topic 1 teaching and learning science

8/13/2019 Topic 1 Teaching and Learning Science

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INTRODUCTION

Why is it important for us to learn and understand what science is? Look at theadvertisement in Figure 1.1. What does scientifically tested mean?

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Teaching andLearningScience

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Explain the three major components of science;

2. Describe the nature of science;

3. List the steps in a scientific method;

4. Explain the meaning of scientific literacy; and

5. Differentiate between science and technology.

LEARNING OUTCOMES


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TOPIC 1 TEACHING AND LEARNING SCIENCE2

Figure 1.1:An example of a bread advertisementIf we know science, we would not be fooled by this advertisement. We wouldknow how to evaluate information and make wise decision when it comes to ourhealth.

Before we go any further, do you think knowing science and knowing aboutscience are the same? They are different. Knowing science deals with thetheories, laws, generalisations, experiments and facts in science (Lee, Y. J. et al.,

2004). In the meantime, knowing about science or scientific literacy can bedescribed as thinking critically and reflectively about the cultural practices ofscience, the philosophy, the motivations, influences and frameworks behind thesciences.

As a science teacher, you certainly need to master both components in order tofacilitate effective teaching of this subject. Apart from that, you need to knowabout the nature of science, so that, you can prepare relevant science-relatedexperiences for the development of science concepts and understanding.

Recall how science was taught when you were in primary school. Taketime to list down the characteristics of the science lesson. Share it withyour classmates.

ACTIVITY 1.1


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TOPIC 1 TEACHING AND LEARNING SCIENCE 3

WHAT IS SCIENCE?

What comes to your mind when someone mentions the word 'science'? Do you

picture someone in a white lab coat? Someone watching stars using a telescope?A gardener tending to flowering bushes? Someone baking a cake? In spite ofthese differences, all of them are related to science (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2:Images of scienceSources:http://www.majalahsains.com/http://suddenvalley.com

http://www.astronomy2009.orghttp://foodthought.org

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Many people would associate science with a person in a white lab coat doing anexperiment but what about the person looking at the stars by using the telescope?The gardener and the baker? The person looking at the stars by using the

telescope is studying what makes up the star, while, the gardener is monitoringthe growth of the plants. Meanwhile, the baker is trying to control the situationso that the cake will rise beautifully. They are all doing science.

Science has many facets. Different individual would define science differently.The layperson might define science as a body of scientific information, thescientist might view it as procedures by which hypotheses are tested and aphilosopher might regard science as a way of questioning the truthfulness ofwhat we know. All of these views are valid, but each of them represents only apartial definition of science.

If you explore the meaning of science, you may find the following definitions:

Science is everywhere, using it all the time, scary, can be lethal, discovery,exploration, learning more, theories, hypothesis, interesting, exciting,expensive, profitable, intelligent, status (Fleer & Hardy, 1996)

Knowledge about the structure and behaviour of the natural and physicalworld, based on facts you can prove (Oxford Dictionary)

Systematic knowledge which can be tested and proven for its truth (KamusDewan)

Science is a set of attitudes and a way of thinking on facts (B. F. Skinner, 2005)

Science is the system of knowing about the universe through data collectedby observation and controlled experimentation. As data are collected,theories are advanced to explain and account for what has been observed(Carin & Sund, 1989)

From the various definitions given above, you can conclude that science consistsof three major elements:

Processes (or methods)

Products

Human attitudes

Figure 1.3 shows the relationship among the three elements.


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Figure 1.3:The relationship among the major elements of scienceNow, let us read about each element in detail.

1.1.1 Science as a Process

Scientific knowledge does not come out from thin air. The body of knowledge isproduced through the observations and experimentation being done by thescientist. This process has many different aspects and stages. For example, theastronomer will first observe carefully and maybe take measurements whilegazing at the stars. Then, with the knowledge of the laws of physics, he or shewill provide the basis of our understanding of our universe.

Scientific skills are the tools used in doing the processes of science. Students willconduct the processes just like the scientist. Students observe objects andphenomena around them to understand the natural world. They will use

empirical procedures and analyse the data to describe the science concepts. Thescience processes could also involve the formation of hypothesis, planning,collecting data and data interpretation before making a conclusion.


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1.1.2 Science as a Product

The product of science is the body of knowledge of science facts, concepts, laws

and theories. Figure 1.4 shows the relationships and the hierarchical order of thescience products.

Figure 1.4:The science productsNow, let us look at Table 1.1 which explains each component in detail.


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Table 1.1:The Science ProductsScience Products Descriptions

Science Facts A scientific fact is the specific statement about existing objects oractual incidents. We use senses to observe the facts.

There are two criteria that are used to identify a scientific fact:

(a) It is directly observable; and

(b) It can be demonstrated at any time.

Science Concepts A concept is an abstraction of events, objects, or phenomena thatseem to have certain properties or attributes in common. Birds,for example, possess certain characteristics that set them apartfrom reptiles and mammals.

Science Laws AndPrinciples

Principles and Laws also fall into the general category of aconcept but in a broad manner. These higher order ideas areused to describe what exists through empirical basis. Forexample, Bernoullis principle and Newton laws of motion.

Science Theories Scientists use theories to explain patterns and forces that arehidden from direct observation. The Kinetic theory explainshow the molecules in a solid, liquid and gas move.

1.1.3 Science as Attitudes

The third element in science is attitudes and values. Scientists are persons trainedin some field of science who study phenomena through observation,experimentation and other rational, analytical activities. They use attitudes, suchas being honest and accurate in recording and validating data, systematic and

being diligent in their work.

Thus, when planning teaching and learning activities, teachers need to inculcatescientific attitudes and values to the students. For example, during sciencepractical work, the teacher should remind students and ensure that they carryout their experiments in a careful, cooperative and honest manner.

Teachers need to plan well for effective inculcation of scientific attitudes andnoble values during science lessons. They should examine all related learningoutcomes and suggested teaching-learning activities that provide opportunitiesfor the inculcation of scientific attitudes and noble values. This can be referred toin any School Science Curriculum Specification.


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THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

In this subtopic, we will briefly discuss the nature of science. It refers to the mainprinciples and ideas which provide a description of science methods and inquiry

as well as the characteristics of scientific knowledge or products. You shouldread and understand all of these. Otherwise, it will result in your studentslearning distorted views about how science is conducted.

Some points regarding the nature of science are as follows:

(a) Scientific knowledge is not absolute but tentativeThe scientific knowledge we know today, may not be true in the future.Change is inevitable because new observations may disprove the currentknowledge. For example, previously we learn that there are nine planets inour solar system but now the scientist communities have agreed that thereare only eight planets.

(b) Scientific knowledge is durableAlthough scientific knowledge is tentative, most scientific knowledge isdurable. As technology improves, new findings are added to the field andthis will lead to the modification of current ideas. Eventually the ideas

become more refine, precise and widely accepted by the scientificcommunity. So, we seldom see strong theories being rejected altogether.

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With your partner, draw a mind map that summarises your definitionof science.

ACTIVITY 1.2

1. Re-read the definitions of science given by various sources. Inyour own words, explain the meaning of science.

2. Is the statement the earth rotates on its axisa scientific concept,principle or theory?

3. What are the three major elements of science?

SELF-CHECK 1.1


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(c) Science cannot provide complete answers to all questionsScience cannot answer all questions. Issues relating to moral, ethical,aesthetic, social and metaphysical questions cannot be answered by science

method. Why? The reason is ideas and answers relating to science must besupported by concrete evidence. Hence, there is no scientific method toprove that belief on moral issues or metaphysical questions can be false.

(d) Scientists are particularly objectiveScientists are no different in their level of objectivity as other professions.They have to be very careful and thorough when carrying out experiments,collecting data, analysing the results and making a valid conclusion basedon the results. However scientists are human beings too and they can makemistakes. So when they conduct experiments, the results may not always

give a valid explanation as mistakes can occur due to human error. Forexample, when interpreting the data, bias can occur as the scientist mayinterpret using his or her values and beliefs which may not be the valuesand beliefs of the scientific communities.

(e) The world is understandableIn order to explain the phenomena that happen around us, scientistspresume that the things and events in the universe occur in consistentpatterns. Thus, the phenomena are comprehensible through careful andsystematic study. They also believe that through the use of the intellect, andwith the aid of instruments that extend the senses, people can discoverpatterns in all of nature.

Tick [ ] the correct statements.

(a) Scientific knowledge is static.

(b) Scientific knowledge is durable.

(c) Science cannot provide complete answers to all questions.

(d) Scientists are particularly objective.

SELF-CHECK 1.2


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THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method as shown in Figure 1.5 is a process for experimentation that

is used to explore observations and answer questions. Scientists use the scientificmethod to search for cause and effect relationships in nature.

Figure 1.5:The scientific methodSource: http://www.experiment-resources.com/what-is-the-scientific-method.htmlNow, have a look at the following Table 1.2 that shows the steps of the scientificmethod in detail.

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Table 1.2:Steps of the Scientific MethodSteps of the ScientificMethod DescriptionsAsk question You should start the experiment by asking questions about

the problem you want to investigate. Start the questionswith 5W and 1H what, when, who, which, where and how.

Finally you should summarise what you want to investigatein the form of a testable question. Then only can you get theanswer through the scientific method.

Do backgroundresearch

In order to understand the questions that you want toinvestigate, you probably need to collect information fromvarious sources.

This will help you to understand the concepts surroundingyour investigation, thus helping you to plan in solving theproblem.

Construct ahypothesis

A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work:"If _____[I do this]_____, then _____[this]_____ willhappen."

You should construct the hypothesis in a way to help youanswer your original question.

Test your hypothesisby doing an

experiment

You then design your investigation to collect enough data.

You must remember to plan your experiment to be a fairtest.

You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change onlyone factor at a time, while keeping all other conditionsunchanged.

You should also repeat your experiments several times tominimise error.

Analyse your dataand draw aconclusion

Here, you analyse the data collected and relate your findingswith your hypothesis.

If the data support your hypothesis then you accept the

hypothesis. If not, then probably you need to re-examineyour hypothesis and start the entire process again.

Communicate yourresults

Finally, you want to share your findings with your friends.

You should write your report to include all the variouselements in your experiment.

You should use various tools to display your data such asdata table, graphs and diagram, so that the findings areclearly communicated to others.


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You must remember that the steps in the scientific method described in Table 1.2are cyclical, meaning that you do not just move from one step to another in alinear way. The reason for this is that information or thinking always changes.

Thus, scientists sometime need to back up and repeat the steps at any pointduring the process. This process is called an iterative process.The scientific method is not only used to solve scientific problems. It can beapplied in solving problems that you encounter in your everyday life. Thesystematic way of solving a problem could help you to make decisions in yourdaily life. This is what we called scientific literacyas illustrated in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6:A definition of scientific literacySource:Skamp (2004)In other words, scientific literacy means that a person can ask, find or determineanswers to questions derived from curiosity about everyday experiences. Itmeans that a person has the ability to describe, explain and predict naturalphenomena. A scientifically-literate person should be able to evaluate the quality


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of scientific information on the basis of its source and the methods used togenerate it. Scientific literacy also implies the capacity to pose and evaluatearguments based on evidence and to apply conclusions from such arguments

appropriately (National Science Education Standards, page 22).

Why do you think we need to be scientifically literate? One of the main reasons isthat the society we live in depends on an ever-increasing application oftechnology and the scientific knowledge that makes it possible. Decisions that wemake every day have the capacity to affect energy consumption, our personalhealth, natural resources and the environmentultimately the well-being ofourselves, our community and the world. Individual decisions may not seem to

be critical. However, when they are multiplied by 300 million people nationwide,or nearly 7 billion around the world, they have the power to change the face of

the planet (Scearce, 2007).

You want to find out whether the amount of sunlight in a gardenaffect tomato size. Use Figure 1.5 and Table 1.2 to help you to plan theexperiment and find the answer.

SELF-CHECK 1.3

Do want to find out whether you are scientifically literate? Tryanswering the test below. Answer the questions before looking at theactual answers!

ACTIVITY 1.3

Test Your Scientific LiteracyRichard Carrier (2001)Answer each question with 'true' if what the sentence most normallymeans is typically true and 'false' if it is typically false.

1. Scientists usually expect an experiment to turn out a certainway.

2. Science only produces tentative conclusions that can change.


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ACTIVITY 1.3

3. Science has one uniform way of conducting research called

the scientific method.

4. Scientific theories are explanations and not facts.

5. When being scientific, one must have faith only in what isjustified by empirical evidence.

6. Science is just about the facts, not human interpretations ofthem.

7. To be scientific one must conduct experiments.

8. Scientific theories only change when new information becomesavailable.

9. Scientists manipulate their experiments to produce particularresults.

10. Science proves facts true in a way that is definitive and final.

11. An experiment can prove a theory true.

12. Science is partly based on beliefs, assumptions and the non-

observable.13. Imagination and creativity are used in all stages of scientific

investigations.

14. Scientific theories are just ideas about how something works.

15. A scientific law is a theory that has been extensively andthoroughly confirmed.

16. Scientists education, background, opinions, disciplinary focus,and basic guiding assumptions and philosophies influence

their perception and interpretation of the available data.

17. A scientific law will not change because it has been proventrue.

18. An accepted scientific theory is a hypothesis that has beenconfirmed by considerable evidence and has endured allattempts to disprove it.


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19. A scientific law describes relationships among observable

phenomena but does not explain them.

20. Science relies on deduction (x entails y) more than induction (ximplies y).

21. Scientists invent explanations, models or theoretical entities.

22. Scientists construct theories to guide further research.

23. Scientists accept the existence of theoretical entities that havenever been directly observed.

24. Scientific laws are absolute or certain.

Source: www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/SciLit.html

Answers to Activity 1.3

1. T 9. T 17. F2. F 10. F 18. T

3. F 11. F 19. T4. T 12. T 20. F5. T 13. T 21. T6. F 14. F 22. T7. F 15. F 23. T8. F 16. T 24. F

How you score:

No wrong answer A+

1 wrong answer A2 wrong answers A-3 wrong answers B+4 wrong answers B5 wrong answers B-6 wrong answers C7 wrong answers D8 or more wrong answers F


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SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Look at the two ships in Figure 1.7. Can you see the differences? Why did the

ship change from the traditional to the modern?

(a) Traditional ship (b) Modern ship

Figure 1.7:Ships from different agesSource:http://scrapety.comhttp://www.titanic-titanic.com

The answer is as people become more intelligent they use their knowledge toimprove the ship. They improved the engine, the type of the fuel and many other

aspects so that the modern ship performs much more efficiently than thetraditional ship. The use of knowledge to build and improve the modern ship isone example of technology.

1.4.1 What is Technology?

Did you know the word technology originated from the Greek term technologiawhich is made up of techne, meaning craft, and logia, meaning saying? Thedefinition has evolved throughout history and now the word technology means

different things to different people.

Technology is a term that covers both the products created by human beings andthe methods used to create those products. In simple term, technology refers tothe way of doing something whether a product, such as machine, or a means oforganisation. The products of technology have been around since a long time agosuch as the invention of the wheel. In modern times the products could be assimple as a pen or more sophisticated like an iPhone.

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The term technology is said to encompass a number of classes of technology asshown in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3:Classes of TechnologyClasses Descriptions

Technology as Objects Tools, machines, instruments, weapons, appliances thephysical devices of technical performance

Technology as Knowledge The know-how behind technological innovations

Technology as Activities What people do their skills, methods, procedures,routines

Technology as a Process Begins with a need and ends with a solution

Technology as a Socio-technical System

The manufacture and use of objects involving people andother objects in combination

Source:http://atschool.eduweb.co.uk/trinity/watistec.htmlThe term science and technology always goes hand-in-hand, just like the horseand the carriage. So, is there a relationship between science and technology?

1.4.2 Relationship between Science and Technology

In general, science can be regarded as the enterprise that seeks to understandnatural phenomena and to arrange these ideas into ordered knowledge.Meanwhile, technology involves the design of products and systems that affectthe quality of life, using the knowledge of science where necessary.

Science is intimately related to technology and society. For instance, scienceproduces knowledge that results in useful applications through devices andsystems. We have evidence of this all around us, from microwave ovens, tocompact disc players, to computers.

However, the understanding of technology as the application of scienceknowledge has been challenged by many people. Mayr (1976) said . . . practicalusable criteria for making sharp neat distinctions between science andtechnology do not exist.

Technology is marked by different purposes, different processes, differentrelationship to established knowledge and a particular relationship to specificcontexts of activity. Change in the material environment is the explicit purpose oftechnology but that is not the case with science. Science, is concerned with the


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understanding of nature to bring about solutions that are more or less effectivefrom different points of view.

The three elements of science are products, processes and attitudes.

The product of science is the body of knowledge of science which comprisesfacts, concepts, laws, principles and theories.

The product of science is as a result of its processes and while the processes arecarried out, the attitudes are practised.

The processes of science can be done using scientific skills.

Science problem can be solved using scientific method.

Nature of science refers to the main principles and ideas which provide adescription of science methods and inquiry as well as the characteristics ofscientific knowledge or products.

The scientific method is made up of a series of steps: ask question, dobackground research, construct a hypothesis, test your hypothesis by doing anexperiment, analyse your data and draw a conclusion and communicate yourresults.

In your own words, define technology.

SELF-CHECK 1.4

In a group of three to four people, select two current inventions that

have been said to improve and benefit mankind. List the positive andnegative effects of using these inventions.

ACTIVITY 1.4


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Science is related to technology.

Technology involves the design of products and systems that affect the quality of

life, using the knowledge of science where necessary.

Nature of science

Science

Science and technology

Science attitude

Science process

Science product

Scientific literacy

Scientific method

Carin, A., & Sund, R. B. (1989). Teaching science through discovery (6th ed.).Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.

Esler, W. K., & Esler, M. K. (2001). Teaching elementary science (8th ed.). USA:

Belmont, Wadsworth/Thomson.Fleer, M., & Hardy. T. (1996). Science for children. Australia Harcourt Brace:

Prentice Hall.

Lee, Y. J. et al. (2004). Knowing science and knowing about science: Teachingprimary science. Prentice Hall : Singapore.

Martin, D. J. (2006). Elementary science methods: A constructivist approach.Methods for constructing understanding. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Mayr, O. (1976). The science-technology relationship as a historiographicsproblem. Technology and Culture 17.

Science Buddies. (2011). Steps of the scientific method. Retrieved April 20, 2011,from http://www.sciencebuddies.org/mentoring/project_scientific_method.shtml

Shuttleworth, M. (2009). What is the scientific method?Retrieved April 21, 2011,from http://www.experiment-resources.com/what-is-the-scientific-method.html

Skamp, K. (2004). Teaching primary science constructively. Southbank, Victoria:Wadsworth Publishing Company, Washington.


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The UK Technology Education Centre. What is technology? Retrieved April 22,2011, from http://atschool.eduweb.co.uk/trinity/watistec.html

University of California Museum of Paleontology. Understanding science: What

is science? Retrieved April 20, 2011, from http://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/whatisscience_01

Wolfs, F. L. H. (2004). Introduction to scientific method. Retrieved April 20, 2011,from http://teacher.nsrl.rochester.edu/phy_labs/AppendixE/ AppendixE.html.

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