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Global Issues

Environmental Awareness

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Global environmental impact:

The optimist’s view is that:

“The ecosystem is a robust process and Man’s presence on Earth does little to disrupt this process.”

The pessimist’s view is that:

“The ecosystem is delicately balanced and man-made effects are relentlessly moving us towards an unstable environmental condition.”

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Serious Environmental Issues at European Level• Climate change• Stratospheric ozone depletion• The loss of biodiversity• Major accidents• Acidification:• Ground-level ozone and other photochemical oxidants• The management of freshwater• Forest degradation• Coastal zone threats and management• Waste production and management• Urban stress• Chemical risks

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Environmental effects

• Air: atmospheric emissions are dispersed and chemically converted

• Water: discharges are dispersed down a concentration gradient

• Land: contaminated land can present particularly intractable problems

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Man’s effects

• Deforestation and desertification

• Limited biodiversity

• Genetic modification

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Global environmental system

Atmosphere

Biosphere Hydrosphere

Geosphere

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UK Expenditure (1991-2000) (£bn):

Environmental Problem

UK expenditure (£bn)

Major spillsContaminated LandPersistent organics

VOCs and smellsNoise

Air QualityOzone depletion

Heavy metalsAcid rain

Waste managementWater quality

Greenhouse effect

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Brundtland report

“The ability to choose policies that are sustainable requires that the ecological dimensions of policy be considered at the same time as the economic, trade, energy, agricultural, industrial and other dimensions. That is the chief institutional challenge of the 1990s.”

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The Geosphere

“The geosphere is a complex group of

processes that comprise the internal

geological processes of the planet and the

external, more visible, geological features

that shape the world in which we live.”

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Subsistence agriculture causes

• Deforestation

• Desertification

• Habitat loss

• Soil erosion

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Intensive agriculture causes

• Depletion of the natural genetic pool

• Aquifer use and contamination

• Contamination of water courses and the soil profile

• Destruction of natural habitats

• Deforestation

• Pollution problems

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Agriculture in Ireland

• Eutrophication of inland waters by phophorus

• Arises from organic wastes and chemical fertilizers

• Current surplus of phosphorus

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Land degradation• 15% of the total land area has been degraded by

Man’s activities

and of this land• 55% is due to water erosion• 28% is due to wind erosion• 12% is due to chemical change - such as pollution

effects, salinisation and acidification; and• 5% is due to physical change - such as compaction

and subsidence

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The atmosphere

“The Earth’s atmosphere is a product of

physical, chemical and biological

interactions. These interactions occur on

both land and sea, and occur over long time

scales.”

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Atmospheric bands 100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Alt

itud

e km

)

180 200 220 240 260 280 300

10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10 -1 10-0

Thermosphere

Mesopause

Mesosphere

Stratopause

Stratosphere

Tropopause

Troposphere

Concorde

Subsonic aircraft

D/kgm-3

T/K

Temperature (K)

Density (kgm-3)

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Factors affecting air pollution:

• type of source - natural & anthropogenic

• number and spatial distribution of sources– single and point sources e.g. incinerators

– area-wide or multiple sources e.g. commercial buildings

– line sources e.g. motorways

• type of emissions, properties– physical e.g. particle size and density

– chemical e.g. acidity, alkalinity, solubility and corrosiveness

– biological e.g. toxicity to human, plant & animal tissue, taste and odour

• rate of emission

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Sources - Air Emissions

Estimated rates of natural and anthropogenic nitrogen fixation

Source Process Rate (Tg N/yr)

Natural Biological 60

Atmospheric 7.4

Anthropogenic Biological 69

Industrial 40

Combustion 20

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Natural Sources• geological activity, volcanic eruptions and wind-

blown erosion

• biological activity, microbiological, animal and

human gaseous exchange

• meteorological activity, solar radiation

• natural combustion, forest fires and biomass

burning

• background radiation, radon gas from igneous rock

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Classification of man-made (anthropogenic) sources

• fuel-burning for heat and power generation

• incineration

• transportation

• industrial and commercial

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People sensitive to air pollution

• The very young

• The elderly

• Those with pre-existing disorders:– asthma– emphysema– heart disease

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Types of exposure to air pollution

• Endemic (single large dose to a limited

population)

• Catastrophic (significant dose to a large

population)

• Concomitant (small dose to a whole

society)

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Approaches for obtaining health information

Discipline Population Strengths Weaknesses

Epidemiology Communities Natural exposure

Difficulty in quantifying natural exposure

Diseased groups

No extrapolations

Many covariates

Susceptible groups

Minimal dose related data

Long-term, low-level effects

Association vs. causation

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Approaches for obtaining health information

Discipline Population Strengths Weaknesses

Toxicology Animals Maximal dose related data

Realistic model of human disease?

Cells Rapid acquisition of data

Threshold of human response

Biochemical systems

Cause-effect

Mechanism of response

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Specific air pollutants & associated health effectsCO - reduction in ability of blood to transport oxygen

- impairment of performance on tasks requiring vigilance

- aggravation of cardiovascular disease

NO2 - increased susceptibility to respiratory pathogens

O3 - decrease in pulmonary function

- coughing, chest discomfort

- increased asthma attacks

PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate) - eye irritation

Aldehydes - eye irritation

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Specific air pollutants & associated health effects

SO2 & - increased prevalence of chronic respiratory disease

Particulates- increased risk of acute respiratory disease

VOCs - toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic

Benzene - carcinogenic (leukaemia)

1,3 Butadiene - carcinogen (leukaemia,lymphomas, and cancers of the bone marrow)

Particulate matter (Pm10) - lung disease

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Response to air pollution by flora

Deg

ree

of in

jury

(Concentration) x (Time)

DEATH

visible symptoms

no significant effect

possible nutritional value

biochemical alterations

physiological response

Examples

Chlorosis, flecking,reduced crop yield

Altered photosynthesis,suppression of transpiration

Reduced enzyme level

SO2 serves as a source of S for plant

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Examples of injury to flora by air pollutants

Pollutant Injury threshold

V/vppm time (hrs)

Symptoms

SO2 0.3 8 Bleached spots, chlorosis.

O3 0.03 4 Flecking, stippling, bleached spotting; conifer needle tips become brown and necrotic.

PAN 0.01 6 Glazing, silvering or browning on lower surface of leaves.

NO2 2.5 4 Irregular, white or brown collapsed lesions.

n.b. these concentrations are very much above ambient)

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Major pollutants affecting the built environment• Sulphur dioxide

• Sulphates

• Nitrogen oxides

• Nitrates

• Chlorides

• Carbon dioxide

• Ozone

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Indoor air pollutants

• Common pollutants– Carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, sulphur

dioxide, ozone, formaldehyde, organic vapours• Sources

– Faulty domestic heating/cooking appliances, granite, building materials, cavity foam insulation, certain textiles, paints, plywood, cigarette smoke, synthetic materials, household chemicals

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Greenhouse gases

• Carbon dioxide (atmospheric levels predicted to rise at 0.4% per annum)

• Methane• CFCs• Nitrous oxide

- global warming (increase between 1.5 and 4.5 C)

- rise in sea-level (30-60 cm by 2050)

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Greenhouse gases

• Human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels (coal, peat and oil) release carbon dioxide (CO2), the main greenhouse gas.

• The major source in Ireland of the greenhouse gases methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) is agriculture.

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Greenhouse gases• A significant contributor to national emissions of

greenhouse gases is the production of cement which is a growing industry in Ireland.

• The impacts of enhanced greenhouse effect in Ireland are expected to include:

– enhanced agricultural production

– drying out of peatlands

– serious winter storms and flooding

– lower summer flows in rivers and a rise in sea levels

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Effect of sea-level change• Erosion of beaches and coastal margins• Land use changes• Wetland loss• Increased frequency and severity of

flooding• Loss of water resources• Damage to ports, coastal defences, water

management systems

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Ozone depletion

• Chlorine-based chemicals (such as CFCs) largely to blame for ozone depletion

• The ozone layer (15-20 km above the earth’s surface) acts as a protective filter from the sun’s ultraviolet radiation

• Increased ultraviolet light on earth can:– increase the risk of skin cancer/eye cataracts– depress the human immune system– harm aquatic systems and crops

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Summary - Major impacts of air pollution on the environment• Adverse effects on:

– humans– fauna– flora– built environment

• Global warming

• Ozone depletion

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Specific air pollutants & associated environmental effects

• SO2 Acid rain

• CO2, NOX, CFCs Greenhouse gas

• VOCs Greenhouse gas, formation of

tropospheric ozone, stratospheric

ozone depletion

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Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)

• Produced by fossil fuels

• Electricity generation is the principle source

• Has adverse effects on human health

• Causes acid rain

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Sources of Nitrogen Oxides in Ireland (1990)

Power

Industry

Shipping

Derv

Railways

Motor Spirit

Other non transport

Civil aircraft

Power

IndustryShipping

Derv

Railways

Motor SpiritOther non transport

Civil aircraft

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Sources of Carbon Monoxide in Ireland (1990)

Motor spiritOther industriesPower stationsDomesticDerv

Motor spirit

Other industriesPower stations

DomesticDerv

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Sources of VOCs in Ireland (1990)

Road Transport

Civil aircraft

Other transport

Processes andsolventsOther non-transport

Other transport

Processes and solvents

Civil aircraft

Road transport

Other non-transport

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Sources of particulates in Ireland (1990)

DomesticOther TransportDervMotor SpiritOther industriesPower StationsDomestic

Othertransport

Derv

Motor Spirit

OtherIndustries Power

Stations

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Sources of CO2 in Ireland (1990)

Domestic

Industrial

Power stations

OthertransportDerv

Motor spriit

Others

Refineries

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The HydrosphereThe hydrosphere comprises all the saltwater and freshwater resources of the Earth. Of the total volume of water on the Earth:

94% is saltwater

6% is freshwater

and of this

27% is glacial

72% is groundwater

1% is usable surface water

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Freshwater resources

• Surface waters

• Ground waters

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Main pressures

Our freshwater resource is under threat from two main pressures:

• The rate of water abstraction is often higher than the rate of addition, resulting in a gradual decline in total reserves.

• Freshwater pollution is creating a water quality problem that is requiring a large and growing financial investment to resolve.

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Global water use (1360km3 in 1990) Agriculture

DomesticAppliances

IndustryAgriculture

DomesticAppliances

IndustryIndustry

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Total Waste Load Discharged to Receiving Waters and Land from Point Sources in Ireland

Lakes

Rivers

Land

Estuaries/Coastal

Lakes 1%Rivers 20%

Land 1%

Estuaries/Coastal 78%

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River Water Quality

River Quality (13,200km baseline)

0

50

100

150

% C

hann

el le

ngth

Seriously Polluted 0.9 0.6 0.9

Moderately Polluted 9.7 10.9 14

Slightly polluted 12 16.3 18.2

Unpollutted. 77.3 72.2 66.9

1987-90 1991-94 1995-97

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Major Categories of Water Pollutants

Category Major Effects

Substances exerting anoxygen demand

Oxygen depletion

Infectious agents Spread of disease,mortality

Plant nutrients Eutrophication(excessive plant growth)

Organic compounds Toxicity, oxygendemand

Inorganic elements andcompounds

Mainly toxicity

Radioactivity Toxicity, mutagenicity

Heat Variety of effects

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The biosphere

“The biosphere comprises all living

organisms on the earth including plants,

animals and micro-organisms.”

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Numbers of Threatened Fauna

SpeciesStatus

Extinct Endangered Vulnerable Rare Indeterminate TotalSpecies

Mammals 1 0 0 1 2 31

Birds 6 8 3 15 3 168

Reptiles 0 0 0 0 0 1

Amphibians 0 1 0 0 0 3

Fish 0 3 3 0 3 27

Total 7 12 6 16 8 230

Source: Whilde, 1993; Department of Arts,Heritage, Gaeltacht & the Islands.

Numbers of Fauna Species in Categories of Threat in Ireland

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Typical Sound Levels• 140 dB(A)

• 130 Military jet takeoff at 15m

• 112 Pop group

• 105 Lawnmower at 1m

• 95 Pneumatic drill at 7m

• 90 Motorcycle at 8m

• 87 Heavy truck at 15m, Street traffic

• 75 Car at 7m

• 70 Inside a small car

• 60 Loud conversation at 1m, busy general office

• 40 Secluded suburb at night

• 30 Quiet countryside at night

• 0 Threshold of hearing

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Use/fate of Selected Chemicals

Lost to ProductList I 608 tList II 577,439tSolvents

TreatedList I 0.11tList II 2,788tSolvents 3,529 t

Emitted to AirList I 0.13 tList II 675 tSolvents 404 t

Emitted to Waste

List I 6 tList II 2,518 tSolvents 2,090 t

UnaccountedList I 52tList II 531 tSolvents 988 t

Emitted to EffluentList I 0.68 tList II 226tSolvents 64t

Recovered/RecycledList I 1.5tList II 21,419 tSolvents 42,064

Fate of Pollution Emissions Register Chemicals from IPC Licensing Activities 1998

Note: Listed substances are substances that have toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulationproperties. List I substances must be eliminated and are legislated for at European Level.List II substances must be reduced and are controlled at national level.

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Hazardous Waste Generation

0

100000

200000

300000

400000

Breakdown of Reported and Unreported Hazardous Waste in 1996

Reported Unreported (Estimate

Unreported (Estimate 0 32248 34742 5688 8750 16802 98229

Reported 182504 16225 0 28273 0 2631 229633

IPC Industry

non-IPC Industry

Agricultre Commerce Households O ther Total

0

20

40

60

Percentage

Fate of Hazardous Waste

Disposed Recovered Unspecified

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Household and Commercial Waste Arisings

0200,000400,000600,000800,000

1,000,0001,200,0001,400,000

Tonnes per annum

Household and Commercial Waste Arisings

1984 854,866

1993 1,186,312

1995 1,385,439

Source: Environmental Protection Agency

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Household and Commercial Waste Arisings

0%

50%

100%

Landfill Incineration Composting Recycling Other

Other 0 0 0.3 1 0 1

Recycling 7.8 15.5 0 12.2 5.7 9

Composting 0 22.5 6.9 11.1 0 6

Incineration 0 26.9 45.7 54.4 14.3 18

Landfill 92.2 35.2 47 21.7 80 66

Ireland Netherlands France Denmark U.K. Europe(average

Source: Environmental Protection Agency

Management Method %

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Recycling Rates

0

20

40

60

% Recycled

Recycling/Recovery Rate for Packaging Materals

1993 1995 1999 Target(set in 1994)

1993 4.1 0.3 21 14 0.1 10.3

1995 12.5 1.6 32.4 21 0.1 15.6

1999 Target(set in 1994) 25 25 55 25 25 33

Aluminiu

Ferrous

GlassPape

rPlast

icsTotal

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Eco-efficiency Performance in Ireland 1990-1997

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

Inde

x 19

90 =

100

GDP

Vehicle Numbers

SO2 Emissions

Household Waste*

Energy Demand

Basket of GreenhouseGases

slightly & moderatelypolluted rivers

*Some data extrapolated

Eco-efficiency at National Level

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Environmental Awareness and AttitudesAttitudes to the Environment

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

% o

f re

sp

on

de

nts

wh

o v

iew

ed

as

ex

tre

me

ly

da

ng

ero

us

Europe % Ireland %

Europe % 20.6 27.9 19.7 29 29.3 27.5

Ireland % 16 26.5 24 27.2 53.7 36.3

Air Pollution (Cars)

Air Pollution (Industry)

Chemicals & Pesticides

Climate Change

Nuclear Power

Water Pollution

Source: Environmental Protection Agency

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Environmental Strategies and Management Plans

Issue National Regional/Local

Sustainable Development and Environmental Protection

Environmental Action Programme (1990) Sustainable Development (1997)

Local Agenda 21

Aquatic Environment including Groundwaters

Catchment-based strategy against eutrophication in rivers and lakes (1997) Setting out proposals for phosphorus control in subsequent Regulations (1998)

Water Quality Management Plans for major catchments (see map) and for certain bays/estuaries Catchment monitoring and management systems being developed for certain rivers and lakes Groundwater protection schemes for 6 counties completed with 7 more in preparation

Waste Recycling for Ireland (1994) Waste Management: Changing our ways (1998) National Hazardous Waste Management Plan (2000)

Local Authority Waste Management Plans- to be adopted 1999.

Climate Change and Air Quality National Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategy (2000) Preliminary assessment of air quality to guide programmes under the EU framework directive on air 96/62/EC

Air quality management plan for Dublin

Biodiversity and Heritage National Biodiversity Plan (in Preparation) National Heritage Plan (2001)

National Park Management Plans 5 completed; to be revised Consevation plans for SACs in preparation