Motivation

Motivation 1Definition Motivation is defined as the force that:

Energies Behavior -- What initiates a behavior, behavioral patterns, or changes in behavior? What determines the level of effort and how hard a person works? This aspect of motivation deals with the question of "What motivates people?"

Definition Directs Behavior -- What determines which behaviors an individual chooses? This aspect of motivation deals with the question of choice and conflict among competing behavioral alternatives.

Definition Sustains Behavior -- What determines and individuals level of persistence with respect to behavioral patterns? This aspect of motivation deals with how behavior is sustained and stopped

Five basic questions Psychologists studying motivation focus on questions such as:

What choices do people make about their behavior?

Having made a decision, how long is it before the person actually gets started?

What is the intensity or level of involvement in the chosen activity?

What causes a person to persist or to give up?

What is the individual thinking and feeling while engaged in the activity?Motivation theoriesDrive theory Arousal theoryExpectancy theoryGoal setting theory

Drive theory Motivation arises from biological needs within our bodies that create unpleasant states of arousal the feelings we describe as hunger, thirst, fatigues, and so on

In order to eliminate such feelings, we engage or do certain things to restore a balanced physiological state, or homeostasis

contd.. Drive theory Behaviors that work ones that help reduce the appropriate drive are strengthened and tend to be repeated. Those that fail to produce the desired effects are weakened and will not be repeated when the drive is present once again Biological Needs e.g. foodDrive State e.g. hunger Strengthen = Reduce drive Weakened = Not reduce drive Activation of behavior Drive theory Arousal TheorySimilar to Drive Theory, Arousal theory states that we are driven to maintain a certain level of arousal in order to feel comfortable

The difference is based on the ideas that different individuals perform better at different levels of arousal and that every individual seeks to find its optimum level.contd. Arousal TheoryA part of the arousal theory is the Yerkes-Dodson Law (simple tasks require a high level of arousal to get the motivation to do them, while difficult tasks require low arousal to get the proper motivation)

For example, you may have found that doing your boring busy-work homework requires a lot of effort on your part (due to low of arousal) while doing a difficult brain teaser is fun and is easy to concentrate on. Expectancy theory It describes the relationship of what people value (Valence), the effort (Expectancy) and the behavior, performance, or action is needed to obtain it (Instrumentality).

Vrooms Expectancy theory

Expectancy The expectancy is the belief that one's effort (E) will result is attainment of desired performance (P) goals.

This belief, or perception, is generally based on an individual's past experience, self confidence (often termed self efficacy), and the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal Instrumentality It is the belief that if one does meet performance expectations, he or she will receive a greater reward

When it is perceived that valued rewards follow all levels of performance, then instrumentality is low

For example, if a lecturer is known to give everyone in the class an "A" regardless of performance level, then instrumentality is low. ValenceIt is the value the individual personally places on the rewards. Factors that may influence valences include, values, needs, goals, and preferences

For example, How much I really want an "A" in educational psychology? (Need)Goal Setting TheoryPeople are motivated to work toward and achieve goals.Goal-setting is an important motivational processGoals enhance performance by clarifying what type and level of performance is expected and required

How does goal setting work?Achieving goals lead to the feelings of success and competence

Failing short of a goal creates dissatisfaction and thus, we are motivated to work hard to avoid failure

Enhancing the effectiveness of goal setting Assign or set specific goalAssign or set difficult yet attainable goalInvolve students in their goal-settingProvide feedback on goal attainment Goal commitment is enhanced when goals are public, self-set, and when individuals have internal locus of control Approaches to motivation Behavioral approach Humanistic approachCognitive approachSocial learning approach

Behavioral approach Classical conditioning states that biological responses to associated stimuli energize and direct behavior Operant learning states the primary factor as consequences: the application of reinforcers provides incentives to increase behavior; the application of punishers provides disincentives that result in a decrease in behaviorBehavioral approach Behaviorists explain motivation with concepts such as reward and incentivetechniques of behavior modification on the assumption that students are motivated to complete a task by being promised a reward of some kind e.g. praise, grade, a token to be changed for some desired object, privilege of engaging in a self-selected activity Humanistic approach Humanistic interpretations of motivation emphasize such intrinsic sources of motivation as a persons needs for self-actualization

People are continually motivated by the inborn need to fulfill their potential

to motivate students means to encourage their inner resources their sense of competence, self-esteem, autonomy, and self-actualizationCognitive approachhuman behavior is influenced by the way people think about themselves and their environment, not simply by whether they have been rewarded or punished for the behavior (behavioral views)

Behavior is initiated and regulated by plans, schemas, expectations, and attributionsTheories related to cognitive approachBernard Weiners attribution theoryEvery individual tries to explain success or failure of self and others by offering certain attributions.

These attributions are either internal or external and are either under control or not under controlcontd.Theories related to cognitive approachBernard Weiners attribution theory

Students attribute their successes or failures can be characterized in terms of three dimensions: locus (location of the cause internal or external to the person), stability (whether the cause stays the same or can change), and responsibility (whether the person can control the cause).

Eight combinations of locus, stability and responsibilityInternalExternalNocontrolUnstablee.g. Sick the day of the exam Stablee.g. Low aptitude Unstablee.g. Bad luck

Stablee.g. School has hard requirements

ControlUnstablee.g. Didnot study for the test

Stable e.g. Never studies Unstablee.g. Friends failed to help

Stablee.g. Instructor is biased

Theories related to cognitive approach2. Leon Festingers (1957) cognitive dissonance theorywhen there is a discrepancy between two beliefs, two actions, or between a belief and an action, we will act to resolve conflict and discrepanciescreate the appropriate amount of disequilibrium (motivation) that leads the individual to change his behavior and which in turn lead to a change in thought patterns Social learning approach are integrations of behavioral and cognitive approaches

Characterized as expectancy x value theories == it means that motivation is seen as the product of two main forces, the individuals expectation of teaching a goal and the value of that goal to him or her

Motivation is a product of these two factors because if either factor is zero, there is not motivation to work toward the goalTheories related to social learningVrooms (1964) Expectancy theory

An individual will act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be (valence) followed by a given outcome (expectancy) and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual (instrumentality).

Theories related to social learningAchievement Motivation: The Desire to Excel

Individuals differ greatly in the desire for achievement. For some persons, accomplishing difficult tasks and meeting high standards of excellence are extremely important. For others, just getting by is quite enough.

Types of motivation Intrinsic motivation

Natural tendency to seek out and conquer challenges as we pursue personal interests and exercise capabilities

Tied to self-efficacy and self-determination

It relates tothe experience of being competent (self-efficacy) and self-determiningthe emotions of interest and enjoyment the drive that pushes an ongoing interaction with the environment of seeking and conquering challenges that are optimal for ones capacities contd. Types of motivation Extrinsic motivation

Behavior where the reason for doing it is something other than an interest in the activity itself

may range from being determined largely by controls to being determined more by choices based on ones own values and desires (the beneficial things that one can gain) Differences: ext. & int. motivationDiffer in terms of the reason for acting, that is, whether the locus of causality for the action is internal or external inside or outside the person

Internal locus of causality / intrinsic motivation: students freely choose an activity based on personal interests

External locus of causality / extrinsic motivation: students choose an activity because something else outside is influencing them Techniques to increase intrinsic and extrinsic motivationIntrinsicExtrinsicExplain or show why learning a particular content or skill is important

Create and / or maintain curiosity

Provide a variety of activities and sensory stimulations

Provide games and simulations

Set goals for learning

Relate learning to student needs

Help student develop plan of actionProvide clear expectationsGive corrective feedbackProvide valuable rewards Make rewards available

Suggestions for teachers Try to make every subject interesting. Make study as active, investigative, adventurous, social, and useful as possible.

Use behavior modification techniques to help students exert themselves and work toward remote goals

Make sure that pupils know what they are to do, how to proceed, how they will know they have achieved goals

contd. Suggestions for teachers Take into account individual differences in ability, background, and attitudes toward school and specific subjects

Do everything possible to satisfy the deficiency needs physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem

Enhance the attractions and minimize the dangers of growth choices

contd. Suggestions for teachersDirect learning experiences towards feelings of success in an effort to encourage a realistic level of aspiration, an orientation toward achievement, and a positive self-concept.

For students who need it, try to encourage the development of need achievement, self-confidence, and self-direction.

Try to send your students away from your instruction anxious to use what they have been taught and eager to learn more.