today looking at “form fits function” – human body review have out notes, etc. that you need
TRANSCRIPT
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Today
• Looking at “Form fits function”– Human Body Review
• Have out notes, etc. that you need
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Form fits function
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Examples
• Enzyme specificity• Viral specificity• Pollinators/flowers• Pollen/stigma• Adaptations/environment
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Nervous System
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Action potential
• http://outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/animations/actionpotential.swf
• http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter14/animation__the_nerve_impulse.html
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Transmission across synapses
• http://outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/animations/synaptic.swf
• http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter14/animation__transmission_across_a_synapse.html
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Muscular System
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Muscle Tissue
• Skeletal – attached to bone (Ex. Biceps)
• Smooth – blood vessels and internal organs (stomach)
• Cardiac – heart• Reflex arc – pictured
to the left
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Vertebrate Skeletal Muscle• Contract/relax: antagonistic pairs
w/skeleton• Muscles: bundle of….• Muscle fibers: single cell w/ many nuclei
consisting of….• Myofibrils: longitudinal bundles composed
of….• Myofilaments:
•Thin~ 2 strands of actin protein and a regulatory protein •Thick~ myosin protein
• Sarcomere: repeating unit of muscle tissue, composed of….
• Z lines~sarcomere border• I band~only actin protein• A band~actin & myosin protein overlap• H zone~central sarcomere; only myosin
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Muscle contraction
• http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp47/4702001.html
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Muscular contraction
• Action potential travels from neuron to muscle• Action potential is generated on the
sarcolemma• Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca++• Ca++ binds to troponin on the actin filaments
– Conformational change exposes myosin binding sites
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Muscular Contration
• ATP binds myosin head (high-energy head)• If Ca++ present, myosin binding sites on the
actin are exposed (myosin heads bind to actin filaments) – form cross bridges
• ADP and P are released, causes conformational change in myosin, causes sliding movement towards center of sarcomere (2 Z lines come together)
• Muscle fibers contract
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Muscle contraction regulation, I
• Relaxation: tropomyosin blocks myosin binding sites on actin
• Contraction: calcium binds to troponin complex; tropomyosin changes shape, exposing myosin binding sites
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Muscle contraction regulation, II
• Calcium (Ca+)~ concentration regulated by the….
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum~ a specialized endoplasmic reticulum – releases Ca+
• Stimulated by action potential in a motor neuron
• T (transverse) tubules~ travel channels in plasma membrane for action potential
• Ca+ then binds to troponin
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Endocrine System
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Mode of Action: Chemical Signaling• 1- Plasma membrane reception •
signal-transduction pathways (neurotransmitters, growth factors, most hormones)
• 2- Cell nucleus reception • steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, some local regulators
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TROPIC HORMONES
T3/T4 Calcitonin
TestosteroneEstrogen
ProgesteroneShort-termEpinephrine
Long-termGlucocorticoids
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QuickTime™ and aCinepak decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
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Respiratory
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• Countercurrent exchange – allows diffusion to occur along the entire length of capillary
• 80% efficient• On land, gills would dry out and collapse (need
moist surface for diffusion)
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Regulating breathing• Regulation: monitors CO2
levels in blood (medulla oblongata)
• CO2 + water = carbonic acid = lowers pH
• Slight drop in pH triggers a breathing response
• O2 levels have little effect on breathing unless O2 is severely depleted
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Respiratory pigments: gas transport• Needed for efficient transport of
oxygen• Oxygen transport-• Hemocyanin: found in hemolymph of
arthropods and mollusks (Cu) – blue blood
• Hemoglobin: vertebrates (Fe)
• Carbon dioxide transport-• Blood plasma (7%)• Hemoglobin (23%)• Bicarbonate ions (70%)• Deep-diving air-breathers-• Myoglobin: oxygen storing protein
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Protein review• Cooperativity – the
binding of one oxygen to hemoglobin, causes the other 3 active sites to have a HIGHER AFFINITY for oxygen
• Similar to allosteric activation
• What do you think the optimal pH is for hemoglobin?
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Bohr shift• Hemoglobin releases oxygen (has less affinity
for oxygen) at lower partial pressure for oxygen and at lower pH’s (more CO2)
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Circulation system evolution, I • Gastrovascular cavity (cnidarians, flatworms)• Open circulatory •hemolymph (blood & interstitial fluid) •sinuses
(spaces surrounding organs)• Closed circulatory: blood confined to vessels• Cardiovascular system •heart (atria/ventricles) •blood vessels
(arteries, arterioles, capillary beds, venules, veins) •blood (circulatory fluid)
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Circulation system evolution, II• Fish: 2-chambered heart; single circuit of blood flow• Amphibians: 3-chambered heart; 2 circuits of blood flow-
pulmocutaneous (lungs and skin); systemic (some mixing)• Mammals: 4-chambered heart; double circulation; complete separation
between oxygen-rich and oxygen poor blood
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The heartbeat• Sinoatrial (SA) node (“pacemaker”): sets rate and timing of cardiac
contraction by generating electrical signals• Atrioventricular (AV) node: relay point (0.1 second delay to ensure
atria empty) spreading impulse to walls of ventricles• Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)
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Why do the blood vessels have different structure?
• Capillaries•endothelium (lining of smooth cells = less resistance to blood flow); basement membrane – cell attachment & selective permeability
• Arteries•thick connective tissue;
thick smooth muscle; endothelium; basement membrane
• Veins •thin connective tissue; thin smooth muscle; endothelium; basement membrane
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Blood• Plasma: liquid matrix of blood in which cells are suspended (90% water)• Erythrocytes (RBCs): transport O2 via hemoglobin• Leukocytes (WBCs): defense and immunity• Platelets: clotting• Stem cells: pluripotent cells in the red marrow of bones• Blood clotting: fibrinogen (inactive)/ fibrin (active); hemophilia; thrombus
(clot)
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Digestion
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Feeding mechanismsSuspension-feeders
Bulk-feedersFluid-feeders
Substrate-feeders
Deposit-feeders
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Intracellular Digestion
• Ingestion – phagocytosis, pinocytosis
• Digestion – hydrolytic enzymes contained in lysosomes
• Absorption – simple diffusion
• Elimination - exocytosis
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Extracellular Digestion – can eat larger preyGastrovascular cavity
Complete digestive tracts(alimentary canals) – allow for systematicFood processing in specialized regions
1 opening2 openings
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Gastric Pits
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Positive feedback mechanism
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Hormonal Regulation• Gastrin - found in stomach
– released when we sense food– Stimulates gastric juice production
• Secretin – found in duodenum– Acid chyme stimulates production of secretin– Secretin stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate
(offset acid)• CCK (cholecystokinin) – duodenum
– Presence of fatty acids/amino acids stimulates release of CCK
– CCK stimulates the gall bladder to release bile and the pancreas to release other enzymes
– CCK slows peristalsis if meal is high in fat (fat takes longer to digest)
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• Excretion
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OsmoregulatorsSaltwater fish – lose water to the environment, need to drink salt water, actively transport salt out of gills & release salt in urineFreshwater fish - opposite
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Aquatic organisms can afford to
lose water ammonia
• most toxic• Able to dilute it
Terrestrial need to
conserve water urea
• less toxic/can store at high conc. (ENERGY)
• Energy tradeoff Terrestrial egg
layers need to conserve
most water uric acid
• least toxic• Less soluble• Waste in paste-form
Nitrogen waste – toxic ammonia vs energy loss
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Mammalian System• Key functions
– filtration• fluids from blood collected • includes water & solutes
– reabsorption• selectively reabsorb needed
substances back to blood– secretion
• pump out unwanted substances to urine
– excretion• remove excess substances & toxins
from body
blood filtrate
urine
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Excretory SystemsProduction of urine by 2 steps: • Filtration (nonselective) • Reabsorption (secretion of solutes)Protonephridia ~ flatworms (“flame-bulb” systems)Metanephridia ~ annelids (ciliated funnel system)Malpighian tubules ~ insects (tubes in digestive tract)Kidneys ~ vertebrates
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Osmotic control in nephron• How is all this re-absorption achieved?
– tight osmotic control to reduce the energy cost of excretion
– use diffusion instead of active transportwherever possible
the value of acounter current exchange system
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Kidney regulation: hormonesAntidiuretic hormone (ADH) ~ secretion increases permeability of distal tubules and collecting ducts to water (H2O back to body); inhibited by alcohol and coffee, caused by osmolarity changesJuxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) ~ reduced salt intake--->enzyme renin initiates conversion of angiotension (plasma protein) to angiotension II (peptide); increase blood pressure and blood volume by constricting capillaries Angiotension II also stimulates adrenal glands to secrete aldosterone; acts on distal tubules to reabsorb more sodium, thereby increasing blood pressure (renin-angiotension-aldosterone system; RAAS)