward the

parliament endeavoured to take share in the administration with the king.

Therefore, a long struggle began between king and parliament for acquisition

of the sovereignty of the state. The result of this struggle was glorious

revolution.

H.A. Davies in his book entitled "An Outline History of the World' compared

the American and French Revolutions like this "Before the eighteenth century

ended there were two rebellions: the American Revolution of 1775-83, and

the French Revolution of 1789-95 which were both of them severe blows to

the theory of absolute monarchy, and which were destined to have a

considerable effect upon the subsequent history of the human race."

Clarifying the causes of the American war of Independence, H.A. Davies

writes "The American Revolution, or the War of American Independence, as

it is sometimes called, was a revolt against the autocracy of England which at

this time was ruled by a well-meaning but obstinate king George III. Who

had a desire to revive the personal power of the Crown. The Revolution was

a direct consequence of England's intervention in the seven year's war, and

of the ideas which prevailed throughout Western Europe at that time as tothe proper way of governing colonies."

After the discovery of the new continent, colonies of different European

powers such as Spain, England, France, the Netherlands and Sweden had

spread everywhere in the world. Spain had established her colony in

Florida, French in Northern America which were called as New France

(Canada) and Louisiana (USA), the British had thirteen colonies spread in

eastern coast of USA. The main reasons for the People of Europe and Britain

to emigrate were trade and religion. Jemestown in Virginia was the firstBritish settlement in 1607. It was started as a commercial venture by the


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Virginia Company. the Pilgrim Fathers who fled persecution in England,

came to America and established colonies. These people questioned the

British authority in America which resulted in the American war of

Independence.

The French Revolution of 1789, was another landmark in the history of

modern world. The Revolution began with the meeting of the States-General

in May 1789, and the destruction of the Bastille on July 14 the same year and

continued until the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

The social, economic and political situation in most of the countries in

Europe were more critical than France. Then the question arises why there

was no revolution in other countries before France. Because French people

were sufficiently enlightened to realise the evils and absurdities of the

system of government under which they suffered. The writings of Voltaire,

Montesquieu, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Diderot etc. influenced their lives very

much and they were encouraged to raise their voice against despotic rules of

King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette.

The western world witnessed many revolutions in the eighteenth andnineteenth centuries but Russia which had been made a first rate power by

Peter the Great (1672-1725) and Catherine II (1762-96), remained

undisturbed. It was not because the people of Russia were in much better

condition than the rest of the world. The fact was that the tower ranks of

Russian Society were among the most oppressed and exploited people in the

world. The Tsars and the nobles could prevent the entry of the ideas of

liberalism, nationalism, democracy, freedom and equality, and silence the

people for a longer time than their counterparts in other countries. But they

could not keep out new ideas permanently for all time and prevent thanfrom making an impact on the mind of the people.


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The idea of Karl Marx about communism was gaining ground in the Russian

soil. As a result a revolution broke out in 1905. But this revolution was

ruthlessly suppressed by the Tsar. The Tsar did not learn anything from the

revolution and continued to suppress the people. Naturally there was a big

revolution twice in a year viz. February and October 1917. These two

revolutions in Russia not only changed the course of Russian history, but

also the history of mankind, because the entire set of the old political, social,

economic and other principles and values were demolished Russia came to

have a new power structure, and a totally new social and economic order.

the happenings in Russia since 1917 had a profound effect on the whole

human beings. The course of history inevitably changed.

The last topics of this unit are related with the two world wars and two

world organizations such as League of Nations and United Nations

Organization.

A great war which the world had never seen or experienced broke out in

1914, and continued for four years, till 1918. It was for the first time in

history, almost all the countries in the world were directly or indirectly

involved in it, and its impact was felt by the whole world, by all the people,even by those, who were not aware of the war. That is why the great war

called the First World War (1914-18).

The Second World War broke out on 1 September 1939 before the world had

fully recovered from the havoc caused by the First World War (1914-18).

This war was longer and more devastating than the First World War. The

interval between the two world wars was twenty years and nine months.

The first international organization known as the League of Nations topresent world was established to avoid any war in the years to come.


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Because the horrors of the First World War, loss of life and property,

increasing debt burdens, storng conflicting emotions and dreadful sufferings

created a great urge among the leading statesmen and even the common

people to have a meaningful plan to save mankind from death and

destruction of a World War in the future. The purpose behind the

establishment of the League of Nations was that the problems of

international conflict or War should be settled peacefully at the conference

table and not on the bloody battle fields of the world.

It was President Woodrow Wilson of the US who took the initiative at the

Paris Peace Conference in 1919 in insisting on the establishment of the

League of Nations. In 1918 the President put forward his fourteen points to

prevent future World War before the end of the First World War. At the

Paris Peace Conference, President Woodrow Wilson insisted on the

incorporation of the League Covenant in the treaties. He wanted the League

to be established at once. The League was to come into existence on the day

on which the treaty of Versailles would come into force. President Woodrow

Wilson had strong believe that if the establishment of the League would be

postponed until after the treaties were put into effect, the League might not

be born at all. However, on 10 January 1920 the League of Nations wasestablish on the same day when the Allies and Germany exchanged the

Ratification of the treaty of Versailles with twenty four members.

On 15 November 1920, the first Assembly of the League was convened when

the number of the members was increased by forty-two. Geneva in

Switzerland, a neutral state in World War I became the seat of the League of

Nations. It was an international organization of many countries having its

own sovereignty. It was not a federation of states or super states or a world

government. It had no sovereignty, and could not take action on any state orcoerce any state by military might in the same way in which a state can


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Coerce its subjects or citizens. Sit did not have any territory. There were no

citizens or subjects over whom it could exercise control. Unlike a state it had

no army of any kind.

The failure of the League of Nations resulted in the Second World War and

the establishment of the United Nations Organization. The great statesmen

of the world realized during the course of the Second world War (September

1939 to August 1945) that the idea of establishing the UN, an international

organization much better than the discredited League of nations. In January,

1941, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt of USA declared that every

nationality had the right to nationhood, and the Allies were fighting against

the Axis Power to uphold this right.

In August 1945, the Second World War ended, and in 1946, the League of

Nations was dissolved, though some of its independent agencies were

permitted to continue functioning. Since the beginning of the war, people all

over the world wanted the democracies to declare and clarify their war aims.

President Franklin Delano Roosevelt of USA and Prime Minister Winston

Churchill of U.K. declared the war aims of the Allies through the famousAtlantic Charter on August 14, 1918. The Atlantic charter was a significant

as the Fourteen Points, which were put forward by President Woodrow

Wilson of the USA during World War I. On a January 1942, representatives

of Twenty-six governments adopted the United Nations Declaration based

on the Principles of the Atlantic Charter. On 25 June 1945, at a plenary

session, the charter of the United Nations was unanimously adopted by fifty

one nations. The charter came into effect on 24 October 1945 after Japanese

surrenders and ending of the Second World War. The UN Charter has a long

document consisting of a Preamble and III Articles. John D. Rockfeller Jr.donated land plot in Manhattan, New York, for the UN buildings.


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Overall Objectives of the Course

After the completion of this course the students will be able to:

discuss the social, economic and religious life of the people of

Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, Indus Valley, Vedic Era, Greece and

Rome.

analyse the contributions of Egypt, Mesopotamian, China, Indus

Valley Civilization.

explain the teaching of Bhagawat Gita, Gautam Buddha, Mahavira

Vardhamana, Jesus Christ and Hajrat Muhammad.

explore the causes of the rise and the fall of the Feudalism.

review the causes, nature and effects of the Renaissance and

Reformation.

state the causes and the effects of the Glorious Revolution of 1688,

American War of Independence 1776-83, Industrial Revolution,

French Revolution 1789 and the Russian Revolution of 1917.

examine the causes and the effects of the First and the Second

World War.

justify the need for the establishment of the League of Nations and

United Nations Organization. identify the objectives of the League of Nations and United

Nations Organization and elucidate the functions of the different

organs of these two World Organizations.


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Unit OneAncient Civilizations

52 Teaching hours

1. Introduction to the unit

This course has been divided into two units and five sub-units. The first unit

of this course entitled Ancient Civilization includes first sub-unit and topic

like outstanding contributions as well as social, economic and religious life of

Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, Indus Valley, Vedic Era, Greece and Roman

civilization. the second sub unit and topics of this unit include the teachingof Bhagawat Gita, Gautam Buddha, Mahavira Vardhamana, Jesus Christ and

Hajrat Muhammad.

2. Pre-requisites

Some knowledge of World Civilization at the Secondary School level.

3. Objectives, instructional materials instructional strategies and period

allocated

Objectives of the Unit Instructional

Materials

Instructional

Strategies

Teaching

hoursAt the end of this Unit

the students will be

able to :

- Examine the

contributions of

Egypt, Mesopotamia,

Indus Valley, Vedic

Era, Greece and Rome

to modern world.

Maps, picture

showing the

contributions

and handouts

Demonstration

the teacher will

demonstration in

the class

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- Explain the social

economic and

religious life of the

people of ancient

Egypt,

Mesopotamia, Indus

Valley, Vedic Era,

Greece and Rome

Pictures and

handouts

describing the

social, economic

and religious

life.

Seminar, Each

student should be

asked to prepare

seminar paper

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- Evaluate the

teaching of

Bhagawat Gita,

Gautam Buddha,

Mahavir

Vardhamana, Jesus

Christ and Hajrat

Muhammad

Pictures and

Flash Card

describing the

teaching of

Bhagawat Gita

and Gautam

Buddha

Discussion Method

the teacher will

divide the class into

five groups and ask

each group to discuss

and present in the

class.

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4. Description of the Contents of the Unit : Contributions of the

Egyptian Civilization

1. Writings

The Egyptian Civilization gave the world first form of writings called

Heiroglyphics. It was picture writing used for religious purposes. They also

developed twenty four letter alphabet.

EGYPTIAN SUMERIAN CHINESE XPA

TERRA HEBREW GREEK

2

WRITING, CALENDARS,

AND RELIGION HELP MENWORK TOGETHER


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2. Writing Materials

Beside Heiroglyphics and alphabet the Egyptians gave the world writing

materials such as paper, palette, reed pen Ink and Inkpot Paper was

produced by the papyrus plants. the name paper was also derived from the

word papyrus. They taught the world to make pen out of pointed reed and

make ink out of vegetable gum and soot.

3. Calendars

Ancient Egypt gave the World Lunar and Solar Calendars. They developed

Lunar calendar and when they found Lunar Calendar inadequate to measure

time correctly they evolved a new calendar based on the solar system. Theydivided the year into three seasons each having four months and thirty days

in the month. the last five days in each year were holidays. There were three

hundred and sixty five days in a year in Egyptian Solar Calendars.

Not only calendar, they also invented devices like sundial, water clock and

the Hour-glass to indicate the time. The world learned the value of time

from Egypt. Modern watch was the outcome of the devices developed by

Egyptians in ancient period.

4. Science and Mathematics

Egyptians were much more advanced in science and Mathematics. They had

very good knowledge of earth science and medicine. The physicians

diagnosed the diseases by investigating their symptom and prescribed

remedies. The Egyptian doctors were aware of the science of Surgery. They

performed setting of bone fractures and were expert in surgical operation.

Egyptians were well acquainted with the knowledge of mathematics. They

knew addition, multiplication, division and fraction. They maintain theaccount properly. They knew Geometry well. The structure of Pyramids


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clearly indicates their knowledge of Geometry. They were trained enough to

calculate the area of triangles and rectangles.

Modern world has learned many things from Egypt especially in the field of

mathematics and medical science.

5 Art and Architecture:Egyptian art and architectures were advance from The pyramid, temples and

toms were the examples of their skill of architectural engineering. Some

people were well-versed in medical science as well as architectural

engineering. Imhotep, the advisor of the king Zoser of ancient Egypt was the

example of such talent. He was quite popular as a great physician and

architect. He was the architect of the first Pyramid known as the Pyramid of

Zoser.

Egyptian paintings, beautiful jewelry, pottery, musical instruments, fine

linen cloth, weapons and tools, enchanting glassware and excellent vessels

had great impact on the art of modern world. Egyptian arts had great

influence on Hebrew, Greeks and Phoenicians.

Social Life of the Egyptian People

Egyptian society was divided into three classes known as High class or

aristocratic, the middle class and peasants and slaves. The Pharaoh, the

nobles and the priests were regarded as aristocratic who enjoyed much

power and wealth. The middle class of Egyptian society included

merchants, scribes, artisans, physicians and other professional. This class

emerged as the results of the growth of cities and towns in ancient Egypt.


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The condition of the peasants and slaves were miserable. They worked hard

but get little for their livelihood. The peasants had to pay taxes to the state.

The slaves were taken as captives after the war and brought to Egypt. Their

life was hard enough. They had to construct Pyramids and other buildings

for Pharaohs and their masters. The woman occupied great prestige and

high place in society. They were respected everywhere. They enjoyed

freedom and owned property. The Pharaohs married their sisters and

daughters to retain the purity of royal blood.

Religious life of the Egyptian People

The Egyptians were polytheistic. That is why they worshiped many gods.

Deities were visualized as animals and other creatures, such as the

crocodiles, the bee, the jackal, the bull, the ram, the falcon and others. The

creatures themselves were not gods but they were the seats of divinity.

The sun God called Ra was worshipped by all Egyptians. It was said that Ra

used to sail across the sky in a golden boat daily. He was supposed to

destroy the darkness and injustice and make life more happier and

comfortable. Osiris, the son of the sun God Ra was equally worshipped byEgyptian because it was he who caused the Nile to overflow to make the soil

fertile. The legend says that Osiris was killed by his bad brother but his

devoted wife brought him back to life. Osiris became the king of the dead

and judge the soul of the dead. They produced the book called the book of

the Dead which was used to test the dead to go to heaven. The failure in the

test indicated the life in the hell.

Egyptians believed that their Pharaoh was an incarnation of god Ra and

Osiris. They built temples, tombs and Pyramids to pay homage to their godand goddess. The temples constructed at Karnak, Luxor, Philae and Abu


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Simbel were worth seing. The temple of Karnak took nearly two thousand

years to complete and it is nearly quarters of a mile long.

Economic Life of the Egyptian People

The people of ancient Egypt were mostly dependent on agriculture. They

grew crops of wheat, flax, fruits and vegetables.

The fertile land of Nile had boost up the agriculture of ancient Egypt.

Therefore Hecataeus, the geographer once remarked, "Egypt is the gift of the

Nile." The ancient Egyptian also recognized the importance of Nile and

exclaimed" Hail to the E O Nile that comes to keep Egypt alive."

The Papyrus was made from the stem of the Papyrus plant which grew in

marshes and pools near the Nile. The fresco in Theban grave the process of

farming by Egyptian Peasants. It represents ploughing, sowing, reaping,

carrying and threshing corn. Cattle farming was also common practice in

ancient Egypt. A model found in a tomb dating from about 2200 B.C.

indicates a nobleman inspecting his many cattle with herdsmen. Beside

agriculture Egyptians were involved in many other profession and

occupations. There were potters who made vessels of great beauty, weaves

of fine linen stuffs, glass workers, makers of tapestry; cabinet maker whomade chair and conches for the king and nobles, goldsmiths etc.

The Egyptians were also involved in trade and commerce. They built ships

and started trading across the Mediterranean as far as Phoenicia. The

Pharaohs used to send caravans of donkeys far up the Nile into the Sudan to

deal with the black people of the south and bring back ebony, ivory, ostrich,

feathers, fragrant gums etc. to Egypt.


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make weapons and planned for war. The Assure and Nineveh were the chief

cities of Assyrians. Their cities were founded on the bank of river Tigris.

The Assyrians had extended their empire from the Persian Gulf to Egypt

along the Fertile Crescent. Their love of war and capacity to organize the

administration took them on the height of the glory of civilization. it was

because of their power and glory they were called "Romans of Asia".

5. Contribution in Science:Sumerians in Mesopotamian Civilization has made great contributions in the

field of science. they developed lunar calendar. They invented writing.

They divided time into hour, hour into sixty minutes and each minute into

sixty seconds. Along with astronomy astrology also developed. The

Chaldean kings encouraged the development of science by constructing

observatories for astronomers.

6. Hanging Garden of BabylonOne of the greatest contributions of Babylon was the Hanging Garden built

by Chaldean emperor Nebuchadnezzar (604-561 B.C) on the roof of his

imperial palace. The Greeks called it one of the Seven Wonders of the World.

Social Life of the Mesopotamian People

The Babylonian civilization reached its zenith during the time of

Hammurabi. He was the first to build an empire Mesopotamia and govern it

effectively with his code. His code was too harsh and cruel to some extent.

For example, if a house fell down and caused the death of the householder's

son, the code directs that the son of the builder shall be put to death. In other

word it was the old concept of an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.


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The Babylonian society was divided into three classes. The first class

consisted of king and his family, priests, nobles, officers and rich merchants.

The middle class included peasant, artisans, shopkeepers and others. The

slaves were considered as the third and lowest class in the society. They

were brought as the captive of the war. However, the slaves in Babylonia

were in better condition in comparing with other parts of the world. They

enjoyed the right of property, marriage freemen or women and right to buy

their freedom with their savings. The women were enjoying freedom of

property and the choice of the profession. They were allowed to divorce

their husband in case of dissatisfaction. But the women in general were loyal

towards husband and family.

Education was common practice in Babylonia. The children used slate of soft

clay to write their lesson in school. The children were taught to write on the

slate and memorise some three hundred and fifty sign of alphabet. The

writing and memorising all the sign were not easy job. Hence, a proverb was

written on the wall of the school hour "He who shall excel in tablet writing

shall shine like the sun."

Religious Life of the Mesopotamian People

The prestige of the chief local deity varied with the renown and power of

city. Anu of Erah as gods of the sky, Ea of Eridu as god of water, Nanna of

Ur as god of the moon were recognised as supreme gods. But the thing

changed when Babylon became the capital of the empire. The attempt was

made to raise the prestige of the Babylonian god, Marduk. He was

promoted from a minor water god to a god of magic, and to a sky god. The

priest of the god announced that he was lord of the universe. But this

concept was not accepted widely.


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Ishtar, the mother of gods and also goddess of love and Tammuz, the god of

vegetation, were also worshiped. Enlil, the supreme god of Sumerians was

replaced by Marduk, the supreme god of the Babylonians when they were in

power. During the time of the Chaldeans or the new Babylonians, seven

main gods came to be worshipped in rotation based on the principle of each

god a day like the sun God on first day as Sun day and Moon God on second

day as Monday.

Economic Life of the Mesopotamian People

The primary occupation of the people of Mesopotamia was agriculture. Like

in Egypt they produced wheat, barley, spelt, onions, beans, grapes and dates.

The dates were widely used for various purposes. They provided flour,

fruit, wine, rope, wood etc. Cows and sheep were domestic animal used for

milk and meat. A plow was used as farm implement which dropped seeds

through a funnel while the earth was prepared to receive them.

The trade and commerce were in advanced stage. Mesopotamia had more

convenient access to the western end of the Fertile Crescent and to caravans

from east than Egypt. The roving nomad population near the land of two

rivers Tigris and Euphrates facilitated the exchange of goods.

Mesopotamian exports were grain, cloth, dried fish and finished metallic

products in exchange of imports of Ores, fine woods such as cedar and

walnut, building stone etc. Professional accountants were appointed by the

traders to keep the account properly. Mesopotamian seals or duplication of

them were found in Fertile Crescent and in Asia Minor. Babylonian

contracts were carefully drawn. Contracts for all business transactions were

required with death penalty for failure to fulfill. Gold and Silver by weight

served as media of exchange. Originally the Ziggurat had been the store-

house for product.


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Slowly it acquired great capital from gift of worshippers. Having acquired

so much capital the temple acted as a bank which supplied seed to farmers in

the growing season and money or precious metal for various enterprises.

The craft and craftsmen were controlled by the temples and priest. But their

tradition was challenged by the Code of Hammurabi and it was controlled

and supervised by the State.

Contributions of the Chinese Civilization

Chinese people of ancient ages have made immense contribution to world

civilization in the field of science, art, education, music, literature etc.

1. Science

China was on the top of progress in ancient period in the field of astronomy,

mathematics, agronomy and medicine. The silk technology in ancient period

made China world famous. The high way of China linking outside world

was also addressed as Silk Road to signify the importance of silk. The

manufacture of porcelain ware was so famous that the country itself

acquired its name as China. She has taught to the world the method of

making paper, printing, gunpowder, compass etc. The Great Wall of China

and the imperial palaces and garden building in Beijing represented theachievement of ancient China in the field of Science and Technology.

2. AstronomyIn ancient China astronomy developed in order to arrange farm and animal

husbandry in accordance with the change of seasons. That is why they badly

needed astronomical knowledge in making calendar. Ancient Chinese made

great contributions not only to calendar making, but also to the keeping of

astronomical records and the manufacturing of astronomical instrument.

Another significant contribution of ancient China was the records ofsunspots, comets, polar lights, novas and meteorite showers. Ancient China


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recorded more than 90 novas and supernovas which have attracted great

attention among modern radio astronomers.

3. MathematicsChina made great contribution in the field of mathematics also. The decimal

system was for the first time adopted in China. The Chinese were proficient

in the use of the decimal system and the fractions for the four arithmetical

operations. The ancient Chinese mathematician Jiu Zhang Suan Shu wrote a

book entitled "Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art" in the first Century.

This book is not only a Chinese classic of mathematics but also well-known

scientific work in the world.

4. AgronomyAncient China led the world in the practice of agronomy. In the Zhou

Dynasty, over 3,000 years ago crops like glutinous millet, broomcorn millet,

rice, barley, wheat, soya bean grew in Chinese farmland. The agricultural

book of entitled Qi Min Yao Shu (Import Arts of the peoples Welfare) written

in the 6th Century, records over eighty six specimens of millet, indicating

that Chinese agriculture had reached a very high level of development.

5. ArchitectureAncient Chinese architecture has some originality of its own. The Great Wall

erected in the 2nd or 3rd Century B.C. and rebuilt continually afterwards has

remained an architectural beauty of the world. It is one of the man-made

structures that can be seen from satellites.

Social Life in Ancient China

China has a recorded history of about 3,600 years. The first primitive man so

far known to have exited in China is Yuanmou Man, who lived about 1.70


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million years ago. Peking Man was discovered at Zhoukaudian to the south

west of Beijing (Peking) lived 400,000 to 5000,000 years ago.

The ancient Chinese society consisted of various classes. They were

educated elite, the peasants and workers and the merchants. Slavery existed

in China. In the 11th Century B.C. The Zhou people (people of modern

Shaanxi) under the leadership of King Wu, destroyed, the Shang Dynasty by

military force and founded a new slave regime known as western Zhou (11 th

Century to 770 B.C.). The Zhou kings adopted the system of fiefs in which

land and people were awarded to various dukes and princess. All land was

belonged to the king and all slaves were compelled to work collectively for

the king.

Religion and Philosophy

Worship of nature was the most primitive way of religious tradition of

China. It was followed by ancestor worship. During the warring states,

many schools of Philosophy flourished, such as Mohism, Confucianism,

Leagalism, Mencius and Taoism. Buddhism was introduced in China in 67

A.D.

Mohism Philosophy was propounded by Mo Zi or Mo Di (C. 478 392 B.C.).

He advocated Universal love, pacifism, and emphasized on honouring of the

virtuous. He had many followers and exercised influence on the society of

his time.

Confucius (551- 479 B.C.) was a philosopher, educator and the founder of

confucianism. His real name was Kong Qill or Kong Zhongxi. He was born

in Zhou yi state of Lu.


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Confucius expressed his philosophy on politics, morality, love and

education. He proposed that good and capable people should be appointed

to official posts. He emphasized the importance of benevolence and

regarded it as the highest ideal of morality. He advocated more love for

those who were close and less for those who were distant, more for the

highly placed and less for the lowly. For education confucius emphasised

'the teaching according to individual talent, learning and relearning and

learning about new things by reviewing old things "For learning process he

advised," when you know, say you know and when you do not know, say

you do not know."

Confucius words and works were compiled by his students to form book

entitled the Analects of Confucius. He himself edited Book of Odes, Book of

History, Book of Change, Spring and Autumn Annals etc.

Han Fei (C. 280 233) founded the idea of Legalism. He opposed such

concepts as heavenly mandate and questioned the existence of ghosts and

spirits. He did like the idea to return to old. He advocated the concentration

of all power in the hands of the sovereign, and rule by law. He was the

representative of legalist school. It was also called the school of logiciansthat studied the distinction between name and reality- a school that

emphasized the importance of logic and debate.

Mencius (C 372 289 B.C.) advocated the ruler to win the hearts of their

subjects so as to secure their own rule. He believed that every person should

have his own immovable property. There should be schools to teach people

to be dutiful towards their parents and respectful towards all elders. He

argued if all this was done people would be "friendly towards one another,

helping one another in difficulties or in poor health. In that case the peoplewould have no desire to move to other places all their lives. Saying all these


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things Mencius wanted to built a strong Nation. The purpose of having

immovable property for everyone, as proposed by Mencius, was to combine

tilling with weaving to create a small- scale agricultural economy where

labour would be permanently tied to land.

Lao Zi (C 604 517 B.C.) was regarded as the founder of Taoism. He

believed that there was nothing man could do regarding the change of events

which was controlled by the way of heaven. What man could and ought to

do was to follow nature, remaining passive and doing nothing in particular.

His ideal society was one small in size and spare in population where people

had neither desire nor knowledge and do not communicates one another for

the entire duration of their liver.

Buddhism was introduced in China in 67 A.D. when Buddhist monk

Kasyapa Mataeng and Dharmaranya came to Luoyang at the invitation of

the Han emissary to their country. Emperor Ming Di ordered the White

Horse Monastery built in their honour and asked them to translate Buddhist

sutras into Chinese.

Economic Life in Ancient China

Chinese society in ancient period was primarily based on agricultural

economy. Iron Plough and ox farming were popularized and improved.

New methods of farming were also introduced such as "alternation method"

and "small plot method". In the "alternatives method" the land was

ploughed into furrows and the earth turned up to make ridges crops seeds

were sown into furrows. To maintain the fertility of the land, the ridges

crops seeds were sown into furrows. To maintain the fertility of the land, the

ridges and furrows were alternated every year so that the ridges of this yearbecame furrows of the next, and vice versa. In small plot method deep


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ploughing and close planting were applied on small plots, where water and

manure were sued effectively.

1. IndustryBeside agriculture, the Chinese were heavily involved in industrial activities

in ancient period. Cloth-weaving, the main household sideoccupation

covered silk, flax, kohemp and woolen fabrics. The silk fabrics used by

aristocrats were of fine workmanship and exquisite design. The cotton cloth

from the prefecture of Silkman and the silk from Shandong were famous at

the time. Chinese brocade which was characteristic of high standards of

Chinese textiles, found a brisk market in Rome. The hand operated spinning

wheels, weaving looms and figures fabric weaving looms of the time had

lasting influence over China's textile.

Salt making, iron smelting and cloth weaving were three principal handicraft

of ancient China. By the Easter Han Dynasty, iron and steel had replaced

bronze in making the weapons.

Paper making in China began in the 2nd Century B.C. when people used

worn out bast fibres to make rough paper. In the second Century writingpaper was invented and the raw materials extended from bast to bark fibres.

It is said China's paper making technology spread to Korea in fourth Century

and Japan in Tenth Century, Ararb Countries in eight century and Europe

after twelve Century. Chinese wood block printing was made between the

period six and seven Century. The movable type printing was invented at

the beginning of the eleventh century. During the period between second

Century B.C. and second Century AD the building of wooden vessels was

well developed. Chinese invented Gun-powder in seventh Century and

used in fighting war in tenth Century.


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2. TradeThrough the Silk Road and the sea routes, Chinese Silk and Silk products

were transported to Europe, Asia and Africa where they ere well received.

Not long afterward the technology of silk weaving also spread to foreign

countries. For several times between the Fifth and Sixteenth Century,

figured fabrics weaving looms were transported to Europe. The Eastern Han

Periods witnessed a steady rise in the export of Chinese silk to the western

world.

Chronology of Chinese History

Dynasty DurationPrimitive Society 4,000 years ago

Slave Society Around 21st Century 476 B.C.

Xia Around 21st - 16th Century B.C.

Shang Around 16st - 11th Century B.C.

Western Zhou Around 11th - Century 770 B.C.

Spring and Autumn Period 770 - 476 B.C.

Feudal Society 4756-B.C. - A.D. 1840

Warring States Period 475 - 221 B.C.

Qin 221 - 207 B.C.

Western Han 206 B.C. - A.D. 24

Easter Han 25 220

Three Kingdoms 220 280

Wei 220 265

Shu 221 - 263

Wu 229 - 280

Western Jin 265 - 316

Easter Jin 317 - 420

Southern and Northern Dynasties 420 - 589


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Southern Dynasties 420 - 589

Song 420 - 479

Qi 479 - 502

Liang 502 - 557

Chen 557 - 589

Northern Dynasties 386 - 581

Northern Wei 386 - 534

Eastern Wei 534 - 550

Western Wei 535 - 557

Northern Qi 550 - 577Northern Zhou 557 - 581

Sui 581 - 618

Tang 618 - 907

Five Dynasties 907 - 960

Song (Northern and Southern) 960 - 1279

Liao 916 - 1125

Western Xia 1038 - 1227

Kin 1115 - 1234

Yuan 1271 - 1368

Ming 1368 - 1644

Qing 1644 - 1911

Greek Civilization

Contributions of Greek Civilization

Greek civilization is called the mother of European Civilization. Europe andthe World as a whole learned many things from the ancient Greeks. Shallay,the eminent English poet once wrote "We are all Greeks, our laws, ourliterature, our religion, our arts have their roots in Greece. "Regarding the


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impact of Greek civilization on Italy H.A. Davies Writes, "It was in southern

Italy and Sicily that the most famous of the Greek colonies were founded.Southern Italy became a kind of new Greece, and it had its full share of theculture which afterwards came to the Greeks. This is a matter ofconsiderable importance, because it was through the Greeks that literature,art, architecture, and the knowledge of how to write came into Italy, so thatthe Roman civilization is the debtor of the Greek, just as the Greek is thedebtor of Phoenicia, and the Phoenicians the debtor of Egypt."

Greek civilization has made great contribution to world in the field ofliterature, sports, political science, Philosophy and Science. The GreekScientists made important contributions to the scientific knowledge for

which the world is greatly indebted.

GREEK HISTORY


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Social Life of the Greeks

1. SocietyThe word "Greeks" came from Latin, the language of the Romans not of the

Greeks themselves. They called themselves "Hellenes" which applied to

many different Aegean communities.

Although Greece was divided into hundred of city states, the people had

strong feeling of Patriotism. It is said that no people have ever loved their

country more passionately than the ancient Greeks loved their cities. The

Athenians during the time of Pedicles did not regard their lives as their own,but as the property of the state.

The most prominent among several city-states of Greece were Athens,

Sparta, Corinth and Thebes. There was the different system of governance

between Athens and Sparta. Athens believed in Democracy. She made

significant achievements in the field of politics, laws, literature, art, science

and Philosophy. They discarded oligarchy and accepted democracy. In

contrast to Athens, Sparta was basically the military state. In Sparta, there

were three classes in society known as Peers, Freemen and Helots. TheHelots were aggressive. Only Peers were enjoying privileges and

citizenship. The remaining two were deprived of the privileges and

citizenship.

2. Greek LiteratureAncient Greece was rich in Language and Literature. The llliad and Odyssey

composed by the blind poet Homer were the sources of the inspiration for

the people of Greece. Less than a century after Homer, Hesiod wrote two

significant books entitled "Theogony" and 'Works and Days'. The book

Theogony gave a systematic account of the genealogy of the gods, and the

others Works and Days, dealt with farm life of the period.


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The woman who came up with lyric poetry was Sappho before 500 B.C. The

name lyric means verse that was recited and sung to the accompaniment of a

lyre. However, the lyric poetry was not new for Greece. Because the epic

legends of Homer were also recited and sung.

The Periclean age was regarded as the golden age of Greek plays. The

Athenian government used to award an annual prize to the best play wright

after an open contest. Aeschylus Sophocles and Euripides were the three

great tragic poet of ancient Greece.

Herodotus (484 - 425 B.C.), the father of History, brought changes by writing

authentic history of persian wars. Thucydides (C 455 - 400 B.C.) another

Athenian gave the world first scientific history. His history book on

Peloponesian War (the great war between Athens and Sparta) introduced

scientific approach in writing history, for example, cause and effects

relationship.

3. PhilosophyGreece produced many famous Philosophers of the world. Socrates(469 - 399 B.C.) was one of the greatest philosophers who taught his

pupils not to accept any principle without putting it to a severe test of

reasoning. The Athenian government found his ideas as dangerous and

corrupted the youth. He was given hemlock (poison) to die. Before his

death he proclaimed "know thyself, I will rather die having spoken

after my manner than to like and speak in your manner". One of the

students of Socrates was Plato (C 428 - 347 B.C.) who contained the

teaching of his teacher in his book entitled Dialogues. Plato producedanother book named Republic in which he described ideal state

governed by philosopher king. Another Philosopher of Greece was


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Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.). He was one of the students of Plato.

Aristotle was the tutor of Alexander the Great. He wrote on a great

variety of subjects such as philosophy, politics, ethics, poetry, physics,

biology and medicine.

4. SciencePythagoras was the first and the greatest mathematician, the world ever

knew. Hippocrates (460-357 B.C.) was the father of medical science. A

Greek, Aristarchus of Samos (250 B.C) was the first person to state that the

earth moves round the sun. Anaxagoras (503 - 428 B.C.) was a great

Philosopher and geometrician in Athens. Democritus developed the theory

of Atoms. Archimedes (C 287 - 12 B.C) is well known to present world for

his discovery of the principle of gravity.

5. Greek Art and ArchitectureThe Greeks' primary interest was in people and the preference naturally was

reflected in the choice of subject for sculpture. The gods were supermen.

The Hellenic treatment of people or of humanized gods, showed a deliberate

attempt to represent actual human anatomy. The fifth and early fourth

century sculptors perfected anatomical realism.

The fifth and early fourth century sculptors added something else to the

accurate portrayal of anatomical features. People, ro gods were represented

as doing something that was typical. The subjects were caught in a

momentary pose or action. Myron's Discus Thrower is in the act of throwing

the discuss, Polycleitus' youth is carrying a spear, Praxiteles Faun leans upon

a Pedestal, Phidies Athena shows active power and benevolence that were

assumed to be consistent with her character.

In the centre of Athens there rises a hill known as the Acropolis, a rock table

standing well above the rest of the city. Acropolis means high point. On the


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highest peak, the temple of Parthenon was built. The features of the Greek

temple that have persisted because of their usefulness are the rectangular

shape, columns as support, the porch and the type of roof. Doric, Ionic and

Corinthian were the three types of Greek Columns.

Economic Life of the Greeks

There was not enough fertile soil in Greece to feed her people. Therefore it

has to import food and export finished good. Easy access to the sea

encouraged the Greeks to make contact with the outside world.

The exchange of food and other articles brought fifth century Athenian trade

to a new height and this flourishing commerce also contributed to a sense of

economic well-being. Athens exported processed goods and some raw

materials needed by industries elsewhere. The exports included wine, olive

oil, minerals, marble, pottery, arms, books (Scrolls) and works of art. The

sources of Athenian imports were spread through out the Mediterranean

World, ships from many lands depositing their cargoes at the sea-port of

Athens, known as the Piraeus. Wheat came from Syria, Egypt, Italy and

Socily, preserved fish from the black sea and iron from its perimeter, copper

from Cyprus, tin from Britain, gold from Thrace, timber from Thrace andCyprus, Wool, flex and dyes from Phoenicia, ivory and spices from North

Africa, perfumes and ointments from Arabia, slaves from Lydia, Syria and

Scythia. By the fifth century coined money had become the usual medium of

exchange, and advance beyond the barter of the Phoenicians.

The first banks were temples which, receiving the gifts of the devoted, lent

this treasure for various purposes.

Fifth Century Athens benefited by certain economic advantages not enjoyed

by other Greek City states. The State operated mines of silver that made

possible an unchanging content of precious metal in Athenian currency.


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Other cities, without the supply of precious metal, often reduced the

percentage of silver in their coins.

The dependability of Athenian currency, in comparison with that of other

states, caused it to be readily acceptable to the advantage of Athenian

merchants.

Religious Life of the Greeks

Beside language, Greeks also had a religion in common. The practice of

religion consisted for the most part of carrying out rituals which would keep

the god happy. Like Hindu, Greeks thought of the gods as very much like

themselves.

The king of god was called Zeus. It has terrible figure which gives hurling

thunderbolt. The goddess of love and fertility was called Aphrodite. These

deities were involved in human affairs too. They did not stand aloof from

men.

The god of the sea and earthquakes was called Poseidon. Apollo was the

god of the sun and of the art. Athena was the god of the sun and of the art.

Athena was recognized by all Greeks as the goddess of wisdom. TheAthenians also claimed her as the patron goddess of the city. She was also

the virgin goddess of war and wisdom.

All the Greeks believed that they had descended from a common ancestor

Hellen. In spite of local deities all Greeks accorded deference to the same

company f gods and goddesses on Mount Olympus.

Olympic Game was also connected with the religion in Greece. The Olympic

Games were held every four years in Elis in the South-western parts of

Greece. Traditionally the games constituted a religious festival in honour of

Zeus. The winner of the game received a great honour. Events were similar


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to those in modern Olympic Games. There were races by men, and by horses

throwing the discus and Javelin, wrestling and boxing.

Roman Civilization Chart

Chronology of Roman History

1000 B.C. Latins and Etruscans move into Italy

Roman Confucius

800 B.C. Foundation of Rome, about 753 B.C. EARLYIRON AGE

600 B.C. Etruscan kings expelled, 509 B.C.

Consuls elected to head the republic500 B.C. Tribunes win rights for plebeians, 448 B.C. GOLDEN

AGE

OF GREECE

400 B.C. Rome begins conquest of Italy, 323 B.C

Italy united, 275 B.C.

Sicily ceded by Carthage, 241 B.C.

War with Hannibal, 218 B.C. to 202 B.C.

200 B.C. Cicero, 106 B.C. to 43 B.C.

Caesar elected consul, 59 B.C.

Octavian's victory at Actium brings peace in 31

B.C.

Rule of Augustus, 31 B.C. to 14 A.D.

HELLENISTI

C AGE

1 A.D. Nero emperor, 54 A.D. to 68 A.D.

The Five Good Emperors, 96 A.D. to 180 A.D.

200 A.D. Military despots and civil wars AGE OFROMAN

EMPERORS

300 A.D. Christianity made the official religion of the

Empire400 A.D. Barbarian invasions


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Contributions of Roman Civilization

1. Preservation of Greek CivilizationRomans have made great contribution in the preservation and spread of

Greek civilization in Europe. They acted as agent of the Greek to familiarize

the glory of the past. It was true that the Romans took the ideas on religion,

philosophy, art and architecture learning and science from Greek. But it is

also not untrue to say that Greek civilization would not have been flourished

without the help of Romans. Similarly Romans were much more advanced

than Greeks in the organizing central and provincial governments, laws,

principles of taxation, citizenship rights, construction of public works like the

fountains, theatres, baths, bridges, aqueducts arterial roads, hospital and

sanitation system. The Roman not only built an empire covering all the

peripheral countries of the Mediterranean Sea including Britain and

Mesopotamia but also organized the local and provincial governments in

such a way as to ensure peace and harmony among the people. They did not

inter-fare the local tradition and religion to introduce reform in the

administration of the conquered land.

Roman Law

The most significant contribution of the Roman Civilization to the world was

their law. It had made great impact on the law of almost all the civilized

nations of the world. The first written code came in the form of Twelve

Tables in 150 B.C. which were inscribed on the twelve table of bronze and

publicly displayed in the market. This law was classified and codified by the

Roman Emperor Justinian and it was called Justinian Code. This code

adapted the principle of equality i.e. all are equal before the law.


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2. Architecture and DesigningThe Romans were highly developed in the construction of all kinds of

buildings. They learned the construction of columns or pillar from Greek but

the arches and domes were their own inventions.

3. Learning and LiteratureThe Romans learned education from Greeks. But they developed it in their

own way. The Greeks taught the Roman children in the beginning but later

on they were replaced by the Romans themselves. There is no doubt that the

Romans copied literature from Greek but the Latin literature reached its

height during the reign of Roman emperor Augustus. Julian Calendar was

introduced by Julius Caesar in 45 B.C.

4. Health and HygieneThe Romans were highly advanced in health and hygiene. The Europeans

have learned many things from Romans especially in building of hospitals

and drainage system.

Social Life of the Romans

It is said that a group of Indo-European called Italies came to Italy through

Alpine passes. One of their Tribes was the Latins settled in Latium, the

central plains of Italy lying south of the river Tiber. They constructed houses

and small walled village for their protection. They used to speak Latin.

Other tribe which came to Italy was Etruscans. Etruscans came from Asia

Minor and settled in the north of the River Tiber about 800 B.C.

The legend tells that Rome was founded by two brothers named as Romulus

and Remus in 735 B.C.


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H.A. Davies mentions "The earliest inhabitants of Italy of whom we have any

very definite records were lake dwellers, who probably came from

Switzerland and settled on the lakes of the north and over the marshes of the

Po Valley."

Slavery: There was very large number of slaves in Rome. It is said that

there were slaves twice in number than freemen in Italy; and the proportion

was still higher throughout the whole empire. The slaves were mainly

domestic and not treated cruelty.

Life of the People

The lives of Romans were both luxurious and hard. The wealthy people

lived in very beautiful mansions on the hills, the poorer classes were

crowded into poor and thickly populated tenements in the Valleys. But

luxury, idleness, and self-indulgence were probably confined to a very small

class. The civil servants who carried on the administration of the Empire

were extremely industrious, and there was a marked improvement in the

treatment of the provinces. Even the worst of the emperors found it to their

interest to rule them wisely, and when they were in need of money theygenerally wrung it from wealthy nobles at Rome not from the provinces.

Economic Life of the Romans

The main source of the income of ancient Rome was agriculture. The land

supplied the substance of life, the basis for wealth and the credentials of

social standing small farms existed. As time went on, however, the small

farmer was crowded again.

The food product most needed from agriculture was grain, for it continued

to be the basis of Roman diet. The Romans had subsisted largely on porridge


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or mush, made of coarsely ground wheat. Romans did not grow much food

but imported it from outside world such as from Egypt, North Africa and

Sicily. Romans gradually shifted to more profitable crops like grapes and

olives, and were raising sheep.

Romans developed manufacturing more slowly than large-scale farming. In

Rome itself very little was manufactured beyond necessities. They made

clothes out of wool, implements of clay, wood and metal, flour from grain,

wine from grapes, oil from olives, bricks of clay. The only Roman industry,

however, which attained a size appropriate to metropolis was the making of

bricks for building.

Commerce and industry, so largely in the hands of non-Romanas, were

facilitated by condition created by Rome. The Roman peace established

tranquility in which business functions well. There was a great and a great

demand, without benefit of theory. They removed the obstacles between the

demand and the theory of benefit.

The Romans were directly responsible for markets even if they left to others

the business of supply. Old cities in the East expanded, new towns in theWest grew. But Rome was the greatest of all. The system of selling and

buying was well developed. Upon arrival, the goods were put to

government use, purchased by large households, or sold in city stores. The

streets were lined with stores and booths.

The techniques of banking, initiated in the Hellenite Age, were developed

still further to meet the demand for greater mobility of large sums of money.

Roman money circulated throughout the Mediterranean region and beyond,

but there were other coins as well, and so the money changers flourishedBankers, often freedmen, accumulated and guarded large stores of cash,


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while letters of credit made easy the payment of debts overseas and

eventually the employment of similar devices for local use.

The Romans contributed the capital and energy of planning necessary for

World Commerce and industry.

Religious Life of the Romans

Roman religion reflected Roman characteristics and reinforced them. Deities

at first were merely spirits, or impersonal functional powers, who watched

over the farm, the home and the state and whose good will be advisable tosecure by following the proper rituals. The lakes watched over the farm, and

Saturnus over sown crops, the Penates were spirits of the storeroom, Janus

guarded the door way and Vesta the hearth. The Genius of the house-hold,

guarding the father and fertility, was a sort of alter ego and was worshipped

like other gods. The male Genius was matched by a Juno for the matron of

the household.

The state gods were household gods promoted with some additions. Janus

protected the gates of the city, as well as the door of the private dwelling,and when army was in the field the doors of the temple of Janus remained

open until it returned. Vestal virgins were charged with the duty of

watching the sacred fire of the city that it should never die. Jupiter, god of

the sky was like Zeus in Greek and Juno was Jupiter's Queen. Minerva was

goddess of wisdom, Mars was god of war, Dianna was goddess of the moon

and of the hunt and Venus of fertility, love and beauty. The Romans

sacrificed animals and plants to their deities like Nindus and others.

Like the Greeks, the Romans thought of their gods like a heavenly expeditersof earthly affairs and did not associate them with a better life in another

world. Romans were in the belief that relation with a god were in the nature


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of contact, mortals contributed their share by sacrifice, and the god was

expected to do something in return. The Romans like other ancient peoples,

attempted to divine the future. No project, private or public, should be

begun until the omens were found favourable. Priests wanted the skies,

especially for lighting, or they observed the flights of birds, the movements

of quadrupeds or the entrails of domestic animals. If anything peculiar was

noted in any one of these sources of foreknowledge, it was considered an evil

omen, and the project was postponed or abandoned. Even the meetings of

the comitia and of the senate could not begin until the omens were consulted

and found favourable. Veneration of ancestors was almost a religion. The

best families treasured death masks of departed kindred. These images were

kept in a scared nook in the home along with the statues of household gods

and were displayed in funeral processions of members of the family. The

great deeds of the departed were inscribed in the tablets.


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The Vedic Aryans

Contributions of the Vedic People

The root of the Hindu philosophy, religion and culture was the vedic

civilization. The Vedic literature reflects the different walk of the life of

Vedic era. The most important and the earliest among the Vedic literature

was Rig Veda. The Rig Veda was followed by other Vedas such as Yajur

Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda.

The political organization of Vedic civilization had great impact on the livesof the monarchs of Rajans. They were morally bound by the teaching of the

Vedas. Even today people follow the teaching of Vedas and act accordingly.

The people's representatives called Sabha and Samitee still exist in one or

other form.

Social Life of the Vedic People

1. Family SystemFather was the head of the family system. Mother was next to the

importance in the family. Everybody had to obey their father and mother

alike. The mother looked after the management of household affairs and

helped her husband in religious ceremonies and sacrifices. All the members

of the family lived in the same house made of wood and bamboos.

2. EducationEverybody had the opportunity of education. The girls and boys were

equally educated. The girls were highly educated. They had full liberty of

choosing their husbands. They composed hymns and sometime rose to the

position of Rishis.


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3. Caste SystemThere was division of labour and work but not the system of caste and

touchability or untouchability in the beginning of the Vedic civilization. The

warriors class known as the Kshatriyas was the result of the continued war

and need for permanent class of fighting men. The priests were called

Brahman. Vaisyas were engaged in agriculture, trade and commerce and

Sudras belonged to the wild tribes.

4. Food and DrinksThe people of Vedic era ate meat, vegetable, rice, barley, bean, seasame etc.

They sued to take different kinds of fruits and fruit juice. They made sura orliquor from barley and corn and Sama from plant. They offered these

alcoholic drink even to the Gods. The people were very much fond of milk

and milk product things such as ghee, butter and curds. They prepared

bread and cakes out of flour.

5. Dress and OrnamentThe people of Veic era wore Vasas and Adhivasa. The garment of the lower

part of the body was called Vasas and Adhivasa for upper part. Similarly the

under garment was called Nivi. Embroidered clothes were worn by thedancers, brides and other wealthy women. The Hermits wore skin clothes

especially made of deer.

Men and Women both wore different types of ornaments. The ear ornament

of man was called Karnasobhana. Kurisa, the head ornament, Khadi, the

ring like an armlet and Nishka, the neck ornament were the most popular

among the people of the Vedic era.

6. EntertainmentGambling, Chariot racing, dancing, playing dice, wrestling, music were the sources

of entertainment of the people. They enjoyed vocal and instrumental music.


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Economic Life of the Vedic People

1. AgricultureThe People of Vedic era primarily dependent on agriculture. They cultivated

land and grew wheat and barley. They were very much fond of cattle. The

wealth of the people could be measured by the size of the cattle.

2. IndustryThere were many professional groups who engaged in different profit

making activities. These were carpenters, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, butchers,

potters, barbers, boatmen, hunter etc. They worked in small industry toproduce things to meet the demand of the society.

Cotton and woolen garments were produced by the industry. They

produced utensils house furniture, chariots, carts, boats, ships, sickles,

razors, plough, weapons like spears and swords.

3. TradeThe trade and commerce were in flourishing stage. The people were

engaged in inland and river trade. Inland trade was carried out by cart

driven by oxen and river by boat. The people had commercial contact withthe different part of the world. The tradesmen were also engaged in sea-

born trade. The trade was carried on barter except a few nishka, a small gold

piece.

Religious Life of the Vedic People

The people of Vedic era primarily worshipped nature or the god and

goddesses symbolising the nature. These can be classified into three groups

viz. terrestrial gods like Prithvi, Agni, Soma and Brihaspati, the atmospheric

gods like Indra, Marut, Vayu, Parjanya and Rudra, the celestial gods like

Varuna, Dyus (the sky god), Sun god like Mitra, Savitri and Vishnu.


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