Chapter : The Solid State

1. Solid: Solid is a state of matter in which the constituting particles are

arranged very closely. The constituent particles can be atoms, molecules or ions.

2. Properties of solids: a. They have definite mass, volume and shape.

b. Intermolecular distances are short and hence the intermolecular forces are strong.

c. Their constituent particles have fixed positions and can only oscillate about their mean positions.

d. They are incompressible and rigid.

3. Classification of on the basis of the arrangement of constituent

particles:

a. Crystalline solids: The arrangement of constituent particles is a regular orderly arrangement. Example: iron, copper, diamond,

graphite b. Amorphous solids: The arrangement of constituent particles is an

irregular arrangement. Example: Glass, plastics, rubber

4. Properties of crystalline solids: a. They have a definite characteristic geometrical shape b. They have a long range order.

c. They have a sharp melting point. d. They are anisotropic in nature i.e. their physical properties show

different values when measured along different directions in the

same crystal. e. When cut with a sharp edged tool, they split into two pieces and

the newly generated surfaces are plain and smooth. f. They have a definite and characteristic heat of fusion g. They are called true solids

5. Polymorphic forms or polymorphs: The different crystalline forms of a

substance are known as polymorphic forms or polymorphs. For example: graphite and diamond.

6. Types of crystalline solids:

Type of

Solid

Constitue

nt Particles

Bonding/

Attractive Forces

Example

s

Physical

nature

Electrical

conductivity

Melting

point

Molecular solids

1. Non

polar

Molecules

Dispersion

or London forces

Ar, CCl4,

H2, I2, CO2

Soft

Insulator

Very

low

2. Polar

Dipole-dipole

interactions

HCl, solid

SO2, solid

NH3

Soft Insulator Low

3.

Hydrogen bonded

Hydrogen

bonding

H2O

(ice)

Hard Insulator Low

Ionic solids

Ions Coulombic or

electrostatic

NaCl, MgO,

ZnS, CaF2

Hard but brittle

Insulators in solid

state but conducto

rs in molten state and

in aqueous

solutions

High

Metallic

solids

Positive

ions in a sea of delocalise

d electrons

Metallic

bonding

Fe, Cu,

Ag, Mg

Hard but

malleable and ductile

Conducto

rs in solid state as

well as in molten

state

Fairly

high

Covalent or networ

k solids

Atoms Covalent bonding

SiO2(quartz), SiC, C

(diamond),

AlN

Hard

Insulators

Very high

C(graphi

te)

Soft Conductor

(exception)

7. Characteristics of amorphous solids: a. They have an irregular shape. b. They have a short range order. c. They gradually soften over a range of temperature d. They are isotropic in nature i.e. their physical properties are the same

in all directions. e. When cut with a sharp edged tool, they cut into two pieces with

irregular surfaces. f. They do not have definite heat of fusion g. They are called pseudo solids or super cooled liquids. This is because

they have a tendency to flow, though very slowly.

8. Crystal lattice: A regular ordered arrangement of constituent particles in three dimensions is called crystal lattice.

9. Lattice points or lattice sites: The fixed positions on which the constituent particles are present are called lattice points or lattice

sites. A group of lattice points which when repeated over and over again in 3 dimensions give the complete crystal lattice.

10. Unit cell: The unit cell is defined as the smallest repeating unit in space lattice which when repeated over and over again generates the

complete crystal lattice. The crystal can consist of an infinite number of unit cells.

11. Parameters which characterize a unit cell:

a. Dimensions of the unit cell along the three edges, a, b and c:

These edges may or may not be mutually perpendicular.

b. Inclination of the edges to each other: This is denoted by the

angle between the edges α, β, and γ respectively. α is the angle

between the edges b and c, β is the angle between the edges a

and c, and γ is the angle between a and b.

12.Seven crystal systems:

a. Cubic: α= β = γ = 90° , a = b = c b. Tetragonal: α= β = γ = 90° ; a = b ≠ c c. Orthorhombic: α= β = γ = 90°; a ≠ b ≠ c

d. Monoclinic: α=γ = 90°, β ≠ 90°; a ≠ b ≠ c

e. Hexagonal: α= β = 90°, γ =120°; a = b ≠ c f. Rhombohedral or trigonal: α= β = γ ≠ 90°; a = b = c

g. Triclinic: α≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 90°; a ≠ b ≠ c

13.Types of unit cells:

a. Primitive or simple unit cells have constituent particles only at its corners.

b. Centred unit cells are those unit cells in which one or more constituent particles are present at positions in addition to those present at the corners.

The centred unit cells are of three types: i. Face centred unit cell: A face centred unit cell consists of

one constituent particle present at the centre of each face in addition to those present at the corners.

ii. Body centred unit cell: A body centred unit cell consists of

a one constituent particle is present at its body centre in addition to those present at the corners.

iii. End centred unit cell: An end centred unit cells consists of one constituent particle present at the centre of any two opposite faces in addition to those present at the corners.

14.Number of particles at different lattice positions:

a. Corner: If an atom is present at any one corner, it is shared by eight unit cells. So, only one eighth of an atom actually belongs to the unit cell.

b. Face centre: If an atom is present at the centre of the face, it is shared by two unit cells. So, only half of the atom actually

belongs to the unit cell. c. Body centre: If an atom is present at the body centre, it is not

shared by any other unit cell. So, that one atom completely

belongs to the same unit cell. d. End centre: If an atom is present at the edge centre, it is shared

by four unit cells. So, only one fourth of an atom belongs to the unit cell.

15.Number of atoms in different unit cells: a. Primitive unit cell: 1 atom

b. Face centred unit cell: 4 atoms c. Body centred unit cell: 2 atoms

16.Coordination number is the number of nearest neighbours of a particle.

17.Close packed structures: a. Close packing in one dimension: Each sphere is in contact with

two of its neighbours. Coordination number is two. b. Close packing in two dimensions: It is generated by stacking

the rows of close packed spheres in two ways: i. Square close packing: When the spheres of the second row are

placed exactly above those of the first row. This way the

spheres are aligned horizontally as well as vertically. The arrangement is AAA type. Coordination number is 4.

ii. Hexagonal close packing: When the spheres of the second row are placed above the first one in a staggered manner in such a way that its spheres fit in the depression of the first row. The

arrangement is ABAB type. Coordination number is 6. c. Close packing in three dimensions: They can be obtained by

stacking the two dimensional layers one above the other. It can be obtained in two ways:

i. Three dimensional close packing from two dimensional square

close packed layers: Here, The spheres of the upper layer are placed exactly over the first layer such the spheres of the layers

are perfectly aligned horizontally and vertically. It has a AAAA.. type pattern. The lattice is simple cubic lattice.

ii. Three dimensional close packing from two dimensional hexagonal close packed layers: There are two steps involved as: i. Placing the second layer over the first layer: if a two

dimensional layer is considered as A, the second layer which is placed above the first layer in such a way that

the spheres of the second layer (considered as B) are placed in the depressions of the first layer. This gives rise to two types of voids: tetrahedral voids and octahedral

voids. ii. Placing the third layer over the third layer: There are two

possibilities: a. Covering the tetrahedral voids: Here, tetrahedral voids

of the second layer may be covered by the spheres of

the third layer. It gives rise to ABABAB… type pattern. The three dimensional structure is called hexagonal

close packed structure. Coordination number is 12. Example: Mg, Zn

b. Covering the octahedral voids: Here, octahedral voids of the second layer may be covered by the spheres of the third layer. It gives rise to ABCABCABC… type

pattern. The three dimensional structure is called cubic close packed structure or face centred cubic structure. Coordination number is12. Example: Cu, Ag

18.Types of voids: a. Tetrahedral voids: This type of void is formed at the centre

when four spheres are joined in the form of a tetrahedron. b. Octahedral void: This type of void is surrounded by six spheres.

19.In hcp or ccp arrangement, octahedral and tetrahedral voids are

present. The number of octahedral voids present in a lattice is equal to

the number of close packed particles. The number of tetrahedral voids is twice the number of octahedral voids.

Example: If the number of close packed particles = n Number of particles present in octahedral voids = n Number of particles present in tetrahedral voids = 2n

20.Packing efficiency is the percentage of total space occupied by

constituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions)

Volumeoccupiedby spheresPackingefficiency= x100%

Totalvolumeof unit cell

a. Packing efficiency for face centred unit cell = 74%

b. Packing efficiency for body centred cubic unit cell = 68%

c. Packing efficiency for simple cubic unit cell = 52.4%

21. Radius ratio in an octahedral void: For an atom to occupy an

octahedral void, its radius must be 0.414 times the radius of the

sphere.

r

= 0.414R

22. Radius ratio for tetrahedral void: For an atom to occupy a tetrahedral

void, its radius must be 0.225 times the radius of the sphere.

r

= 0.225R

23.Density of a unit cell is same as the density of the substance.

24.Relationship between radius of constituent particle (r) and edge

length(a):

a. Simple cubic unit cell: a= 2r

b. Face centred unit cell: a 2 2 r=

c. Body centred unit cell: 4 r

a =3

25.Volume of a unit cell = (edge length)3 = a3 a. Simple cubic unit cell: Volume= (2r)3

b. Face centred unit cell: 3Volume (2 2 r)=

c. Body centred unit cell: 34 rVolume = ( )

3

26.Number of atoms in a unit cell (z): a. Simple cubic unit cell: z = 1

b. Face centred unit cell: z = 4 c. Body centred unit cell: z = 2

27.Density of unit cell:

3

A

zMDensity of unit cell=

a .N

28.Crystal defects are basically irregularities in the arrangement of

constituent particles. 29.Defects are of two types:

a. Point defects - Point defects are the irregularities or deviations from ideal arrangement around a point or an atom in a crystalline substance.

b. Line defects - Line defects are the irregularities or deviations from ideal arrangement in entire rows of lattice points.

30.Point defects are of three types:

a. Stoichiometric or intrinsic or thermodynamic defects: These are

the point defects that do not disturb the stoichiometry of the solid.

b. Non – stoichiometric defects: These are the point defects that disturb the stoichiometry of the solid.

c. Impurity defects: These are the defects in ionic solids due to the

presence of impurities present in them.

31.Stoichiometric defects for non- ionic solids are of two types:

Vacancy defect Interstitial defect

A crystal is said to have vacancy defect when some of the lattice sites are vacant.

A crystal is said to have interstitial defect when some constituent particles (atoms or

molecules) occupy an interstitial site.

This results in decrease in density of the substance.

This results in increase in density of the substance.

32. Stoichiometric defects for ionic solids are of two types:

Schottky defect Frenkel or dislocation defect

In this defect equal number of

cations and anions are missing.

In this defect, the smaller ion

(usually cation) is dislocated from its normal site to an interstitial

site.

It is basically a vacancy defect in ionic solids.

It creates a vacancy defect at its original site and an interstitial defect at its new location.

It decreases the density of a solid

It does not change the density of the solid

Schottky defect is shown by ionic substances in which the

cation and anion are of almost similar sizes.

Frenkel defect is shown by ionic substance in which there is a

large difference in the size of ions.

For example: NaCl, KCl, CsCl

and AgBr

For example: ZnS, AgCl, AgBr

and AgI

33. Non-stoichiometric defects are of two types: a. Metal excess – This type of defect is due to excess of metal

cations. These may be due to:

i. Anionic vacancies: A compound may have an extra metal ion if the negative ion is absent from its lattice site. This

empty lattice site is called a hole. To maintain electrical neutrality this site is occupied by an electron. The hole

occupied by an electron is called f-centre or Farbenzenter centre . F- centre is responsible for the colour of the compound.

ii. Presence of extra cations: A compound is said to have extra cations if a cation is present in the interstitial site.

An electron is present in the interstitial site to maintain the electrical neutrality.

b. Metal deficiency: This defect arises because of absence of metal

ions from its lattice sites. The electrical neutrality is maintained by an adjacent ion having a higher positive charge.

34. Solids can also be classified into three types based on their electrical

conductivities:

a. Conductors-The solids with conductivities ranging between 104 to 107 ohm–1m–1 are called conductors.

b. Insulators - These are the solids with very low conductivities ranging between 10–20 to 10–10 ohm–1m–1.

a. Semi- conductors - These are the solids with conductivities in

the intermediate range from 10–6 to 104 ohm–1m–1.

35. Band theory – A metal is characterized by a band structure. The highest filled band is called valence band and the lowest

unoccupied band is called conduction band. The gap between the two bands is called forbidden band.

a. In case of conductors, the valence band and conduction band overlap

b. In case of insulators, the forbidden gap is very large and the electrons are unable to excite to the conduction band.

c. In case of semiconductors, forbidden gap is small. Therefore, some electrons may jump to conduction band and show some

conductivity. Electrical conductivity of semiconductors increases with rise in temperature, since more electrons can jump to the

conduction band.

36. Types of semiconductors:

a. Intrinsic: These are those semiconductors in which the forbidden gap is small. Only some electrons may jump to conduction band

and show some conductivity. They have very low electrical conductivity. Example: Silicon, germanium

b. Extrinsic: When an appropriate impurity is added to an intrinsic semiconductor. Their electrical conductivity is high.

37.Doping: The process of adding an appropriate amount of suitable impurity to increase the conductivity of semiconductors.

38.Types of extrinsic semi conductors:

n-type semiconductors p –type semiconductors

They are formed when silicon is doped with electron rich impurity

like group 15 elements.

They are formed when silicon is doped with electron deficient

impurity like group 13 elements.

The increase in conductivity is

due to the negatively charged electrons.

The increase in conductivity is

due to the positively charged holes.

39. Diode: It is a combination of n-type and p-type semiconductors and is used as a rectifier.

40.Transistors: They are made by sandwiching a layer of one type of

semiconductor between two layers of the other type of semiconductor. npn and pnp type of transistors are used to detect or amplify radio or audio signals.

41.12- 16 compounds – These compounds are formed by the

combination of group 12 and group 16 compounds. They possess an average valency of 4. Example: ZnS, CdS, CdSe and HgTe

42. 13- 15 compounds – These compounds are formed by the

combination of group 13 and group 15 compounds. They possess

an average valency of 4. Example: InSb, AlP and GaAs

43. Every substance has some magnetic properties associated with it. The origin of these properties lies in the electrons. Each electron in an atom behaves like a tiny magnet. Its magnetic

moment originates from two types of motions (i) its orbital motion around the nucleus and (ii) its spin around its own axis.

44.On the basis of their magnetic properties, substances can be

classified into five categories:

a. Paramagnetic: These are those substances which are weakly attracted by the magnetic field. It is due to presence of one

or more unpaired electrons. b. Diamagnetic: Diamagnetic substances are weakly repelled by

a magnetic field. Diamagnetism is shown by those substances in which all the electrons are paired and there are no unpaired electrons.

c. Ferromagnetic: These are those substances which are attracted very strongly by a magnetic field.

d. Antiferromagnetic: They have equal number of parallel and anti parallel magnetic dipoles resulting in a zero net dipole moment.

e. Ferrimagnetic: They have unequal number of parallel and anti parallel magnetic dipoles resulting in a net dipole moment.

Chapter : Solutions

Top formulae 1. Mass percentage of a component

=Mass of component in solution

100Toal mass of solution

×

2. Volume of component

Volume percentage of a component = 100Total volume of solution

×

3. Mole fraction of a component (x)

=Number ofmoles of component

Total number ofmoles of all components

4. 6Number of parts of componentppm 10

Total number of parts of all components of solution= ×

5. Number of moles of solute

MolarityVolumeof solution in litres

=

6. Number of moles of solute

MolalityMass of solvent in kilograms

=

7. Number of gram equivalent of solute

NormalityVolumeof solution in litres

=

8. o1 1

2o1

p px

p

−=

9. ∆ = − 0b bT T T

b 2b

2 1

K 1000 wT

M ×w

× ×∆ =

10. 0f fT T T∆ = −

f 2f

2 1

K 1000 wT

M ×w

× ×∆ =

11.π = CRT

12. 22

w RTM =

Vπ

13.

=

=

=

Normal molar massi

Abnormal molar mass

Observedcolligative property

Calculatedcolligative property

Totalnumber ofmolesof particlesafter association/dissociation

Totalnumber ofmolesofparticlesbeforeassociation/dissociation

14.−

=o1 1 2

o11

n.n

p pi

p

15. × ×

∆ = b 2b

2 1

K 1000 wT .

M ×wi

16. × ×

∆ = f 2f

2 1

K 1000 wT .

M ×wi

17. =π 2n RT.

Vi

Key Learnings

1. Solutions are the homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two

components. 2. Binary solution: A solution having two components is called a binary

solution. Components of a binary solution are solute and solvent.

a. When the solvent is in solid state, solution is called solid solution. b. When the solvent is in liquid state, solution is called liquid solution.

c. When the solvent is in gaseous state, solution is called gaseous solution.

3. Concentration is the amount of solute in given amount of solution.

4. Mass by volume percentage (w/v): Mass of the solute dissolved in 100 mL of solution.

5. Molality (m) is the number of moles of solute present in 1kg of solvent. 6. Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute present in 1L of solution. 7. Normality is the number of gram equivalent of solute dissolved per litre

of solution. 8. Solubility is its maximum amount that can be dissolved in a specified

amount of solvent at a specified temperature. 9. A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same

temperature and pressure is called a saturated solution. 10. In a nearly saturated solution if dissolution process is an endothermic

process, solubility increases with increase in temperature.

11. In a nearly saturated solution if dissolution process is an exothermic process, solubility decreases with increase in temperature.

12. Henry’s Law: The law states at a constant temperature the solubility of gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of gas. Henry’s law can also be stated as the partial pressure of gas in vapour phase is

proportional to the mole fraction of the gas in the solution. P = KH x

13. When a non-volatile solute is dissolved in a volatile solvent, the vapour pressure of solution is less than that of pure solvent.

14. According to Raoult’s law for a solution of volatile liquids the partial vapour pressure of each component in the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction.

p1 = po1 x1 ; p2 = p

o2 x2

Using Dalton’s law of partial pressure the total pressure of solution is

calculated. o o o

total 1 2 1 2p =p +(p -p )x

15. On comparison of Raoult’ law and Henry’s law, it is observed that the partial pressure of volatile component or gas is directly proportional to

its mole fraction in solution. In case of Henry’s Law the proportionality constant is KH and it is different from p1

0 which is partial pressure of pure component. Raoult’s Law becomes a special case of Henry’s Law

when KH becomes equal to p10 in Henry’s law.

16. Liquid –liquid solutions can be classified into ideal and non-ideal

solutions on basis of Raoult’s Law.

Ideal solutions Non- ideal solutions

The solutions that obey Raoult’s Law over the entire range of concentrations are known as ideal

solutions.

When a solution does not obey Raoult’s Law over the entire range of concentration, then it is called

non-ideal solution.

∆mix H=0 and ∆mixV=0 ∆mix H ≠ 0 and ∆mixV ≠ 0

The intermolecular attractive

forces between solute molecules and solvent molecules are nearly equal to those present between

solute and solvent molecules i.e. A-A and B-B interactions are

nearly equal to those between A-B

The intermolecular attractive

forces between solute molecules and solvent molecules are not equal to those present between

solute and solvent molecules i.e. A-A and B-B interactions are not

equal to those between A-B

17. Non- ideal solutions are of two types:

Non ideal solution showing

positive deviation

Non ideal solution showing

negative deviation

The vapour pressure of a solution

is higher than that predicted by Raoult’s Law

The vapour pressure of a solution

is lower than that predicted by Raoult’s Law

The intermolecular attractive forces between solute-solvent molecules are weaker than those

between solute-solute and solvent-solvent molecules i.e.

A-B < A-A and B-B interactions

The intermolecular attractive forces between solute-solvent molecules are stronger than those

between solute-solute and solvent-solvent molecules i.e.

A-B > A-A and B-B interactions

18. Azeotropes are binary mixtures having same composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil at constant temperature. Liquids forming

azeotrope cannot be separated by fractional distillation. 19. There are two types of azeotropes called minimum boiling azeotrope

and maximum boiling azeotrope.

20. The solutions which show a large positive deviation from Raoult’s law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.

21. The solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoult’s law form maximum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.

22. Properties of solution which depends on only the number of solute

particles but not on the nature of solute are called colligative properties.

23. There are four colligative properties: a. Relative lowering of vapour pressure b. Eleveation of boiling point c. Depression of freezing point d. Osmotic pressure

24. Relative lowering of vapour pressure: Difference in the vapour

pressure of pure solvent ( o1p ) and solution ( 1p ) represents lowering in

vapour pressure ( o1p - 1p ). Dividing lowering in vapour pressure by

vapour pressure of pure solvent is called relative lowering of vapour

pressure (o1 1

o1

p p

p

−).

Relative lowering of vapour pressure is directly proportional to mole fraction of solute. Hence it is a colligative property.

o1 1

2o1

p px

p

−=

25. Elevation of boiling point: The difference in boiling points of solution

( bT ) and pure solvent ( 0bT ) is called elevation in boiling point

∆ = − 0b bT T T .

For a dilute solution elevation of boiling point is directly proportional to

molal concentration of the solute in solution. Hence it is a colligative property.

b 2b

2 1

K 1000 wT

M ×w

× ×∆ =

26. Depression of freezing point: The lowering of vapour pressure of solution causes a lowering of freezing point compared to that of pure

solvent.The difference in freezing point of the pure solvent ( 0fT ) and

solution ( fT ) is called the depression in freezing point. 0f fT T T∆ = −

For a dilute solution depression in freezing point is a colligative

property because it is directly proportional to molal concentration of solute.

f 2f

2 1

K 1000 wT

M ×w

× ×∆ =

27. Osmosis: The phenomenon of flow of solvent molecules through a

semi permeable membrane from pure solvent to solution is called osmosis.

28. Osmotic pressure: The excess pressure that must be applied to solution to prevent the passage of solvent into solution through a semi permeable membrane is called osmotic pressure.

Osmotic pressure is a colligative property as it depends on the number of solute particles and not on their identity.

For a dilute solution, osmotic pressure (π ) is directly proportional to

the molarity (C) of the solution i.e. CRTπ =

29. Osmotic pressure can also be used to determine the molar mass of

solute using the equation 22

w RTM =

Vπ

30. Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature

are called isotonic solution. 31. If a solution has more osmotic pressure than other solution it is called

hypertonic solution. 32. If a solution has less osmotic pressure than other solution it is called

hypotonic solution.

33. Reverse osmosis: The process of movement of solvent through a semi permeable membrane from the solution to the pure solvent by applying

excess pressure on the solution side is called reverse osmosis. 34. Colligative properties help in calculation of molar mass of solutes. 35. Molar mass that is either lower or higher than expected or normal

molar mass is called as abnormal molar mass. 36. van’t Hoff factor (i)accounts for the extent of dissociation or

association .

=

=

=

Normal molar massi

Abnormal molar mass

Observedcolligative property

Calculatedcolligative property

Totalnumber ofmolesof particlesafter association/dissociation

Totalnumber ofmolesofparticlesbeforeassociation/dissociation

Value of i is less than unity in case solute undergo association Value of i is greater than unity in case solute undergo dissociation

37. Inclusion of van’t Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative

properties as:

−=

o1 1 2

o11

n.n

p pi

p

× ×

∆ = b 2b

2 1

K 1000 wT .

M ×wi

× ×

∆ = f 2f

2 1

K 1000 wT .

M ×wi

=π 2n RT.

Vi

Chapter : Electrochemistry.

Key Learnings

1. Oxidation is defined as a loss of electrons while reduction is defined as a gain of electrons.

2. In a redox reaction, both oxidation and reduction reaction takes place simultaneously.

3. Direct redox reaction: In a direct redox reaction, both oxidation and reduction reactions take place in the same vessel. Chemical energy is converted to heat energy in a direct redox reaction.

4. Indirect redox reaction: In indirect redox reactions, oxidation and reduction take place in different vessels. In an indirect redox reaction,

chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. 5. In an indirect redox reaction, the device which converts chemical

energy into electrical energy is known as an electrochemical cell.

6. In an electrochemical cell: a. The half cell in which oxidation takes place is known as

oxidation half cell b. The half cell in which reduction takes place is known as

reduction half cell. c. Oxidation takes place at anode which is negatively charged and

reduction takes place at cathode which is positively charged.

d. Transfer of electrons takes place from anode to cathode while electric current flows in the opposite direction.

e. An electrode is made by dipping the metal plate into the electrolytic solution of its soluble salt.

f. A salt bridge is a U shaped tube containing an inert electrolyte

in agar-agar and gelatine. 7. A salt bridge maintains electrical neutrality and allows the flow of

electric current by completing the electrical circuit. 8. Representation of an electrochemical cell:

a. Anode is written on the left while the cathode is written on the

right. b. Anode represents the oxidation half cell and is written as:

Metal/Metal ion (Concentration) c. Cathode represents the reduction half cell and is written as:

Metal ion (Concentration)/Metal

d. Salt bridge is indicated by placing double vertical lines between the anode and the cathode

e. Electrode potential is the potential difference that develops between the electrode and its electrolyte. The separation of charges at the equilibrium state results in the potential difference between

the metal and the solution of its ions. It is the measure of tendency of an electrode in the half cell to lose or gain electrons.

9. When the concentration of all the species involved in a half cell is unity, then the electrode potential is known as standard electrode

potential. It is denoted as EΘ. 10. According to the present convention, standard reduction

potentials are now called standard electrode potential. 11. There are 2 types of electrode potentials: Oxidation potential and reduction potential.

12. Oxidation potential is the tendency of an electrode to lose electrons or get oxidized.

13. Reduction potential is the tendency of an electrode to gain electrons or get reduced. 14. Oxidation potential is the reverse of reduction potential.

15. The electrode having a higher reduction potential has a higher tendency to gain electrons. So, it acts as a cathode.

16. The electrode having a lower reduction potential acts as an anode. 17. The standard electrode potential of an electrode cannot be

measured in isolation. 18. According to convention, the Standard Hydrogen Electrode is

taken as a reference electrode and it is assigned a zero potential at all temperatures.

19. Standard calomel electrode can also be used as a reference electrode. 20. Standard hydrogen electrode consists of a platinum wire sealed

in a glass tube and carrying a platinum foil at one end. The electrode is placed in a beaker containing an aqueous solution of an acid having 1

Molar concentration of hydrogen ions. Hydrogen gas at 1 bar pressure is continuously bubbled through the solution at 298 K. The oxidation or reduction takes place at the Platinum foil. The standard hydrogen

electrode can act as both anode and cathode. If the standard hydrogen electrode acts as an anode:

H2 (g) → 2H+ (aq) + 2e- If the standard hydrogen electrode acts as a cathode:

2H+ (aq) + 2e-→ H2 (g) 21. In the electrochemical series, various elements are arranged as

per their standard reduction potential values. 22. A substance with higher reduction potential value means that it has a higher tendency to get reduced. So, it acts as a good oxidising

agent. 23. A substance with lower reduction potential value means that it

has a higher tendency to get oxidised. So, it acts as a good reducing agent. 24. The electrode with higher reduction potential acts as a cathode

while the electrode with a lower reduction potential acts as an anode.

25. The potential difference between the 2 electrodes of a galvanic cell is called cell potential and is measured in Volts.

26. The cell potential is the difference between the reduction potential of cathode and anode.

E cell = E cathode – E anode Cell potential is called the electromotive force of the cell (EMF) when no current is drawn through the cell.

27. Nernst studied the variation of electrode potential of an

electrode with temperature and concentration of electrolyte.

28. Nernst formulated a relationship between standard electrode

potential Eө and electrode potential E.

E = Eө -n+

2.303RT 1log

nF [M ]

E = Eө - n+

0.059 1log

n [M ] (At 298 K)

29. Electrode potential increases with increase in the concentration

of the electrolyte and decrease in temperature.

30. Nernst equation when applied to a cell:

Ecell = Eөcell -

2.303RT [Anode ion]log

nF [Cathode ion]

This helps in calculating the cell potential

31. At equilibrium, cell potential Ecell becomes zero

32. Relationship between equilibrium constant Kc and standard cell

potential Eө cell :

Eө cell = c

0.059log K

n (At 298 K)

33. Work done by an electrochemical cell is equal to the decrease in Gibbs

energy

∆Gө = -nFEө cell

34. The substances which allow the passage of electricity through

them are known as conductors.

35. Every conducting material offers some obstruction to the flow of electricity which is called resistance. It is denoted by R and is measured in

ohm. 36. The resistance of any object is directly proportional to its length l and inversely proportional to its area of cross section A.

R = ρ l

A

ρ is called specific resistance or resistivity. Its SI unit is ohm metre.

37. The inverse of resistance is known as conductance, G

1

G =R

Unit of conductance is ohm-1 or mho. It is also expressed in Siemens denoted by S.

38. The inverse of resistivity is known as conductivity. It is

represented by the symbol κ. The SI unit of conductivity is Sm-1. But it is

also expressed in Scm-1

1 1

κ = ( )ρ R

l

A= = G

l

A

So, conductivity = Conductance × Cell constant

39. For measuring the resistance of an ionic solution, there are 2 problems:

a) Firstly, passing direct current changes the composition of the solution b) Secondly, a solution cannot be connected to the bridge like a metallic wire or a solid conductor.

44. This can be resolved by using a source of alternating current and the second problem is resolved by using a specially designed vessel called

conductivity cell. 45. A conductivity cell consists of 2 Pt electrodes coated with Pt black.

They have area of cross section A and are separated by a distance l. Resistance of such a column of solution is given by the equation:

R = ρ l

A =

1

κ

l

A

l

A is called cell constant and is denoted by the symbol G*

46. Molar conductivity of a solution is defined as the conducting power of all the ions produced by dissolving 1 mole of an electrolyte in solution.

Molar conductivity ΛΛΛΛm = 1000

M

κ ×

Where κ = Conductivity and M is the molarity

Unit of Molar conductivity is Scm2 mol-1

47. Equivalent conductivity is the conductivity of all the ions produced by dissolving one gram equivalent of an electrolyte in solution.

Equivalent conductivity Λe =

1000

N

κ ×

Unit of equivalent conductivity is S cm2 (g equiv) -1

48. Kohlrausch’s Law of independent migration of ions: According to this law, molar conductivity of an electrolyte, at infinite dilution, can be

expressed as the sum of individual contributions from its individual ions.

If the limiting molar conductivity of the cations is denoted by oλ+ and

that of the anions by oλ− then the limiting molar conductivity of

electrolyte is: 0 0 0m ν λ v λ+ + − −∧ = +

Where v+ and v- are the number of cations and anions per formula of electrolyte 49. Degree of dissociation: It is ratio of molar conductivity at a specific

concentration ‘c’ to the molar conductivity at infinite dilution. It is

denoted by α. cm0m

α∧

=∧

50. 2

a

cαK

1 α=

− where Ka is acid dissociation constant , ‘c’ is concentration

of electrolyte, α is degree of ionization.

51. Faraday constant: It is equal to charge on 1 mol of electrons. It is

equal to 96487 C mol-1 or approximately equal to 96500 C mol-1.

52. Faraday’s first law of electrolysis: The amount of substance

deposited during electrolysis is directly proportional to quantity of

electricity passed.

53. Faraday’s second law of electrolysis: If same charge is passed through

different electrolytes, the mass of substance deposited will be

proportional to their equivalent weights.

54. Products of electrolysis: The products of electrolysis depend upon the nature of electrolyte being electrolyzed and the nature of electrodes. If

electrode is inert like platinum or gold, they do not take part in

chemical reaction i.e. they neither lose nor gain electrons. If the

electrodes are reactive then they will take part in chemical reaction and

products will be different as compared to inert electrodes.

The products of electrolysis also depend upon the electrode potentials

of oxidizing and reducing species. Some of the electrochemical

processes although feasible but slow in their rates at lower voltage,

these do not take place. They require extra voltage, i.e. over voltage at

which these processes will take place. The products of electrolysis also

differ in molten state and aqueous solution of electrolyte.

55. Primary cells. A primary cell is a cell in which electrical energy is

produced by the reaction occurring in the cell, e.g. Daniell cell, dry cell,

mercury cell. It cannot be recharged.

56. Dry Cell: At anode : Zn(s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-

At cathode : MnO2(s) + NH4+(aq) +e- → MnO(OH) + NH3

The net reaction:

Zn + NH4+ (aq) + MnO2 (s) → Zn2+ + MnO (OH) + NH3

57. Mercury Cell. The electrolyte is a paste of KOH and ZnO. At anode : Zn (Hg) + 2OH- → ZnO(s) + H2O + 2e

-

At cathode : HgO(s) +H2O + 2e- → Hg(l) + 2OH-

The net reaction :

Zn (Hg) + HgO(s) → ZnO(s) + Hg(l)

58. Secondary cells. Those cells which are used for storing electricity, e.g., lead storage battery, nickel – cadmium cell. They can be recharged.

59. Lead storage battery: Anode : Pb(s) + SO4

2-(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2e-

Cathode: PbO2(s) + SO42-(aq) + 4 H+(aq) + 2e- → PbSO4(s)+ 2H2O (l)

The overall cell reaction consisting of cathode and anode reactions is:

Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) → 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

On recharging the battery, the reaction is reversed.

60. Nickel cadmium cell: It is another type of secondary cell which has

longer life than lead storage cell but more expensive to manufacture.

The overall reaction during discharge is

Cd(s) + 2 Ni(OH)3(s) → CdO(s) + 2Ni(OH)2(s) + H2O(l)

61. Fuel cells: At anode : 2 H2(g) + 4OH

- (aq) → 4H2O(l) + 4e-

At cathode : O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e- → 4 OH-(aq)

Overall reaction:

2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)

62. Corrosion: Oxidation : Fe(s) → Fe2+ (aq) + 2e-

Reduction : O2(g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e- → 2H2O(l)

Atmosphere oxidation:

2Fe2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + ½ O2(g) →Fe2O3(s) 4H+(aq)

63. Galvanization. It is a process of coating zinc over iron so as to protect it from rusting.

64. Cathodic protection: Instead of coating more reactive metal on iron,

the use of such metal is made as sacrificial anode.

Top Formulae

1. E cell = E cathode – E anode

2. E = Eө - n+

0.059 1log

n [M ] (At 298 K)

3. Ecell = Eөcell -

2.303RT [Anode ion]log

nF [Cathode ion]

4. Eөcell = c

0.059log K

n (At 298 K)

5. ∆Gө = -nFEөcell

6. R = ρ l

A=

1

κ

l

A

7. 1

G =R

8. Conductivity = Conductance × Cell constant

9. 1 1

κ = ( )ρ R

l

A= = G

l

A

10. Cell constant and is denoted by the symbol G*

11. κ

Λm

Specific conductance = =

Molarity C

κ

Λm

x1000 =

C

Remember:

unit of Λm in above formula is Scm2mol-1

12. cm0m

α∧

=∧

13. 2

a

cαK

1 α=

−

14. m ZIt=

15. 31 2

1 2 3

ww w...

E E E= = =

Chapter : Chemical Kinetics

Key learnings:

1. Chemical kinetics: The branch of chemistry that deals with the study of

reaction rates and their mechanisms is called chemical kinetics.

2. Rate of reaction: It is defined as the change in concentration of

reactant (or product) in unit time. Unit of rate of reaction is mol L-1s-1.

3. Average rate: The rate of reaction measured over a long time interval

is called average rate of reaction. It is equal to ∆x/∆t.

4. Instantaneous rate: It is the rate of reaction when the average rate is

taken over a particular moment of time. It is equal to dx/dt.

5. Rate law or rate equation: It is the expression which relates the rate of

reaction with concentration of the reactants. The constant of

proportionality ‘k’ is known as rate constant.

6. Rate constant: When the concentration of reactants is unity, then the

rate of reaction is known as rate constant. It is also called specific

reaction rate.

7. Molecularity of a reaction: Total number of atoms, ions or molecules of

the reactants involved in the reaction is termed as its molecularity. It

is always in whole number. It is never more than three. It cannot be

zero.

8. Order of a reaction: The sum of the exponents (power) of the

concentration of reactants in the rate law is termed as order of the

reaction. It can be in fraction. It can be zero also.

9. Half- life of a reaction: The time taken for a reaction, when half of the

starting material has reacted is called half- life of a reaction. For first

order reaction 1

2

0.693t

k= , where k is rate constant.

It is independent of initial concentration for first order reaction.

10. Pseudo first order reaction: The reaction which is bimolecular but order

is one is called pseudo first order reaction. This happens when one of

the reactants is in large excess. E.g., acidic hydrolysis of ester (ethyl

acetate).

H3 2 5 2 3 2 5CH COOC H H O CH COOH C H OH

++ → +

11. Activation energy (Ea): It is extra energy which must be possessed by

reactant molecules so that collision between reactant molecules is

effective and leads to the formation of product molecules.

12. Arrhenius equation of reaction rate: It gives the relation between rate

of reaction and temperature.

k =E /RTaAe

−

where k = rate constant, A = frequency factor,

Ea = energy of activation

R = gas constant, T = temperature in Kelvin,

ln k = ln A - Ea/RT

log k = log A - aE

2.303RT

13. Mechanism of reaction: The sequence of elementary processes leading

to the overall stoichiometry of a chemical reaction is known as

mechanism of a reaction.

14. Activated complex: It is defined as unstable intermediate formed

between reacting molecules. It is highly unstable and readily changes

into product.

15. Rate determining step: The slowest step in the reaction mechanism is

called rate determining step.

16. The number of collisions per second per unit volume of the reaction

mixture is known as collision frequency (Z).

Top Formulae:

1. Instantaneous rate = dx

dt, where dx is small change in conc. and dt

is the smallest interval of time.

2. Average rate = x

t

∆

∆, where x∆ is change in concentration and t∆ is

large interval of time.

3. A + B → C + D

Rate of disappearance of −

=d[A]

Adt

, where d[A] is small change in

conc. of ‘A’ and dt is small interval of time

Rate of disappearance of B d[B]

dt

−= ,

Rate of appearance of C d[C]

dt

+=

Rate of appearance of D d[D]

dt

+=

Rate d[A] d[B] d[C] d[D]

dt dt dt dt

− −= = = =

Unit of rate of reaction = mol L-1s-1

4. Order of reaction:

If rate law expression for a reaction is

Rate = k [A]x [B]y

Order of reaction = x + y

Remember: Order cannot be determined with a given balanced

chemical equation. It can be experimentally determined.

5. Integrated rate law for zero order reaction:

R → P

0dxk[R]

dt=

Unit of ‘k’ is mol L-1s-1

o[R ] [R]

kt

−=

If we plot a graph between concentration of R vs time, the graph is a

straight line with slope equal to -k and intercept is equal to [Ro]

6. Half- life reaction for a for zero order reaction:

t½ 0[R ]

2k=

7. Rate law for Ist order reaction:

R → P

o[R ]2.303k log

t [R]=

where ‘k’ is rate constant or specific reaction rate, [Ro] is initial molar

conc., [R] is final molar conc. after time‘t’

If we plot a graph between ln[R] with time, we get a straight line

whose slope k= − and intercept ln[Ro]

2.303 ak log

t a x=

−

where ‘a’ is initial conc. in mol L-1, x mol L-1 have reacted in time ‘t’

final conc., after time ‘t’ is (a – x)

8. Half- Life for a first order reaction is:

½

0.693t

k=

9. Formula to calculate rate constant for first order gas phase reaction

of the type

A(g)→ B(g) + C(g)

i

i t

2.303 pk = log

t (2p-p )

Where:

pi is initial pressure of A

pt is total pressure of gaseous mixture containing A , B, C

Remember:

pt = pA + pB + pC

10. Arrhenius equation:

a-E /RTk=Ae

11. a2 2 1

1 1 2

Ek T Tlog

k 2.303 R T T

−=

12. −

=aE

RTAB

Rate PZ .e

Where:

ZAB represents the collision frequency of reactants, A and B

− aE

RTe represents the fraction of molecules with energies equal to or

greater than Ea

P is called the probability or steric factor

Chapter : Surface Chemistry

Top Concepts / Key learnings:

1. Adsorption: The accumulation of molecular species at the surface

rather than in the bulk of a solid or liquid is termed as adsorption.

2. Adsorbate: The substance which is being adsorbed on the surface of

another substance is called adsorbate.

3. Adsorbent: The substance present in bulk, on the surface of which

adsorption is taking place is called adsorbent.

4. Desorption: The process of removing an adsorbed substance from a

surface on which it is adsorbed is called desorption.

5. Absorption: It is the phenomenon in which a substance is uniformly

distributed all over the surface.

6. Difference between adsorption and absorption:

Absorption Adsorption

(i) It is the phenomenon in which a

substance is uniformly distributed

throughout the bulk of the solid.

(i) The accumulation of molecular species at the surface rather than in the bulk of a solid or liquid is

termed as adsorption.

(ii) It is a bulk phenomenon. (ii) It is a surface phenomenon.

(iii) The concentration is uniform throughout the bulk of solid.

(iii) The concentration of adsorbate increases only at the

surface of the adsorbent.

7. Sorption: When adsorption and absorption take place simultaneously,

it is called sorption.

8. Enthalpy or heat of adsorption: Adsorption generally occurs with

release in energy, i.e., it is exothermic in nature. The enthalpy change

for the adsorption of one mole of an adsorbate on the surface of

adsorbent is called enthalpy or heat of adsorption.

9. Types of adsorption:

a. Physical adsorption or physisorption: If the adsorbate is held on

a surface of adsorbent by weak van der Waals’ forces, the

adsorption is called physical adsorption or physisorption.

b. Chemical adsorption or chemisorption: If the forces holding the

adsorbate are as strong as in chemical bonds, the adsorption

process is known as chemical adsorption of chemisorption.

10. Difference between Physical and chemical adsorption:

Physical adsorption (Physisorption)

Chemical adsorption (Chemisorption)

(i) It is non-specific (i) It is highly specific

(ii) It is reversible (ii) It is irreversible

(iii) The amount of gas depends upon nature of gas, i.e., easily liquefiable

gases like NH3, CO2, gas adsorbed to greater extent than H2 and He.

Higher the critical temperature of gas, more will be the extent of adsorption.

(iii) The amount of gas adsorbed is not related to critical temperature of the

gas.

(iv) The extent of adsorption increases with increase in surface

area, e.g. porous and finely divided metals are good adsorbents.

(iv) It also increases with increase in surface area.

(v) There are weak van der Waals’ forces of attraction between

adsorbate and adsorbent.

(v) There is strong force of attraction similar to chemical bond.

(vi) It has low enthalpy of adsorption

(20 – 40 kJ mol-1)

(vi) It has enthalpy heat of adsorption

(180 – 240 kJ mol-1)

(vii) Low temperature is favourable. (vii) High temperature is favourable.

(viii) No appreciable activation energy is needed.

(viii) High activation energy is sometimes needed.

(ix) It forms multimolecular layers. (ix) It forms unimolecuar layers.

11. Factors affecting adsorption of gases on solids:

a. Nature of adsorbate: Physical adsorption is non-specific in

nature and therefore every gas gets adsorbed on the surface of

any solid to a lesser or greater extent. However, easily

liquefiable gases like NH3. HCl, CO2, etc. which have higher

critical temperatures are absorbed to greater extent whereas H2,

O2, N2 etc. are adsorbed to lesser extent. The chemical

adsorption being highly specific, therefore, a gas gets adsorbed

on specific solid only if it enters into chemical combination with

it.

b. Nature of adsorbent: Activated carbon, metal oxides like

aluminum oxide, silica gel and clay are commonly used

adsorbents. They have their specific adsorption properties

depending upon pores.

c. Specific area of the adsorbent: The greater the specific area,

more will be the extent of adsorption. That is why porous or

finely divided forms of adsorbents adsorb larger quantities of

adsorbate. The pores should be large enough to allow the gas

molecules to enter.

d. Pressure of the gas: Physical adsorption increases with increase

in pressure.

12. Adsorption isotherm: The variation in the amount of gas adsorbed by

the adsorbent with pressure at constant temperature can be expressed

by means of a curve is termed as adsorption isotherm.

13. Freundlich Adsorption isotherm: The relationship between x

m and

pressure of the gas at constant temperature is called adsorption

isotherm and is given by

1/nxkP (n 1)

m= >

Where x- mass of the gas adsorbed on mass m of the adsorbent and

the gas at a particular temperature

k and n depends upon the nature of gas and the solid

x

mfirst increases with increase in pressure at low pressure but becomes

independent of pressure at high pressure.

Taking logarithm on both sides, we get,

logx

m = log k +

1

nlogP

If we plot a graph between log x

m and log P, we get a straight line.

The slope of the line is 1

n and intercept will be equal to log k.

14. Catalyst: Substances which alter the rate of a chemical reaction and

themselves remain chemically and quantitatively unchanged after the

reaction are known as catalysts and the phenomenon is known as

catalysis.

15. Promoters: Those substances which increase the activity of catalyst

are called promoters. Example: Mo is promoter whereas Fe is catalyst

in Haber’s Process.

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)Fe(s)

Mo(s)�����⇀↽����� 2NH3 (g)

16. Catalytic poisons (Inhibitors): The substances which decrease the

activity of catalyst are called catalytic poisons or inhibitors e.g.,

arsenic acts as catalytic poison in the manufacture of sulphuric acid by

‘contact process.’

17. Types of catalysis:

a. Homogeneous catalysis: When the catalyst and the reactants

are in the same phase, this kind of catalytic process is known as

homogeneous catalysis.

b. Heterogeneous catalysis: When the catalyst and the reactants

are in different phases, the catalytic process is said to be

heterogeneous catalysis.

18. Activity of catalyst: The ability of a catalyst to increase the rate of a

chemical reaction is called activity of a catalyst.

19. Selectivity of catalyst: It is the ability of catalyst to direct a reaction to

yield a particular product (excluding others).

For example:

CO and H2 react to form different products in presence of different

catalysts as follows:

a) Ni

2 4 2CO(g) 3H (g) CH (g) H O(g)+ → +

b) Cu/ZnO Cr O2 3

2 3CO(g) 2H (g) CH OH(g)−

+ →

c) Cu

2CO(g) H (g) HCHO(g)+ →

20. Shape – selective catalysis: The catalysis which depends upon the

pore structure of the catalyst and molecular size of reactant and

product molecules is called shape- selective catalysis. E.g. Zeolites are

shape – selective catalysts due to their honey- comb structure.

21. Enzymes: Enzymes are complex nitrogenous organic compounds which

are produced by living plants and animals. They are actually protein

molecules of high molecular mass. They are biochemical catalysts

22. Steps of enzyme catalysis:

(i) Binding of enzyme to substrate to form an activated complex

E + S ���⇀�↽���� ES≠

ii) Decomposition of the activated complex to form product

E S≠ → E + P

23.Characteristics of enzyme catalysis:

i) They are highly efficient. One molecule of an enzyme can transform

106 molecules of reactants per minute.

ii) They are highly specific in nature, e.g., urease catalysis hydrolysis

of urea only.

iii) They are active at optimum temperature (298 – 310 K). The rate of

enzyme catalysed reaction becomes maximum at a definite

temperature called the optimum temperature.

iv) They are highly active at a specific pH called optimum pH.

v) Enzymatic activity can be increased in presence of coenzymes

which can be called as promoters.

vi) Activators are generally metal ions Na+, Co2+ and Cu2+ etc. They

weakly bind to enzyme and increase its activity.

vii) Influence of inhibitors (poison): Enzymes can also be inhibited

or poisoned by the presence of certain substances.

24. Distinction between true solution, colloids and Suspension.

True solution Colloids Suspension

It is homogeneous It appears to be

homogeneous but is actually heterogeneous

It is heterogeneous

The diameter of the particles is less than 1

nm

The diameter of the particles is 1 nm to

1000 nm

The diameter of the particles are larger that

1000 nm

It passes through filter

paper

It passes through

ordinary filter paper but not through ultra-filters

It does not pass through

filter paper

Its particles cannot be seen under a microscope

Its particles can be seen by a powerful microscope due to

scattering of light

Its particles can be seen even with naked eye

25. Colloids: A colloid is a heterogeneous system in which one substance is

dispersed as very fine particles in another substance called dispersed

medium.

26. Dispersed phase: The substance which is dispersed as very fine

particles is called dispersed phase.

27. Dispersion medium: The substance present in larger quantity is called

dispersion medium.

28. Classification of colloids on the basis of the physical state of dispersed

phase and dispersion medium:

Dispersed

phase

Dispersion

medium Name Examples

Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, dust

Solid Liquid Sol Paints

Solid Solid Solid sol Coloured gem tones

Liquid Solid Gel Jellies, cheese

Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, hair cream

Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, mist, cloud

Gas Solid Solid sol Pumice stone, foam rubber

Gas Liquid Foam Whipped cream, froth

29. Classification of colloids on the basis of nature of interaction between

dispersed phase and dispersion medium :

Lyophobic sols Lyophilic sols

These colloids are liquid hating. These colloids are liquid loving.

In these colloids the particles of

dispersed phase have no affinity

for the dispersion medium.

In these colloids, the particles of

dispersed phase have great

affinity for the dispersion medium.

They are not stable. They are stable.

They can be prepared by mixing

substances directly.

They cannot be prepared by

mixing substances directly. They

are prepared only by special

methods

They need stabilizing agents for

their preservation.

They do not need stabilizing

agents for their preservation.

They are irreversible sols. They are reversible sols.

30. Classification of colloids on the basis of types of particles of the

dispersed phase:

a. Multimolecular colloids: The colloids in which the colloidal

particles consist of aggregates of atoms or small molecules. The

diameter of the colloidal particle formed is less than 1 nm.

b. Macromolecular colloids: These are the colloids in which the

dispersed particles are themselves large molecules (usually

polymers). Since these molecules have dimensions comparable

to those of colloids particles, their dispersions are called

macromolecular colloids, e.g., proteins, starch and cellulose

form macromolecular colloids.

c. Associated colloids (Micelles): Those colloids which behave as

normal, strong electrolytes at low concentrations, but show

colloidal properties at higher concentrations due to the

formation of aggregated particles of colloidal dimensions. Such

substances are also referred to as associated colloids.

31. Kraft Temperature (Tk): Micelles are formed only above a certain

temperature called Kraft temperature.

32. Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC): Micelles are formed only above a

particular concentration called critical micelle concentration.

33. Soaps: Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids e.g.,

sodium stearate CH3(CH2)16COO-Na+

34. Methods of preparation of colloids:

a. Chemical methods: Colloids can be prepared by chemical

reactions leading to the formation of molecules. These

molecules aggregate leading to formation of sols.

b. Electrical disintegration or Bredig’s Arc method: In this method,

electric arc is struck between electrodes of the metal immersed

in the dispersion medium. The intense heat produced vaporizes

the metal which then condenses to form particles of colloidal

size.

c. Peptization: Peptization may be defined as the process of

converting a precipitate into colloidal sol by shaking it with

dispersion medium in the presence of a small amount of

electrolyte. The electrolyte used for this purpose is called

peptizing agent.

35.Purification of colloids:

a. Dialysis: It is a process of removing a dissolved substance from

a colloidal solution by means of diffusion through a suitable

membrane.

b. Electro dialysis. The process of dialysis is quite slow. It can be

made faster by applying an electric field if the dissolved

substance in the impure colloidal solution is only an electrolyte.

c. Ultrafiltration: Ultrafiltration is the process of separating the colloidal particles from the solvent and soluble solutes present in

the colloidal solution by specially prepared filters, which are permeable to all substances except the colloidal particles.

d. Ultracentrifugation: In this process, the colloidal solution is

taken in a tube which is placed in ultracentrifuge. On rotating

the tube at very high speed, the colloidal particles settle down

at the bottom of the tube and the impurities remain in solution.

The settled particles are mixed with dispersion medium to

regenerate the sol.

36.Properties of colloids:

a. Colour: The colour of colloidal solution depends upon the

wavelength of light scattered by the colloidal particles which in

turn depends upon the nature and size of particles. The colour

also depends upon the manner in which light is received by the

observer.

b. Brownian movement: Colloidal particles move in zig – zag path.

This type of motion is due to colliding molecules of dispersion

medium constantly with colloidal particles.

c. Colligative properties: The values of colligative properties

(osmotic pressure, lowering in vapour pressure, depression in

freezing point and elevation in boiling point) are of small order

as compared to values shown by true solutions at the same

concentrations.

d. Tyndall effect: The scattering of a beam of light by colloidal

particles is called Tyndall effect. The bright cone of light is called

the Tyndall cone.

e. Charge on colloidal particles: Colloidal particles always carry an

electric charge. The nature of this charge is the same on all the

particles in a given colloidal solution and may be either positive

or negative.

Positively charged colloids Negatively charged colloids

Hydrated metallic oxides such as

Fe2O3.xH2O, Cr2O3.xH2O, Al2O3.xH2O

Metallic sulphides like As2S3, Sb2S3

sols

Basic dye stuff like malachite green,

methylene blue sols

Acid dye stuff like eosin, methyl

orange, Congo red sols

Haemoglobin (blood) Starch sol, gum, gelatin, clay,

charcoal, egg albumin, etc.

f. Helmholtz electrical double layer: When the colloidal particles

acquire negative or positive charge by selective adsorption of

one of the ions, it attracts counter ions from the medium

forming a second layer. The combination of these two layers of

opposite charges around colloidal particles is called Helmholtz

electrical double layer.

g. Electrokinetic potential or zeta potential: The potential

difference between the fixed layer and the diffused layer of

opposite charges is called electrokinetic potential or zeta

potential.

h. Electrophoresis: The movement of colloidal particles under an

applied electric potential is called electrophoresis.

i. Coagulation or precipitation: The process of settling of colloidal

particles as precipitate is called coagulation.

Hardy – Schulze rules:

i) Oppositely charged ions are effective for coagulation.

ii) The coagulating power of electrolyte increases with

increase in charge on the ions used for coagulation, e.g.

Al3+ > Ba2+ > Na+ for negatively charged colloids.

[Fe (CN)6]4- > PO4

3- > SO42- > Cl- for positively charged colloids

37.Types of emulsions:

a. Water dispersed in oil: When water is the dispersed phase and oil is

the dispersion medium. E.g. butter

b. Oil dispersed in water: When oil is the dispersed phase and water is

the dispersion medium. E.g. milk

38.Emulsification: The process of stabilizing an emulsion by means of an

emulsifier.

39.Emulsifying agent: The substances which are added to stabilize the

emulsions are called emulsifying agents or emulsifiers. E.g. soaps,

gum

40. Demulsification: The process of breaking an emulsion into its

constituent liquids is called demulsification by freezing, boiling,

centrifugation or some chemical methods.

Chapter : General Principles & Processes

Of Isolation of Elements

Top concepts:

1. Minerals: The naturally occurring chemical substances in the earth’s

crust which are obtained by mining are known as minerals. Metals may

or may not be extracted profitably from them.

2. Ores: The rocky materials which contain sufficient quantity of mineral

so that the metal can be extracted profitably or economically are

known as ores.

3. Gangue: The earthy or undesirable materials present in ore are known

as gangue.

4. Metallurgy: The entire scientific and technological process used for

isolation of the metal from its ores is known as metallurgy.

5. Chief Ores and Methods of Extraction of Some Common Metals:

Metals Occurrence Extraction Method Remark

Sodium Rock salt: NaCl Feldspar:Na3AlSi3O8

Electrolysis of fused NaCl or NaCl/ CaCl2

Sodium is highly reactive, it reacts with

water

Copper Copper pyrites:CuFeS2

Malachite:CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 Cuprite: Cu2O Copper glance: Cu2S

Roasting of sulphide

partially and reduction 2Cu2O + Cu2S → 6 Cu

+SO2

It is self reduction in a

specially designed converter. Sulphuric acid leaching is also

employed.

Aluminium Bauxite: AlOx(OH)3-2x where 0<x<1 Cryolite: Na3AlF6

Kaolinite: [Al2(OH)4Si2O5]

Electrolysis of Al2O3

dissolved in molten cryolite or in Na3AlCl6

A good source of

electricity is needed in the extraction of Al

Zinc Zinc blende or Sphalerite:

ZnS Zincite: ZnO Calamine: ZnCO3

Roasting and then

reduction with C

The metal may be

purified by fractional distillation.

Lead Galena: PbS Roasting of the sulphide ore and then reduction

of the oxide

Sulphide ore is concentrated by froth

floatation process

Silver Argentite: Ag2S

Sodium cyanide leaching

of the sulphide ore and finally replacement of Ag

by Zn

It involves complex

formation and displacement

Gold Native, small amounts in

many ores such as those of

Cyanide leaching, same

as in case of silver

Gold reacts with cyanide

to form complex

copper and silver

Iron Haematite: Fe2O3 Magnetite: Fe3O4 Siderite: FeCO3

Iron pyrites: FeS2

Reduction with the help of CO and coke in blast furnace.

Limestone is added as flux which removes SiO2 as calcium silicate (slag)

floats over molten iron and prevents its

oxidation. Temperatures approaching 2170 K is required.

6. Steps of metallurgy:

a. Concentration of ore

b. Conversion of concentrated ore to oxide

c. Reduction of oxide to metal

d. Refining of metal

7. Concentration of ore: The process of removal unwanted materials like

sand, clay, rocks etc from the ore is known as concentration, ore –

dressing or benefaction. It involves several steps which depend upon

physical properties of metal compound and impurity (gangue). The

type of metal, available facilities and environmental factors are also

taken into consideration.

8. Hydraulic washing (or gravity separation): It is based on difference in

densities of ore and gangue particles. Ore is washed with a stream of

water under pressure so that lighter impurities are washed away

whereas heavy ores are left behind.

9. Magnetic separation: This method is based on the difference in

magnetic and non – magnetic properties of two components of ore

(pure and impure). This method is used to remove tungsten ore

particles from cassiterite (SnO2). It is also used to concentrate

magnetite (Fe3O4), chromite (FeCr2O4) and pyrolusite (MnO2) from

unwanted gangue.

10. Froth Floatation Process: The principle of froth floatation process is

that sulphide ores are preferentially wetted by the pine oil, whereas

the gangue particles are wetted by the water. Collectors are added to

enhance the non-wettability of the mineral particles. Examples are

pine oil, fatty acids and xanthates are added to it. Froth stabilizers are

added to stabilize the froth. Examples are cresols, aniline. If two

sulphide ores are present, it is possible to separate the two sulphide

ores by adjusting proportion of oil to water or by adding depressants.

For example- In the case of an ore containing ZnS and PbS, the

depressant used is NaCN. It selectively prevents ZnS from coming to

froth but allows PbS to come with the froth.

11. Leaching (Chemical separation): It is a process in which ore is treated

with suitable solvent which dissolves the ore but not the impurities.

12. Purification of Bauxite by Leaching: Baeyer’s process:

Step 1:

Al2O3 (s) + 2NaOH (aq) + 3H2O (l) → 2Na[Al(OH)4](aq)

Step 2:

( ) ( )2 2 3 2 342Na[A l OH ](aq) CO g Al O .xH O (s) 2NaHCO (aq)+ → +

Step 3:

( )Heat at1470K2 3 2 2 3 2Al O .xH O(s) Al O s xH O(g) → +

13. Concentration of Gold and Silver Ores by Leaching:

- -2 2 2

- 2-2 4

4M(s) 8CN (aq) 2H O(aq) O (g) 4[M(CN) ] (aq) + 4OH (aq)

2[M(CN) ] (aq) Zn(s) [Zn(CN) ] (aq) 2M(s)

Where :

[M Agor Au]

−+ + + →

+ → +

=

14. Conversion of ore into oxide: It is easier to reduce oxide than sulphide

or carbonate ore. Therefore, the given ore should be converted into

oxide by suitable method:

Roasting Calcination

It is a process in which ore is

heated in a regular supply of air

at a temperature below melting

point of the metal so as to

convert the given ore into oxide

ore.

It is a process of heating ore in

limited supply of air so as to

convert carbonate ores into

oxides.

Sulphide ores are converted into

oxide by roasting

Carbonate ores are converted into

oxide by roasting

It is also used to remove

impurities as volatile oxides

It is also used to remove moisture

and volatile impurities

E.g.: 2ZnS+ 3O2 → 2ZnO + 2SO2 E.g.: CaCO3 heat

2CaO CO→ +

15. Reduction of oxide to metal: The process of converting metal oxide

into metal is called reduction. It needs a suitable reducing agent

depending upon the reactivity or reducing power of metal. The

common reducing agents used are carbon or carbon monoxide or any

other metals like Al, Mg etc.

16. Thermodynamic principles of metallurgy: Some basic concepts of

thermodynamics help in understanding the conditions of temperature

and selecting suitable reducing agent in metallurgical processes:

a. Gibbs free energy change at any temperature is given by ∆G =

∆H – T∆S where ∆G is free energy change, ∆H is enthalpy

change and ∆S is entropy change.

b. The relationship between ∆GӨ and K is ∆GӨ = –2.303 RT log K

where K is equilibrium constant. R = 8.314 JK-¹ mol-1, T is

temperature in Kelvin.

c. A negative ∆G means +ve value of K i.e., products are formed

more than the reactants. The reaction will proceed in forward

direction.

d. If ∆S is +ve, on increasing temperature the value of T∆S

increases so that T∆S > ∆H and ∆G will become negative.

17. Coupled reactions: If reactants and products of two reactions are

put together in a system and the net ∆G of two possible reactions

is –ve the overall reaction will take place. These reactions are

called coupled reactions.

18. Ellingham diagrams: The plots between ∆fGӨ of formation of oxides

of elements vs. temperature are called Ellingham diagrams. It

provides a sound idea about selecting a reducing agent in reduction

of oxides. Such diagrams help in predicting the feasibility of a

thermal reduction of an ore. ∆G must be negative at a given

temperature for a reaction to be feasible.

19. Limitations of Ellingham Diagrams: It does not take kinetics of

reduction into consideration, i.e., how fast reduction will take place

cannot be determined.

20. Reduction of iron oxide in blast furnace: Reduction of oxides takes

place in different zones.

At 500 – 800 K (lower temperature range in blast furnace)

3Fe2O3 + CO → 2Fe3O4 + CO2

Fe3O4 + 4CO → 3Fe + 4CO2

Fe2O3 + CO → 2FeO + CO2

At 900 – 1500 K (higher temperature range in blast furnace)

C + CO2 → 2CO

FeO + CO → Fe + CO2

Limestone decomposes to CaO and CO2

CaCO3 heat

2CaO CO→ +

Silica (impurity) reacts with CaO to form calcium silicate which

forms slag. It floats over molten iron and prevents oxidation of

iron.

CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3

Calcium silicate

(Slag)

21. Types of iron:

a. Pig iron: The iron obtained from blast furnace is called pig iron. It is

impure from of iron contains 4% carbon and small amount of S,.P,

Si and Mn. It can be casted into variety of shapes.

b. Cast iron: It is made by melting pig iron with scrap iron and coke

using hot air blast. It contains about 3% of carbon content. It is

extremely hard and brittle.

c. Wrought iron: It is the purest form of commercial iron. It is also

called malleable iron.

It is prepared by oxidative refining of pig iron in reverberatory

furnace lined with haematite which oxidises carbon to carbon

monoxide.

Fe2O3 + 3C → 2Fe + 3CO

The substance which reacts with impurity to form slag is called flux

e.g. limestone is flux.

S + O2 → SO2

4P + 5O2 → 2P2O5

Si + O2 → SiO2

CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3 (slag)

3CaO + P2O5 → Ca3(PO4)2 (slag)

The metal is removed and freed from slag by passing through rollers.

22. Electrolytic Reduction (Hall – Heroult Process): Purified bauxite ore is

mixed with cryolite (Na3AlF6) or CaF2 which lowers its melting point

and increases electrical conductivity. Molten mixture is electrolysed

using a number of graphite rods as anode and carbon lining as

cathode.

The graphite anode is useful for reduction of metal oxide to metal.

2Al2O3 + 3C → 4Al + 3CO2

Al2O3 electrolysis

2Al³ 3O²+ −→ +

At cathode: Al³+ (melt) + 3e- → Al (l)

At anode: C(s) + O²- (melt) → CO (g) + 2e-

C(s) + 2O²- (melt) → CO2 (g) + 4e-

Graphite rods get burnt forming CO and CO2. The aluminium thus

obtained is refined electrolytically using impure Al as anode, pure Al as

cathode and molten cryolite as electrolyte.

At anode: Al → Al³+ + 3e-

(Impure)

At cathode: Al³+ + 3e- → Al (pure)

23. Electrolysis of molten NaCl:

NaCl → Na++ Cl-

(Molten)

At cathode: Na++ e- → Na

At anode: 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-

Thus sodium metal is obtained at cathode and Cl2 (g) is liberated at

anode.

24. Refining: It is the process of converting an impure metal into pure

metal depending upon the nature of metal.

25. Distillation: It is the process used to purify those metals which have

low boiling points, e.g., zinc, mercury, sodium, potassium. Impure

metal is heated so as to convert it into vapours which changes into

pure metal on condensation and is obtained as distillate.

26. Liquation: Those metals which have impurities whose melting points

are higher than metal can be purified by this method. In this method,

Sn metal can be purified. Tin containing iron as impurities heated on

the top of sloping furnace. Tin melts and flows down the sloping

surface where iron is left behind and pure tin is obtained.

27. Electrolytic refining: In this method, impure metal is taken as anode,

pure metal is taken as cathode, and a soluble salt of metal is used as

electrolyte. When electric current is passed, impure metal forms metal

ions which are discharged at cathode forming pure metal.

At anode: M → Mⁿ+ + ne-

(Impure)

At cathode: Mⁿ++ ne- → M

(Pure)

28. Zone refining: It is based on the principle that impurities are more

soluble in the melt than in the solid state of the metal.

The impure metal is heated with the help of circular heaters at one end

of the rod of impure metal. The molten zone moves forward along with

the heater with impurities and reaches the other end and is discarded.

Pure metal crystallizes out of the melt.

The process is repeated several times and heater is moved in the same

direction. It is used for purifying semiconductors like B, Ge, Si, Ga and

In.

29. Vapour phase refining: Nickel is purified by Mond’s process. Nickel,

when heated in stream of carbon monoxide forms volatile Ni(CO)4

which on further subjecting to higher temperature decomposes to give

pure metal.

Ni + 4 CO ( )330 350K

4Ni CO

−→ Ni + 4 CO

Impure Pure

450 – 470K

30. van- Arkel method: It is used to get ultra pure metals. Zr and Ti are

purified by this process. Zr or Ti are heated in iodine vapours at about

870 K to form volatile ZrI4 or TiI4 which are heated over tungsten

filament at 1800K to give pure Zr or Ti.

Ti + 2I2 4 2TiI Ti 2I → → +

Impure Pure

Zr + 2I2 4 2ZrI Zr 2I → → +

Impure Pure

31. Chromatographic method: It is based on the principle of separation or

purification by chromatography which is based on differential

adsorption on an adsorbent. In column chromatography, Al2O3 is used

as adsorbent. The mixture to be separated is taken in suitable solvent

and applied on the column. They are then eluted out with suitable

solvent (eluant). The weakly adsorbed component is eluted first. This

method is suitable for such elements which are available only in

minute quantities and the impurities are not very much different in

their chemical behaviour from the element to be purified.

Chapter : The p-Block Elements

Top concepts:

1. p-Block elements: Elements belonging to groups 13 to 18 of the

periodic table are called p-block elements.

2. General electronic configuration of p-block elements: The p-

block elements are characterized by the ns2np1-6 valence shell

electronic configuration.

3. Representative elements: Elements belonging to the s and p-blocks

in the periodic table are called the representative elements or main group elements.

4. Inert pair effect: The tendency of ns2 electron pair to participate in

bond formation decreases with the increase in atomic size. Within a

group the higher oxidation state becomes less stable with respect to the lower oxidation state as the atomic number increases. This trend is called ‘inert pair effect’. In other words, the energy required to unpair

the electrons is more than energy released in the formation of two additional bonds.

5. Nitrogen family: The elements of group 15 – nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb) and bismuth (Bi) belong

to configuration is ns2np3.

6. Oxygen family: Group 16 of periodic table consists of five elements –

oxygen (O), sulphur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te) and polonium (Po). Their general electronic configuration is ns2np4.

7. The halogen family: Group 17 elements, fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I) and astatine (At), belong to halogen family.

Their general electronic configuration is ns2np5.

8. Group 18 elements: Helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton

(Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn) are Group 18 elements. They are also called noble gases. Their general electronic configuration is ns2np6

except helium which has electronic configuration 1s2. They are called noble gases because they show very low chemical reactivity.

GROUP 15 ELEMENTS

9. Atomic and ionic radii: Covalent and ionic radii increase down the

group. There is appreciable increase in covalent radii from N to P.

There is small increase from As to Bi due to presence of completely filled d or f orbitals in heavy elements.

10. Ionisation energy: It goes on decreasing down the group due to

increase in atomic size. Group 15 elements have higher ionisation

energy than group 14 elements due to smaller size of group 15 elements. Group 15 elements have higher ionization energy than group 16 elements because they have stable electronic configuration

i.e., half filled p-orbitals.

11. Allotropy: All elements of Group 15 except nitrogen show allotropy.

12. Catenation: Nitrogen shows catenation to some extent due to triple

bond but phosphorus shows catenation to maximum extent. The tendency to show catenation decreases down the group.

13. Oxidation states: The common oxidation states are +3, +5, –3. The

tendency to show –3 oxidation state decreases down the group due to

decrease in electronegativity which is due to increase in atomic size.

The stability of +5 oxidation state decreases whereas stability of +3

oxidation state increases due to inert pair effect.

Nitrogen shows oxidation states from –3 to +5.

Nitrogen and phosphorus with oxidation states from +1 to +4 undergo

oxidation as well as reduction in acidic medium. This process is called disproportionation.

3 HNO2 → HNO3 + H2O + 2 NO

14. Reactivity towards hydrogen: All group 15 elements from

trihydrides, MH3. Hybridisation - sp3

The stability of hydrides decrease down the group due to decrease in

bond dissociation energy down the group.

NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3

Boiling point: PH3 < AsH3 < NH3 < SbH3 < BiH3

Boiling point increases with increase in size due to increase in van der

Waals forces. Boiling point of NH3 is more because of hydrogen bonding.

Bond angle: NH3 (107.8°) > PH3 (99.5°) > AsH3 (91.8°) ≈ SbH3

(91.3°) > BiH3 (90°)

Electronegativity of N is highest. Therefore, the lone pairs will be towards nitrogen and hence more repulsion between bond pairs.

Therefore bond angle is the highest. After nitrogen, the electronegativity decreases down the group.

Basicity decreases as NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 < BiH3.

This is because the lone pair of electrons are concentrated more on

nitrogen and hence the basicity will be maximum in the case of NH3. It

will decrease down the group as the electronegativity decreases down the group.

The reducing power of hydrides increases down the group due to

decrease in bond dissociation energy down the group.

15. Reactivity towards oxygen: All group 15 elements from trioxides

(M2O3) and pentoxides (M2O5).

Acidic character of oxides decreases and basicity increases down the group. This is because the size of nitrogen is very small. It has a

strong positive field in a very small area. Therefore, it attracts the electrons of water’s O-H bond to itself and release H+ ions easily. As

we move down the group, the atomic size increases and hence the acidic character of oxides decreases and basicity increases down the group.

16. Reactivity towards halogen: Group 15 elements form trihalides and

pentahalides.

Trihalides – covalent compounds and become ionic down the group.

sp3 hybridisation , pyramidal shape

Pentahalides - sp3d hybridisation, TBP shape

They are lewis acids because of the presence of vacant d – orbitals.

PCl5 + Cl- → [PCl6]

-

PCl5 is ionic in solid state and exist as [PCl4]

+ [PCl6]-

In PCl5, there are three equatorial bonds and two axial bonds. The

axial bonds are longer than equatorial bonds because of greater repulsion from equatorial bonds.

Nitrogen does not form pentahalides due to absence of d- orbitals.

17. Reactivity towards metals: All elements react with metals to form

binary compounds in –3 oxidation state.

18. Anomalous behaviour of nitrogen: The behaviour of nitrogen differs from rest of the elements.

Reason:

i. It has a small size.

ii. It does not have d – orbitals

iii. It has high electronegativity

iv. It has high ionization enthalpy

19. Dinitrogen:

Preparation:

heat4 2 2 2NH Cl(aq) NaNO (aq) N (g) 2H O(l) NaCl(aq)+ → + +

( ) heat4 2 7 2 2 2 32

NH Cr O N 4H O Cr O→ + +

( ) heat3 22

Ba N Ba 3 N→ +

Properties:

It is a colouless, odourless, tasteless and non – toxic gas. It is

chemically un-reactive at ordinary temperature due to triple bond in

N ≡ N which has high bond dissociation energy.

20. Ammonia: Ammonia molecule is trigonal pyramidal with nitrogen

atom at the apex. It has 3 bond pairs and 1 lone pair. N is sp3 hybridised.

Preparation:

Haber’s process:

o 1

2 2 3 f

5

2 2 3

N (g) 3H (g) 2 NH (g) H 46.1 kJ mol

Pr essure 200x10 Pa

Temperature 773 K

Catalyst is FeO with small amounts of K O and Al O

−+ ∆ = −

=

=

���⇀�↽����

21. Nitric Acid:

a. Ostwald Process:

Pt /Rhgauge3 2 2500 K,9bar

4NH 5O 4NO 6H O ......(i)+ → +

2 22NO O 2NO ......(ii)+ ����⇀↽����

2 2 33NO (g) H O(l) 2HNO (aq) NO(g) ......(iii)+ → +

NO thus formed is recycled and the aqueous HNO3 can be concentrated by distillation upto ~ 68% by mass. Further

concentration to 98% can be achieved by dehydration with concentrated H2SO4.

Nitric acid is strong oxidizing agent in the concentrated as well as in the dilute state.

22. Phosphorus:

a. It shows the property of catenation to maximum extent due to

most stable P – P bond.

b. It has many allotropes, the important ones are :

i. White phosphorus

ii. Red phosphorus

iii. Black phosphorus

White phosphorus Red phosphorus

Black phosphorus

Discrete tetrahedral

P4 molecules

Polymeric structure

consisting of chains of P4 units linked together

Exists in two forms - α

black P and β black P

Very reactive Less reactive than white P Very less reactive

Glows in dark Does not glow in dark -

Translucent waxy

solid

Has an iron grey luster Has an opaque

monoclinic or

rhombohedral crystals

Soluble in CS2 but

insoluble in water

Insoluble in water as well as

CS2

-

It has low ignition

temperature,

therefore, kept under water

- -

Preparation:

23. Phosphine:

Preparation:

i.

( )

3 2 2 2 3Ca P 6H O 3Ca(OH) 2PH

calcium calciumwater phosphine

phosphide hydroxide

+ → +

( )3 2 2 3Ca P 6HCl 3CaCl 2PH

phosphine

+ → +

ii.

( )

4 2 2 2 3P 3NaOH 3H O 3NaH PO PH

sodiumphosphine

hypophosphite

+ + → +

Phosphine is highly poisonous, colourless gas and has a smell of rotten

fish.

24. Chlorides of Phosphorous:

PCl3 PCl5

Colourless oily liquid Yellowish white powder

4 2 3P 6Cl 4PCl+ →

4 2 3 2 2 2P 8SOCl 4PCl 4SO 2S Cl+ → + +

4 2 5P 10Cl 4PCl+ →

4 2 2 5 2P 10SO Cl 4PCl 10SO+ → +

Is hydrolysed in the presence of

moisture

3 2 3 3PCl 3H O H PO 3HCl+ → +

5 2 3

3 2 3 4

PCl H O POCl 2HCl

POCl 3 H O H PO 3HCl

+ → +

+ → +

3 CH3COOH + PCl3 → 3 CH3COCl +

H3PO3

3 CH3COOH + PCl5 → CH3COCl +

POCl3 + HCl

3 C2H5OH + PCl3 → 3 C2H5Cl + H3PO3 C2H5OH + PCl5 → C2H5Cl + POCl3 +

HCl

Pyramidal shape, sp3 hybridisation TBP geometry, sp3d hybridisation

- 2Ag + PCl5 → 2 AgCl + PCl3

Sn + 2 PCl5 → SnCl4 + 2 PCl3

GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

25. Oxidation states: They show -2, +2, +4, +6 oxidation states.

Oxygen does not show +6 oxidation state due to absence of d –

orbitals. Po does not show +6 oxidation state due to inert pair effect.

The stability of -2 oxidation state decreases down the group due to

increase in atomic size and decrease in electronegativity.

Oxygen shows -2 oxidation state in general except in OF2 and O2F2

The stability of +6 oxidation state decreases and +4 oxidation state

increases due to inert pair effect.

26. Ionisation enthalpy: Ionisation enthalpy of elements of group 16 is

lower than group 15 due to half filled p-orbitals in group 15 which are

more stable. However, ionization enthalpy decreases down the group.

27. Electron gain enthalpy: Oxygen has less negative electron gain

enthalpy than S because of small size of O.

From S to Po electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative to Po

because of increase in atomic size.

28. Melting and boiling point: It increases with increase in atomic

number. Oxygen has much lower melting and boiling points than

sulphur because oxygen is diatomic (O2) and sulphur is octatomic (S8).

29. Reactivity with hydrogen:

All group 16 elements form hydrides.

Bent shape

Acidic nature: H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te

This is because the H-E bond length increases down the group.

Therefore, the bond dissociation enthalpy decreases down the group.

Thermal stability: H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te < H2Po

This is because the H-E bond length increases down the group.

Therefore, the bond dissociation enthalpy decreases down the group.

Reducing character: H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te < H2Po

This is because the H-E bond length increases down the group.

Therefore, the bond dissociation enthalpy decreases down the group.

30. Reactivity with oxygen: EO2 and EO3

Reducing character of dioxides decreases down the group because

oxygen has a strong positive field which attracts the hydroxyl group

and removal of H+ becomes easy.

Acidity also decreases down the group.

SO2 is a gas whereas SeO2 is solid. This is because SeO2 has a chain

polymeric structure whereas SO2 forms discrete units.

31. Reactivity with halogens: EX2 EX4 and EX6

The stability of halides decreases in the order F- > Cl- > Br- > I-. This

is because E-X bond length increases with increase in size.

Among hexa halides, fluorides are the most stable because of steric

reasons.

Dihalides are sp3 hybridised, are tetrahedral in shape.

Hexafluorides are only stable halides which are gaseous and have

sp3d2 hybridisation and octahedral structure.

H2O is a liquid while H2S is a gas. This is because strong hydrogen

bonding is present in water. This is due to small size and high

electronegativity of O.

32. Oxygen:

Preparation:

heat3 2MnO2

finely divided metals2 2 2 2

2KClO 2KCl 3O

2H O ( ) 2H O(l) O (g)

→ +

→ +aq

heat2 2

2

3 4 2

2 2

2Ag O( ) 4Ag( ) O ( )

2HgO( ) 2Hg(l) O (g)

2Pb O ( ) 6PbO( ) O ( )

(Red lead)

2PbO ( ) 2PbO( ) O ( )

∆

∆

∆

→ +

→ +

→ +

→ +

s s g

s

s s g

s s g

33. Oxides:

The compounds of oxygen and other elements are called oxides.

Types of oxides:

a. Acidic oxides: Non- metallic oxides are usually acidic in nature.

2 2 2 3SO H O H SO (sulphurous acid)+ →

b. Basic oxides: Metallic oxides are mostly basic in nature. Basic

oxides dissolve in water forming bases e.g.,

2 2

2 2

2 2

Na O H O 2NaOH

K O H O 2KOH

CaO H O Ca(OH)

+ →

+ →

+ →

c. Amphoteric oxides: They show characteristics of both acidic as

well as basic oxides.

2 3 3 2

2 3 2 3 6

Al O 6HCl( ) 2AlCl ( ) 3H O

Al O 6NaOH( ) 3H O( ) 2Na [Al(OH) ]( )

+ → +

+ + →

aq aq

aq l aq

d. Neutral oxides: These oxides are neither acidic nor basic.

Example: Co, NO and N2O

34. Ozone:

Preparation:

i. It is prepared by passing silent electric discharge through pure

and dry oxygen 10 – 15 % oxygen is coverted to ozone.

12 33O ( ) 2O ( ); H 142 kJ mol−→ ∆ = +g g

Structure of Ozone: Ozone has angular structure. Both O = O bonds

are of equal bond length due to resonance.

35. Sulphur:

Sulphur exhibits allotropy:

a. Yellow Rhombic (α - sulphur):

b. Monoclinic (β- sulphur):

369 KSulphur Sulphurα − β −�����⇀�

↽������

At 369 K both forms are stable. It is called transition temperature.

Both of them have S8 molecules. The ring is puckered and has a crown shape.

Another allotrope of sulphur – cyclo S6 ring adopts a chair form.

S2 is formed at high temperature (∼ 1000 K). It is paramagnetic

because of 2 unpaired electrons present in anti bonding π* orbitals like O2

36. Sulphuric acid:

Preparation: By contact process

8 2 2

1S O SO

8+ →

V O 12 52 2 32bar

720K

2SO ( ) O ( ) 2SO ( ) H 196.6kJ mol

Exothermic reaction and therfore low temperature and high pressure

are favourable

θ −+ → ∆ = −g g g

3 2 4 2 2 7SO (g) H SO H S O (Oleum)+ →

2 2 7 2 2 4H S O H O 2 H SO

(96 98%)

+ →

−

It is dibasic acid or diprotic acid.

It is a strong dehydrating agent.

It is a moderately strong oxidizing agent.

GROUP 17 ELEMENTS

37. Atomic and ionic radii: Halogens have the smallest atomic radii in their respective periods because of maximum effective nuclear charge.

38. Ionisation enthalpy: They have very high ionization enthalpy

because of small size as compared to other groups.

39. Electron gain enthalpy: Halogens have maximum negative electron

gain enthalpy because these elements have only one electron less than stable noble gas configuration.

Electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative down the group because atomic size increases down the group.

40. Eelctronegativity: These elements are highly electronegative and electronegativity decreases down the group. They have high effective

nuclear charge.

41. Bond dissociation enthalpy:

Bond dissociation enthalpy follows the order Cl2 > Br2 > F2 > I2

This is because as the size increases bond length increases.

Bond dissociation enthalpy of Cl2 is more than F2 because there are

large electronic repulsions of lone pairs present in F2.

42. Colour: All halogens are coloured because of absorption of radiations in visible region which results in the excitation of outer electrons to

higher energy levels.

43. Oxidising power: All halogens are strong oxidisinga gents because

they have a strong tendency to accept electrons.

Order of oxidizing power is F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2

44. Reactivity with H2:

Acidic strength: HF < HCl < HBr < HI

Stability: HF > HCl > HBr > HI

This is because of decrease in bond dissociation enthalpy.

Boiling point: HCl < HBr < HI < HF

HF has strong intermolecular H bonding

As the size increases van der Waals forces increases and hence boiling

point increases.

% Ionic character: HF > HCl > HBr > HI

Dipole moment: HF > HCl > HBr > HI

Electronegativity decreases down the group.

Reducing power: HF < HCl < HBr < HI

45. Reactivity with metals: Halogens react with metals to form halides.

Ionic character: MF > MCl > MBr > MI

Halides in higher oxidation state will be more covalent than the one in the lower oxidation state.

46. Interhalogen compounds: Reactivity of halogens towards other

halogens:

Binary compounds of two different halogen atoms of general formula

X X’n are called interhalogen compounds where n = 1, 3, 5, or 7

These are covalent compounds.

All these are covalent compounds.

Interhalogen compounds are more reactive than halogens because X-

X’ is a more polar bond than X-X bond.

All are diamagnetic.

Their melting point is little higher than halogens.

XX’ (CIF, BrF, BrCl, ICl, IBr, IF) (Linear shape)

XX’3 (CIF3, BrF3, IF3, ICl3) (Bent T- shape)

XX’5 – CIF5, BrF5, IF5, (square pyramidal shape)

XX’7 – IF7 (Pentagonal bipyramidal shape)

47. Oxoacids of halogens:

Fluorine forms only one oxoacid HOF (Fluoric (I) acid or hypofluorous

acid) due to high electronegativity.

Acid strength: HOCl < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4

Reason: HClO4 → H+ + ClO4-

most stable

Acid strength: HOF > HOCl > HOBr > HOI

This is because Fluorine is most electronegative.

GROUP 18 ELEMENTS:

48. Ionisation enthalpy: They have very high ionization enthalpy

because of completely filled orbitals.

Ionisation enthalpy decreases down the group because of increase in

size.

49. Atomic radii: Increases down the group because number of shells increases down the group.

50. Electron gain enthalpy: They have large electron gain enthalpy

because of stable electronic configuration.

51. Melting and boiling point: Low melting and boiling point because

only weak dispersion forces are present.

52. XeF2 is linear, XeF4 is square planar and XeF6 is distorted octahedral.

KrF2 is known but no true compound of He Ne and Ar are known.

53. Compounds of Xe and F:

673 K, 1bar2 2Xe F XeF+ →

873 K2 47bar

Xe 2F XeF+ →

573 K2 660 70 bar

Xe 3F XeF−

+ →

4 2 2 6 2XeF O F XeF O+ → +

XeF2, XeF4 and XeF6 are powerful fluorinating agents.

54. Compounds of Xe and O:

4 2 3 2

6 2 3

6XeF 12H O 4Xe 2XeO 24HF 3O

XeF 3 H O XeO 6HF

+ → + + +

+ → +

Chapter : The d and f-Block Elements

Top Concepts

1. d -Block elements: The elements lying in the middle of periodic table

belonging to groups 3 to 12 are known as d – block elements. Their

general electronic configuration is (n – 1)d1-10 ns1-2 where (n – 1)

stands for penultimate (last but one) shell.

2. Transition element: A transition element is defined as the one which

has incompletely filled d orbitals in its ground state or in any one of its

oxidation states.

3. Zinc, cadmium, mercury are not regarded as transition metals due to

completely filled d – orbital.

4. f-Block elements: The elements constituting the f -block are those in

which the 4 f and 5 f orbitals are progressively filled in the latter two

long periods.

5. Lanthanoids: The 14 elements immediately following lanthanum, i.e.,

Cerium (58) to Lutetium (71) are called lanthanoids. They belong to

first inner transition series. Lanthanum (57) has similar properties.

Therefore, it is studied along with lanthanoids.

6. Actinoids: The 14 elements immediately following actinium (89), with

atomic numbers 90 (Thorium) to 103 (Lawrencium) are called

actinoids. They belong to second inner transition series. Actinium (89)

has similar properties. Therefore, it is studied along with actinoids.

7. Four transition series:

a. 3d – transition series. The transition elements with atomic

number 21(Sc) to 30(Zn) and having incomplete 3d orbitals is

called the first transition series.

b. 4d – transition series. It consists of elements with atomic

number 39(Y) to 48 (Cd) and having incomplete 4d orbitals. It is

called second transition series.

c. 5d – transition series. It consists of elements with atomic

number 57(La), 72(Hf) to 80(Hg) having incomplete 5d orbitals.

It is called third transition series.

d. 6d – transition series. It consists of elements with atomic

number 89(Ac), 104(Rf) to 112(Uub) having incomplete 6d

orbitals. It is called fourth transition series.

8. General Characteristics of transition elements:

a. Metallic character: All transition elements are metallic in nature,

i.e. they have strong metallic bonds. This is because of presence

of unpaired electrons. This gives rise to properties like high

density, high enthalpies of atomization, and high melting and

boiling points.

b. Atomic radii: The atomic radii decrease from Sc to Cr because

the effective nuclear charge increases. The atomic size of Fe,

Co, Ni is almost same because the attraction due to increase in

nuclear charge is cancelled by the repulsion because of increase

in shielding effect. Cu and Zn have bigger size because the

shielding effect increases and electron electron repulsions

repulsion increases.

c. Lanthanoid Contraction: The steady decrease in the atomic and

ionic radii of the transition metals as the atomic number

increases. This is because of filling of 4f orbitals before the 5d

orbitals. This contraction is size is quite regular. This is called

lanthanoid contraction. It is because of lanthanoid contraction

that the atomic radii of the second row of transition elements

are almost similar to those of the third row of transition

elements.

d. Ionisation enthalpy: There is slight and irregular variation in

ionization energies of transition metals due to irregular variation

of atomic size. The I.E. of 5d transition series is higher than 3d

and 4d transition series because of Lanthanoid Contraction.

e. Oxidation state: Transition metals show variable oxidation

states due to tendency of (n-1)d as well as ns electrons to take

part in bond formation.

f. Magnetic properties: Most of transition metals are paramagnetic

in nature due to presence of unpaired electrons. It increase s

from Sc to Cr and then decreases because number of unpaired

and then decrease because number of unpaired electrons

increases from Sc to Cr and then decreases.

g. Catalytic properties: Most of transition metals are used as

catalyst because of (i) presence of incomplete or empty d –

orbitals, (ii) large surface area, (iii) varuable oxidation state,

(iv) ability to form complexes, e.g., Fe, Ni, V2O3, Pt, Mo, Co and

used as catalyst.

h. Formation of coloured compounds: They form coloured ions due

to presence of incompletely filled d – orbitals and unpaired

electrons, they can undergo d – d transition by absorbing colour

from visible region and radiating complementary colour.

i. Formation of complexes: Transition metals form complexes due

to (i) presence of vacant d – orbitals of suitable energy (ii)

smaller size (iii) higher charge on cations.

j. Interstitial compounds: Transition metals have voids or

interstitials in which C, H, N, B etc. can fit into resulting in

formation of interstitial compounds. They are non –

stoichiometric, i.e., their composition is not fixed, e.g., steel.

They are harder and less malleable and ductile.

k. Alloys formation: They form alloys due to similar ionic size.

Metals can replace each other in crystal lattice, e.g., brass,

bronze, steel etc.

9. Preparation of Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7):

It is prepared by fusion of chromate ore (FeCr2O4) with sodium carbonate in

excess of air.

4FeCr2O4 + 8Na2CO3 + 7O2 → 8Na2CrO4 + 2Fe2O3 + 8CO2

2Na2CrO4 + H2SO4 → Na2Cr2O7 + H2O + Na2SO4

Sodium Sodium

chromate dichromate

Na2Cr2O7 + 2KCl → K2Cr2O7 + 2NaCl

10. Effect of pH on chromate and dichromate ions: The chromates and dichromates are interconvertible in aqueous solution depending upon pH of

the solution. The oxidation state of chromium in chromate and dichromate is the same.

2 CrO42- + 2H+ → Cr2O7

2- + H2O

Cr2O72- + 2 OH- → 2 CrO4

2-+ H2O 11. Potassium dichromate acts as a strong oxidizing agent in acidic medium.

Cr2O72- +14 H+ + 6e- → 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O

12. Preparation of Potassium permanganate (KMnO4):

a. Potassium permanganate is prepared by fusion of MnO4 with alkali metal

hydroxide (KOH) in presence of O2 or oxidising agent like KNO3. It produces

dark green K2MnO4 which undergoes oxidation as well as reduction in neutral

or acidic solution to give permanganate.

2 2 2 4 2

24 4 2 2

2MnO 4KOH O 2K MnO 2H O

4H 3MnO 2MnO MnO 2H O+ − −

+ + → +

+ → + +

Or

Commercially it is prepared by the alkaline oxidative fusion of MnO2 followed by the electrolytic oxidation of manganate (Vl).

( )

fused with KOH 22 4in the presence of O or KNO2 3

manganate ions

MnO MnO −→

( ) ( )

electrolytic oxidation in alkaline medium24 4

Green P urple

MnO MnO− − →

(ii) In laboratory, Mn²+ salt can be oxidized by peroxodisulphate ion

to permanganate ion.

2+ 2- 22 8 2 4 42Mn + 5S O +8H O 2MnO 10SO 16H− − +→ + +

13. Potassium permanganate acts as a strong oxidizing agent in acidic,

neutral or faintly basic medium.

In acidic medium.

MnO4- + 8 H+ + 5 e- → Mn2+ + 4 H2O

In neutral or faintly basic medium,

MnO4- + 3 e- + 2 H2O → MnO2 + 4OH-

14. Properties of Lanthanoids and Actinoids.

Lanthanoids Actinoids

+3 oxidation state is most common

along with +2 and +4

Actiniods also show higher oxidation

states such as +4, +5, +6 and +7.

They are more reactive

Except Promethium, they are non –

radioactive.

They are radioactive

The magnetic properties of

lanthanoids are less complex than

actinoids.

The magnetic properties of the

actinoids are more complex than

those of the lanthanoids

15. Mischmetall - It is a well known alloy which consists of a lanthanoid metal

(~ 95%) and iron (~ 5%) and traces of S, C, Ca and Al. A good deal of

mischmetall is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and

lighter flint.

Chapter : Coordination Compounds

1. Difference between coordination compound and double bond:

Coordination compound Double salt

A coordination compound contains a

central metal atom or ion surrounded

by number of oppositely charged ions

or neutral molecules. These ions or

molecules re bonded to the metal

atom or ion by a coordinate bond.

When two salts in stoichiometric ratio

are crystallised together from their

saturated solution they are called

double salts

Example: K4[Fe(CN)6] Example:FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O

(Mohr’s salt)

They do not dissociate into simple

ions when dissolved in water.

They dissociate into simple ions when

dissolved in water.

2. Coordination entity: A coordination entity constitutes a central metal

atom or ion bonded to a fixed number of ions or molecules. Example:

in K4[Fe(CN)6], [Fe(CN)6]4- represents coordination entity.

3. Central atom or ion: In a coordination entity, the atom/ion to which

a fixed number of ions/groups are bound in a definite geometrical

arrangement around it, is called the central atom or ion. E.g.: in

K4[Fe(CN)6], Fe²+ is the central metal ion.

4. Ligands: A molecule, ion or group that is bonded to the metal atom or

ion in a complex or coordination compound by a coordinate bond is

called ligand. It may be neutral, positively or negatively charged.

Example: H2O, CN-, NO+ etc.

5. Donor atom: An atom of the ligand attached directly to the metal is

called the donor atom. For example: in the complex K4[Fe(CN)6],

carbon is a donor atom.

6. Coordination number: The coordination number (CN) of a metal ion

in a complex can be defined as the number of ligand donor atoms to

which the metal is directly bonded. For example: in the complex

K4[Fe(CN)6], the coordination number of Fe is 6.

7. Coordination sphere: The central atom/ion and the ligands attached

to it are enclosed in square bracket and is collectively termed as the

coordination sphere. For example: in the complex K4[Fe(CN)6],

[Fe(CN)6]4- is the coordination sphere.

8. Counter ions: The ions present outside the coordination sphere are

called counter ions. For example: in the complex K4[Fe(CN)6], K+ is the

counter ion.

9. Coordination polyhedron: The spatial arrangement of the ligand

atoms which are directly attached to the central atom/ ion defines a

coordination polyhedron about the central atom. The most common

coordination polyhedra are octahedral, square planar and tetrahedral.

For example: [PtCl4]2- is square planar, Ni(CO)4 is tetrahedral while

[Cu(NH3)6]3+ is octahedral.

10. Charge on the complex ion: The charge on the complex ion is equal

to the algebraic sum of the charges on all the ligands coordinated to

the central metal ion.

11. Denticity: The number of ligating (linking) atoms present in ligand is

called denticity.

12. Unidentate ligands: The ligands whose only one donor atom is

bonded to metal atom are called unidentate ligands. Example: H2O,

NH3, CO, CN-

13. Didentate ligands: The ligands which contain two donor atoms or

ions through which they are bonded to the metal ion. For example:

ethylene diamine (H2NCH2CH2NH2) has two nitrogen atoms, oxalate ion

|COO

COO

−

−

has two oxygen atoms which can bind with the metal atom.

14. Polydentate ligand: When several donor atoms are present in a

single ligand, the ligand is called polydentate ligand. For example: in

N(CH2CH2NH2)3, the ligand is said to be polydentate.

Ethylenediaminetetraacetate ion (EDTA4–) is an important hexadentate

ligand. It can bind through two nitrogen and four oxygen atoms to a

central metal ion.

15. Chelate: An inorganic metal complex in which there is a close ring of

atoms caused by attachment of a ligand to a metal atom at two points.

An example is the complex ion formed between ethylene diamine and

cupric ion, [Cu(NH2CH2NH2)2]2+.

16. Ambidentate ligand: Ligands which can ligate (link) through two

different atoms present in it are called ambidentate ligand. Example:

NO2-,and SCN-. NO2

- can link through N as well as O while SCN- can

link through S as well as N atom.

17. Werner’s coordination theory: Werner was able to explain the

nature of bonding in complexes. The postulates of Werner’s theory

are:

a. Metal shows two different kinds of valencies: primary valence

and secondary valence.

Primary valence Secondary valence

This valence is normally ionisable. This valence is non – ionisable.

It is equal to positive charge on

central metal atom.

The secondary valency equals the

number of ligand atoms coordinated

to the metal. It is also called

coordination number of the metal.

These valencies are satisfied by

negatively charged ions.

It is commonly satisfied by neutral

and negatively charged, sometimes

by positively charged ligands.

Example: in CrCl3, the primary

valency is three. It is equal to

oxidation state of central metal ion.

b. The ions/ groups bound by secondary linkages to the metal

have characteristic spatial arrangements corresponding to

different coordination numbers.

c. The most common geometrical shapes in coordination

compounds are octahedral, square planar and tetrahedral.

18. Oxidation number of central atom: The oxidation number of the

central atom in a complex is defined as the charge it would carry if all

the ligands are removed along with the electron pairs that are shared

with the central atom.

19. Homoleptic complexes: Those complexes in which metal or ion is

coordinate bonded to only one kind of donor atoms. For example:

[Co(NH3)6]3+

20. Heteroleptic complexes: Those complexes in which metal or ion is

coordinate bonded to more than one kind of donor atoms. For

example: [CoCl2(NH3)4]+, [Co(NH3)5Br]

2+

21. Isomers. Two or more compounds which have same chemical formula

but different arrangement of atoms are called isomers.

22. Types of isomerism:

a. Structural isomerism

i. Linkage isomerism

ii. Solvate isomerism or hydrate isomerism

iii. Ionisation isomerism

iv. Coordination isomerism

b. Stereoisomerism

i. Geometrical isomerism

ii. Optical isomerism

23. Structural isomerism: This type of isomerism arises due to the

difference in structures of coordination compounds. Structural

isomerism, or constitutional isomerism, is a form of isomerism in

which molecules with the same molecular formula have atoms bonded

together in different orders.

a. Ionisation isomerism: This form of isomerism arises when the

counter ion in a complex salt is itself a potential ligand and can

displace a ligand which can then become the counter ion. Example:

[Co(NH3)5Br] SO4 and [Co(NH3)5 SO4] Br

b. Solvate isomerism: It is isomerism in which solvent is involved as

ligand. If solvent is water it is called hydrate isomerism, e.g.,

[Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 and [CrCl2(H2O)4] Cl2. 2H2O

c. Linkage isomerism: Linkage isomerism arises in a coordination

compound containing ambidentate ligand. In the isomerism, a

ligand can form linkage with metal through different atoms.

Example: [Co(NH3)5ONO]Cl2 and [Co(NH3)5NO2]Cl2

d. Coordination isomerism: This type of isomerism arises from the

interchange of ligands between cationic and anionic entities of

different metal ions present in a complex. Example:

[Co(NH3)6][Cr(C2O4)3] and [Cr(NH3)6][Co(C2O4)3]

24. Stereoisomerism: This type of isomerism arises because of different

spatial arrangement.

a. Geometrical isomerism: It arises in heteroleptic complexes

due to different possible geometrical arrangements of ligands.

b. Optical isomerism: Optical isomers are those isomers which

are non superimposable mirror images.

25. Valence bond theory:

According to this theory, the metal atom or ion under the influence of

ligands can use its (n-1)d, ns, np or ns, np, nd orbitals for hybridisation to yield a set of equivalent orbitals of definite geometry such as octahedral, tetrahedral, and square planar.

These hybridised orbitals are allowed to overlap with ligand orbitals that can donate electron pairs for bonding.

Coordination number Type of hybridisation Distribution of hybrid

orbitals in space

4 sp3 tetrahedral

4 dsp2 Square planar

5 sp3d Trigonal bipyramidal

6 sp3d2 (nd orbitals are

involved – outer orbital

complex or high spin or

spin free complex)

Octahedral

6 d2sp3((n-1) d orbitals are

involved –inner orbital or

low spin or spin paired

complex)

Octahedral

26. Magnetic properties of coordination compounds: A coordination

compound is paramagnetic in nature if it has unpaired electrons and

diamagnetic if all the electrons in the coordination compound are

paired.

Magnetic moment ( )n n 2µ = + where n is number of unpaired

electrons.

27. Crystal Field Theory: It assumes the ligands to be point charges and

there is electrostatic force of attraction between ligands and metal

atom or ion. It is theoretical assumption.

28. Crystal field splitting in octahedral coordination complexes:

29. Crystal field splitting in tetrahedral coordination complexes:

30. For the same metal, the same ligands and metal-ligand distances, the

difference in energy between eg and t2g level is

t 0

4

9∆ = − ∆

31. Metal carbonyls. Metal carbonyls are homoleptic complexes in which

carbon monoxide (CO) acts as the ligand. For example: Ni(CO)4

The metal – carbon bond in metal carbonyls possesses both andσ π

characters. The metal-carbon bond in metal carbonyls possess both s

and p character. The M–C σ bond is formed by the donation of lone

pair of electrons from the carbonyl carbon into a vacant orbital of the

metal. The M–C π bond is formed by the donation of a pair of electrons

from a filled d orbital of metal into the vacant antibonding π* orbital of

carbon monoxide. The metal to ligand bonding creates a synergic

effect which strengthens the bond between CO and the metal.

Chapter : Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

1. Nature of C-X bond in alkyl halides: X is more electronegative than

carbon. So, the C-X bond is polarized with C having a partial positive

charge and X having a partial negative charge

2. Preparation of haloalkanes:

3. Preparation of haloarenes:

a. By elecrophilic substitution reaction:

b. Sandmeyer’s reaction:

c. Gattermann reaction:

d.

e. Balz – Schiemann reaction:

4. Physical properties of haloalkanes:

a. Solubility. Although haloalkanes are polar in nature, yet they are

practically very slightly soluble in water. In order for a

haloalkane to dissolve in water, energy is required to overcome

the attractions between the haloalkane molecules and break the

hydrogen bonds between water molecules. However

Haloalkanes are not able to form hydrogen bonds with water

and therefore, less energy is released when new attractions are

set up between the haloalkane and the water molecules because

these are not as strong as the original hydrogen bonds in water

molecules. As a result, solubility of haloalkanes in water is low.

b. Density:

• Simple fluoro and chloroalkanes are lighter than water

while bromides and polychloro devrivatives are heavier

than water.

• With the increase in number of carbon atoms, the

densities go on increasing.

• With the increase in number of halogen atoms, the

densities go on increasing.

• The densities increase in the order:

• Fluoride < chloride < bromide < iodide

• The density also increases with increasing number and

atomic mass of the halogen.

c. Method and Boiling points:

• Molecules of organic halogen compounds are generally polar.

Due to the polarity as well as higher molecular mass as

compared to the parent hydrocarbon, the intermolecular

forces of attraction (dipole – dipole and van der Waals)

between the molecules are stronger in halogen derivatives of

alkanes. As a result melting and boiling points of chlorides,

bromides and iodides are considerably higher than those of

the parent hydrocarbon of comparable molecular mass.

• Amongst themselves, the following trends are observed:

o For the same alkyl group the boiling points of alkyl

chlorides, bromides and iodides follow the order RI > RBr

> RCl > RF where R is an alkyl group. This is because

with the increase in the size of the halogen, the

magnitude of van der Waals force increase.

o In general, the boiling points of chloro, bromo and iodo

compounds increase with increase in the number of

halogen atoms.

o For the same halogen atom, the boiling points of

haloalkanes increase with increase in the size of alkyl

groups.

o For isomeric alkyl halides, the boiling points decrease with

branching. This is because branching of the chain makes

the molecule more compact and, therefore, decrease the

surface area. Due to decrease in surface area, the

magnitude of van der Waals forces of attraction decreases

and consequently, the boiling points of the branched

chain compound is less than those of the straight chain

compounds.

5. Physical Properties of Haloarenes:

a. These are generally colourless liquids or crystalline solids.

b. These are heavier than water.

c. Melting and boiling points of haloarenes:

• Melting and boiling points of haloarenes are nearly the same

as those of alkyl halides containing the same number of

carbon atoms.

• The boiling points of monohalogen derivatives of benzene are

in the order: iodo > bromo > chloro > fluoro

• For the same halogen atom, the melting and boiling points

increase as the size of the aryl group increases.

• The melting point of para isomer is quite higher than that of

ortho or meta isomers. This is due to the fast that is has

symmetrical structure and there fore, its molecules can

easily pack loosely in the crystal lattice. As a result

intermolecular forces of attraction are stronger and

therefore, greater energy is required to break its lattice and

it melts at higher temperature.

5. Chemical properties of haloalkanes:

a. Nucleophilic substitution reaction:

Mechanism:

R – X + aq. KOH → R-OH + KX

R – X + NH3 → R- NH2 + HX

R – X + KCN → R-CN + KX

R – X + AgCN → R-NC + KX

b. Elimination reaction: Dehydrohalogentaion( β - elimination):

When a haloalkane with β-hydrogen atom is heated with alcoholic solution of potassium hydroxide, there is elimination of hydrogen atom from β-carbon

and a halogen atom from the α-carbon atom. As a result, an alkene is formed as a product.

Zaitsev rule (also pronounced as Saytzeff) is followed.It states that “In dehydrohalogenation reactions, the preferred product is that alkene which has the greater number of alkyl groups attached to the doubly bonded

carbon atoms.”

SNI SNII

Rate =k [RX]

Rate =k [RX] [Nu]

Two step reaction One step reaction

Inversion of configuration Racemic mixture

Second order reaction First order reaction

Order : CH3X < 1o < 2o < 3o

Order : CH3X > 1o > 2o > 3o

c. Reaction with metals:

• Reaction with Magnesium: Grignard’s reagent is formed:

− + →dryether

R X Mg RMgX

• Wurtz reaction: R-X + 2 Na + X-R → R-R + 2 NaX

6. Chemical properties of haloarenes:

Dow’s process:

Fittig reaction: Ar-X + 2 Na + X-Ar → Ar-Ar + 2 NaX

Wurtz – fittig reaction: R-X + 2 Na + X-Ar → R-Ar + 2 NaX

7. Some important reactions for conversions:

From Grignard’s reagent:

− + →

+ →

+ →

+ →

+ →

dryether

2

ll

R X Mg RMgX

RMgX CO RCOOH

RMgX HCHO Pr imary alcohol

RMgX RCHO Secondaryalcohol

O

RMgX RCR Tertairy alcohol

Chapter : Alcohols, Phenols And Ethers

Top concepts:

1. Structure of alcohols, phenols and ethers:

2. Preparation of alcohols:

3. Preparation of phenols:

4. Physical properties of alcohols and phenols:

a. Boiling points: • Boiling points of alcohols and phenols are higher in

comparison to other classes of compounds, namely hydrocarbons, ethers, haloalkanes and haloarenes of comparable molecular masses. This is because the –OH

group in alcohols and phenols is involved in intermolecular hydrogen bonding.

• The boiling points of alcohols and phenols increase with

increase in the number of carbon atoms. This is because of

increase in van der Waals forces with increase in surface area.

• In alcohols, the boiling points decrease with increase of branching in carbon chain. This is because of decrease in van

der Waals forces with decrease in surface area. b. Solubility:

• Solubility of alcohols and phenols are soluble in water due to their ability to form hydrogen bonds with water molecules.

• The solubility of alcohols decreases with increase in size of

alkyl/aryl (hydrophobic) groups.

5. Chemical properties of alcohols:

a. Reactions involving cleavage of O–H bond: Alcohols react as

nucleophiles:

b. Reactions involving cleavage of carbon – oxygen (C–O) bond in

Alcohols: Protonated alcohols react as electrophiles:

c. Dehydration

d. Oxidation

6. Reactions of alcohols and phenols involving cleavage of O–H

bond:

a. Reaction with metals:

b. Esterification:

7. Reactions of alcohols involving cleavage of carbon – oxygen

(C–O) bond:

a. Reaction with hydrogen halides:

conc.HCl ZnCl2Lucas reagent 2

ROH + HX RX + H O+

→

b. Reaction with phosphorus trihalides:

3 ROH + PX3 → 3 R-X + H3PO3 (X = Cl, Br)

c. Dehydration:

d. Oxidation:

Cu,573Kor

CrO3or

PCC

Cu,573Kor

CrO3

Cu,573Kor

KMnO4

Acidified potassium permanganate

Pr imaryalcohol Aldehyde

Secondary alcohol Ketone

Tertiaryalcohol Alkene

Alcohol Carboxylic acid

→

→

→

→

8. Chemical properties of phenols:

9. Acidic nature:

a. Phenol > H2O > Primary alcohol > Secondary alcohol > Tertiary

alcohol

The acidic character of alcohols is due to the polar nature of O–H bond.

Alkyl group is an electron-releasing group (–CH3, –C2H5) or it has electron

releasing inductive effect (+I effect). Due to +I effect of alkyl groups, the electron density on oxygen increases. This decreases the polarity of O-H bond.

And hence the acid strength decreases.

b. Phenol is more acidic than alcohol because:

• In phenol, the hydroxyl group is directly attached to the sp2 hybridised

carbon of benzene ring which acts as an electron withdrawing group. Whereas in alcohols, the hydroxyl group is attached to the alkyl group

which have electron releasing inductive effect. • In phenol, the hydroxyl group is directly attached to the sp2 hybridised

carbon of benzene ring. Whereas in alcohols, the hydroxyl group is attached to the sp3 hybridised carbon of the alkyl group. The sp2 hybridised carbon has higher electronegativity than sp3 hybridised

carbon. Thus, the polarity of O–H bond of phenols is higher than those of alcohols. Hence, the ionisation of phenols id higher than that of

alcohols. • The ionisation of an alcohol and a phenol takes place as follows:

In alkoxide ion, the negative charge is localised on oxygen while in phenoxide ion, the charge is delocalised.

The delocalisation of negative charge makes phenoxide ion more stable and favours the ionisation of phenol. Although there is also

charge delocalisation in phenol, its resonance structures have charge separation due to which the phenol molecule is less stable than

phenoxide ion.

c. In substituted phenols, the presence of electron withdrawing groups such

as nitro group enhances the acidic strength of phenol. On the other hand, electron releasing groups, such as alkyl groups, in general, decreases the

acid strength. It is because electron withdrawing groups lead to effective delocalisation of negative charge in phenoxide ion.

10. How to distinguish between some important pair of organic

compounds: a. Phenol and alcohol: Phenol on reaction with neutral FeCl3 gives purple colour whereas alcohols do

not give purple colour. 6 C6H5OH + Fe3+ → [Fe(OC6H5)6]

3- + 6 H+

Purple colour b. Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohol:

Lucas reagent test: conc.HCl ZnCl2Lucas reagent 2

ROH + HCl RCl + H O+

→

If it is a primary alcohol, no turbidity appears at room temperature. Turbidity appears only on heating. If it is a secondary alcohol, turbidity appears in 5 minutes.

If it is a tertiary alcohol, turbidity appears immediately.

c. Methanol and ethanol: Iodoform test: Ethanol when reacted with (I2 and NaOH) or NaOI gives yellow ppt of

iodoform since it has the presence of CH3-CH (OH)- group.

C2H5OH +4I2+ 6NaOH � CHI3 + 5NaI + 5H2O + HCOONa Yellow ppt.

CH3OH + I2+ NaOH � NO YELLOW PPT

11. Preparation of ethers:

12. Physical properties of ethers: a. Miscibility: Miscibility of ethers with water resembles those of alcohols of the same molecular mass. This is due to the fact that just like alcohols, oxygen of ether can also form hydrogen bonds with water

molecule.

b. Boiling points: Ethers have much lower boiling points than alcohols. This is due to

the presence of hydrogen bonding in alcohols. Hydrogen bonding is absent in ethers.

13. Chemical properties of ethers: a. Cleavage of C–O bond in ethers:

R-O-R’ + HX → R-X + R’OH

Excess

• The order of reactivity of hydrogen halides is as follows:

HI > HBr > HCl • Alkyl halide formed is always the lower alkyl group. • But if a tertiary alkyl group is present, the alkyl halide is always

tertiary. • In case of phenolic ethers, the cleavage occurs with the formation of

phenol and alkyl halide.

b. Electrophilic substitution reaction in aromatic ethers:

14. Some important reactions for conversions:

a. Conversion 1:

b. Conversion 2:

3. From Grignard’s reagent:

ROH R 'MgX R 'H Mg(X)OH+ → +

Chapter: Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic acids

Top concepts

Aldehydes: 1. Definition: Aldehydes are the organic compounds in which carbonyl group

is attached to one hydrogen atom and one alkyl or aryl group.

2. General formula:

R can be an alkyl or aryl group 3. Preparation of aldehydes:

1. By oxidation of alcohols: Oxidation of primary alcohols in presence of

oxidizing agent like2 2 7 2 4

K Cr O /H SO ,4

KMnO ,3

CrO gives aldehydes

2. By dehydrogenation of alcohols: Vapours of primary alcohol when passed heated copper at 573 K forms aldehyde

3. By hydration of alkynes: Ethyne on hydration with 4 2 4

HgSO / dilH SO at

333 K forms acetaldehyde

4. By Rosenmund reduction: Hydrogenation of acyl chloride over palladium on barium sulphate gives aldehyde

5.By reduction of nitriles: (a)Stephen Reaction: Reduction of nitriles in presence of stannous chloride in presence of HCl gives imine which on hydrolysis gives corresponding

aldehyde.

(b) Nitriles are selectively reduced by DIBAL-H (Diisobutylaluminium hydride) to aldehydes

6. By reduction of ester: Esters are reduced to aldehydes in presence of

DIBAL-H (Diisobutylaluminium hydride)

8. From Hydrocarbons:

(i)By oxidation of methyl benzene:

(a) Etard Reaction: Chromyl chloride (2 2

CrO Cl ) oxidizes methyl group to a

chromium complex, which on hydrolysis gives corresponding benzaldehyde

(b)Use of chromium oxide(CrO3): Toluene or substituted toluene is converted to benzylidene in presence of chromic oxide in acetic anhydride.

(ii)By side chain chlorination followed by hydrolysis: Side chain halogenation of toluene gives benzal chloride which on hydrolysis gives benzaldehyde

(iii) Gatterman –Koch reaction: Benzene or its derivatives on treatment with

carbon monoxide and HCl in presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride or cuprous chloride (CuCl) gives benzaldehyde or substituted benzaldehydes

Ketones: 1. Definition: Ketones are the organic compounds in which carbonyl group is

attached to two alkyl group or aryl group or both alkyl and aryl group

2. General formula:

R, R’ may be alkyl or aryl 3. Preparation of ketones:

1. By oxidation of alcohols: Oxidation of secondary alcohols in presence of

oxidizing agent like2 2 7 2 4

K Cr O /H SO ,4

KMnO ,3

CrO gives ketones

2. By dehydrogenation of alcohols: When the vapours of a secondary alcohol are passed over heated copper at 573 K, dehydrogenation takes place and a ketone is formed

3. By hydration of alkynes:

Hydration of alkynes other than acetylene yields ketone. For example

propyne on hydration with 4 2 4

HgSO / dilH SO at 333 K forms propanone.

4. From acyl chloride: Acyl chloride on treatment with dialkyl cadmium (prepared by reaction of cadmium chloride with Grignard reagent) gives

ketone

5. From nitriles: Nitriles on treatment with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis gives ketones

6. By Friedel Crafts acylation reaction: Benzene or substituted benzene on treatment with acid chloride in presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride

forms ketone

7.Preparation of aldehydes and ketones by ozonolysis of alkenes:

Reactions of aldehydes and ketones:

Aldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones in nucleophilic addition reactions due to steric and electronic reasons (or inductive effect).

Electronic Effect: Relative reactivities of aldehydes and ketones in nucleophilic addition reactions is due the positive charge on carbonyl carbon.

Greater positive charge means greater reactivity. Electron releasing power of two alkyl groups in ketones is more than one in aldehyde. Therefore positive charge is reduced in ketones as compared to aldehydes. Thus ketones are

less reactive than aldehydes.

Stearic Effect: As the number and size of alkyl group increase, the hindrance to the attack of nucleophile also increases and reactivity decreases. In

aldehydes there is one alkyl group and one hydrogen atom, whereas in ketones there are two alkyl groups (same or different).

1. Nucleophilic addition reactions of aldehydes and ketones:

(a)Addition of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) to form cyanohydrins:

(b)Addition of sodium hydrogensulphite (NaHSO3) to form bisulphate addition compound:

(c)Addition of Grignard reagent (RMgX) to form alcohol

(d)Addition of alcohol: (i) Aldehydes on addition of monohydric alcohol in presence of dry HCl forms

hemiacetal and acetal

(ii)Ketones do not react with monohydric alcohols. Ketones react with ethylene glycol under similar conditions to form cyclic products known as

ethylene glycol ketals

(e)Addition of ammonia and its derivatives:

2. Reduction of aldehydes and ketones: (a) Reduction to alcohols: Aldehydes and ketones on catalytic hydrogenation

in presence of Ni, Pt or Pd by using lithium aluminium hydride (4

LiAlH ) or

sodium borohydride (4

NaBH ) forms primary and secondary alcohols

respectively

(b) Reduction to hydrocarbons:

(i) Clemmensen reduction: Carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones is reduced to CH2 group on treatment with zinc amalgam and concentrated

hydrochloric acid

(ii) Wolff-Kishner reduction: Carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones is

reduced to CH2 group on treatment with hydrazine followed by heating with sodium or potassium hydroxide in high boiling solvent such as ethylene

glycol

3. Oxidation of aldehydes and ketones:

(i) Aldehydes are oxidized to acids in presence of mild oxidising agents HNO3,

K2Cr2O7, KMnO4

(ii) Ketones are generally oxidized under drastic conditions i.e. with powerful

oxidising agents like conc. HNO3, KMnO4/ H2SO4 , K2Cr2O7/ H2SO4 at elevated temperature

Important Note: In case of unsymmetrical ketones cleavage occurs in such a way that keto group stays with smaller alkyl group. This is known as Popoff’s

rule. (iii)Haloform reaction: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one methyl

group linked to the carbonyl carbon atom i.e. methyl ketones are oxidised by sodium hypohalite to sodium salts of corresponding carboxylic acids having

one carbon atom less than that of carbonyl compound. The methyl group is converted to haloform.

4. Reactions of aldehydes and ketones due to α -hydrogen:

(i) Aldol condensation: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one α -

hydrogen undergo a self condensation in the presence of dilute alkali as

catalyst to form α -hydroxy aldehydes (aldol) or α -hydroxy ketones (ketol),

respectively.

(ii) Cross aldol condensation: Aldol condensation between two different

aldehydes and ketones is called aldol condensation. If both of them contain

α -hydrogen atoms, it gives a mixture of four products.

5. Canizzaro reaction: Aldehydes which do not have an α -hydrogen atom

undergo self oxidation and reduction (disproportionation) reaction on treatment with concentrated alkali to form alcohol and salt of acid.

Test to distinguish aldehydes and ketones 1) Tollen’s test: When an aldehyde is heated with Tollen’s reagent it forms

silver mirror. Tollen’s reagent is ammoniacal solution of AgNO3

Ketones do not form silver mirror and hence do not give this test

2) Fehling’s test: When an aldehyde is heated with Fehling’s reagent it forms reddish brown precipitates of cuprous oxide. Fehling’s reagent: Fehling solution A (aqueous solution of CuSO4) + Fehling solution B (alkaline solution of sodium potassium tartarate)

Ketones do not give this test

Carboxylic Acids: 1. Definition: Carboxylic acids are the compounds containing the carboxyl functional group (-COOH)

2. General Formula

3. Preparation of carboxylic acid: (i) From alcohols: Primary alcohols are readily oxidised to carboxylic acids with common oxidising agents such as potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in

neutral, acidic or alkaline media or by potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) and chromium trioxide (CrO3) in acidic media.

(ii) From aldehydes: Oxidation of aldehydes in presence of mild oxidizing

agents like Tollen’s reagent (ammoniacal solution of AgNO3) or Fehling reagent (Fehling solution A (aqueous solution of CuSO4) + Fehling solution B (aqueous solution of sodium potassium tartarate)) forms carboxylic acids

(iii)From alkylbenzenes: Aromatic carboxylic acids can be prepared by vigorous oxidation of alkyl benzenes with chromic acid or acidic or alkaline

potassium permanganate.

(iv)From alkenes: Suitably substituted alkenes are oxidised to carboxylic acids on oxidation with acidic potassium permanganate or acidic potassium dichromate

4

4

KMnO /H

KMnO /H

1 1

R CH CH R 2R COOH

R CH CH R R COOH R COOH

+

+

− = − → −

− = − → − + −

(v)From Nitriles: Nitriles on hydrolysis in presence of dilute acids or bases

forms amide which on further hydrolysis gives carboxylic acid.

(vi) From Grignard reagent: Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide (dry

ice) to form salts of carboxylic acids which on hydrolysis forms carboxylic acids

(vii) From acyl halides and anhydrides: Acid chlorides when hydrolysed with

water give carboxylic acids .On basic hydrolysis carboxylate ions are formed which on further acidification forms corresponding carboxylic acids. Anhydrides on hydrolysis forms corresponding acid(s)

(viii)From esters: Acidic hydrolysis of esters gives directly carboxylic acids

while basic hydrolysis gives carboxylates, which on acidification give corresponding carboxylic acids.

4. Physical properties of carboxylic acids:

(i)Solubility: As the size of alky group increases solubility of carboxylic acid decreases because non-polar part of the acid increases

(ii)Carboxylic acids are higher boiling liquids than aldehydes, ketones and even alcohols of comparable molecular masses. This is due to extensive

association of carboxylic acid molecules through intermolecular hydrogen bonding

5. Acidity of carboxylic acids: Carboxylic acids are more acidic than phenols. Strength of acid depends on extent of ionization which in turn depends on

stability of anion formed. (i)Effect of electron donating substituents on the acidity of carboxylic acids:

Electron donating substituent decreases stability of carboxylate ion by intensifying the negative charge and hence decreases acidity of carboxylic acids.

(ii)Effect of electron withdrawing substituent on the acidity of carboxylic

acids: Electron withdrawing group increases stability of carboxylate ion by delocalizing negative charge and hence increases acidity of carboxylic acid

The effect of the following groups in increasing acidity order is

Ph < I < Br < Cl < F < CN < NO2 < CF3 (a)Effect of number of electron withdrawing groups: As the number of

electron withdrawing groups increases –I effect increases, increasing the acid strength

(b)Effect of position of electron withdrawing group: As the distance between electron withdrawing group and carboxylic group increases, electron

withdrawing influence decreases. 6. Reaction of carboxylic acids:

(a) Reactions involving cleavage of C-OH bond: Carboxylic acids on heating with mineral acids such as H2SO4 or with P2O5 give corresponding anhydride

(i) Anhydride formation:

(ii) Esterification: Carboxylic acids are esterified with alcohols in the presence of a mineral acid such as concentrated H2SO4 or HCl gas as a catalyst

(iii) Carboxylic acids react with PCl5, PCl3 and SOCl2 to form acyl chlorides

(iv) Reaction with ammonia (NH3): Carboxylic acids react with ammonia to give ammonium salt which on further heating at high temperature gives

amides.

(b) Reactions involving COOH group: (i)Reduction: Carboxylic acids are reduced to alcohols in presence of LiAlH4 or

B2H6 .

(ii)Decarboxylation : Sodium or potassium salts of carboxylic acids on heating with soda lime (NaOH + CaO in ratio of 3:1) gives hydrocarbons

which contain one carbon less than the parent acid.

(c)Reactions involving substitution reaction in hydrocarbon part:

(i) Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction: Carboxylic acids having an α -hydrogen

are halogenated at the α -position on treatment with chlorine or bromine in

the presence of small amount of red phosphorus to give α -halocarboxylic

acids)

(ii)Ring substitution in aromatic acids: Aromatic carboxylic acids undergo electrophilic substitution reactions. Carboxyl group in benzoic acid is electron

withdrawing group and is meta directing.

Chapter: Amines

Top concepts

1. Amines are regarded as derivatives of ammonia in which one, two or all three hydrogen atoms are replaced by alkyl or aryl group

2. Classification of amines:

3. Preparation of amines: (i)By reduction of nitro compounds:

Nitro compounds can be catalytically reduced by passing hydrogen gas in presence of Raney Ni, finely divided Pt or Pd as catalyst at room temperature.

Ni, Pt or Pd

2 2 2 2

Ni, Pt or Pd

2 2 2 2

R NO 3H R NH 2H O

Ar NO 3H Ar NH 2H O

− + → − +

− + → − +

Nitro compounds can also be reduced with active metals such as Fe, Sn, Zn etc. with conc. HCl

Sn /HCl

or Fe /HCl2 2 2 2

Sn /HCl

or Fe /HCl2 2 2 2

R NO 3H R NH 2H O

Ar NO 3H Ar NH 2H O

− + → − +

− + → − +

(ii)By Hoffmann’s method (Ammonolysis of alkyl halides): Reaction of alkyl halides with an ethanolic solution of ammonia in a sealed tube at 373 K

forms a mixture of primary, secondary and tertiary amine and finally quarternary ammonium salt. Process of cleavage of C-X bond by ammonia is

called ammonolysis.

The free amine can be obtained from the ammonium salt by treatment with a strong base:

NaOH

3 3 2 2o

NaOH

2 2 2 2 2o

NaOH

2 3 3 2o

NH RX RNH X RNH H O Na X

(1 amine)

RNH RX R NH X R NH H O Na X

(2 amine)

R NH RX R NH X R N H O Na X

(3 amine)

+ − + −

+ − + −

+ − + −

+ → → + +

+ → → + +

+ → → + +

Order of reactivity of halides is: RI> RBr> RCl Larger the size of halogen atom easier is the cleavage of R-X bond

Limitations of Hoffmann’s method: Method gives mixture of amines which are difficult to separate in a laboratory

Methods to get only one product by Hoffmann’s method: (i)When ammonia is taken in excess primary amine is formed as main

product (ii)When alkyl halide is used in excess quarternary ammonium salt is formed

as main product

Important Note: Method is not suitable for preparation of aryl amines because aryl amines are relatively less reactive than alkyl halides towards nucleophilic substitution reactions

(iii) By reduction of nitriles: Nitriles can be reduced to amines using

2 4 2 5H /Ni , LiAlH or Na(Hg) / C H OH

(iii)By reduction of amides: Amides are reduced to corresponding amines by

4LiAlH

(iv) By Gabriel phthalimide synthesis: Gabriel synthesis is used for the

preparation of primary amines. Phthalimide on treatment with ethanolic

potassium hydroxide forms potassium salt of phthalimide which on heating

with alkyl halide followed by alkaline hydrolysis produces the corresponding

primary amine

Important Note: Aromatic primary amines cannot be prepared by this

method because aryl halides do not undergo nucleophilic substitution with

potassium phthalimide

(v) By Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction: Primary amines can be

prepared from amides by treatment with Br2 and KOH. Amine contains one

carbon atom less than the parent amide

4. Physical properties of amines:

(i)Solubility: Lower aliphatic amine is soluble in water because they can form

hydrogen bonding with water. Solubility decreases with increases in molar

mass of amines due to increase in size of hydrophobic group

(ii)Boiling points: Among the isomeric amines primary and secondary amines

have high boiling point because they can form hydrogen bonding. Tertiary

amine cannot form hydrogen bonding due to the absence of hydrogen

atom available for hydrogen bond formation. Hence order of boiling of

isomeric amines is Primary>Secondary> Tertiary

5. Chemical properties of amines:

(a)Basic character of amines:

Amines have an unshared pair of electrons on nitrogen atom due to which

they behave as Lewis base. Basic character of amines can be better

understood in terms of their b

K and b

pK values

Greater b

K value or smaller b

pK indicates base is strong

(b)Comparison of basic strength of aliphatic amines and ammonia:

Aliphatic amines are stronger bases than ammonia due to +I effect of alkyl

groups leading to high electron density on the nitrogen atom

(c) Comparison of basic strength of primary, secondary and tertiary amines

(i)The order of basicity of amines in the gaseous phase follows the expected

order on the basis of +I effect: tertiary amine > secondary amine > primary

amine > NH3

(ii)In aqueous solution it is observed that tertiary amines are less basic than

either primary or secondary amines. This can be explained on basis of

following factors:

(a) Solvation effect: Greater is the stability of the substituted ammonium

cation formed, stronger is the corresponding amine as a base. Tertiary

ammonium ion is less hydrated than secondary ammonium ion which is less

hydrated than primary amine. Thus tertiary amines have fewer tendencies to

form ammonium ion and consequently are least basic.

On the basis of solvation effect order of basicity of aliphatic amines should be

primary amine>secondary amine>tertiary amine.

(b) Steric factor: As the crowding of alkyl group increases from primary to

tertiary amine hinderance to hydrogen bonding increases which eventually

decreases the basic strength. Thus there is a subtle interplay of the inductive

effect, solvation effect and steric hinderance of the alkyl group which decides

the basic strength of alkyl amines in the aqueous state.

When the alkyl group is small like CH3 there is no steric hindrance to

hydrogen bonding. In this case order of basicity in aqueous medium is

When alkyl group is ethyl group order of basicity in aqueous medium is

(c)Comparison of basic strength of aryl amines and alkanamines:

Generally aryl amines are considerably less basic than alkyl amines .Taking

an example of aniline and ethylamine it is observed that ethyl amine is more

basic than aniline. In aniline –NH2 group is directly attached to benzene

ring. Hence unshared pair of electron on nitrogen is less available for

protonation because of resonance. Below mentioned are resonating

structures of aniline.

In the above resonating structures there is a positive charge on nitrogen

atom making the lone pair less available for protonation. Hence aniline is less

basic than ethyl amine which has no resonating structures. Less basicity of

aniline can also be explained by comparing the relative stability of aniline and

anilinium ion obtained by accepting a proton. Greater the number of

resonating structures, greater is the stability of that species.

Aniline is resonance hybrid of five resonating structures whereas anilinium

ion has only two resonating structures.

Thus aniline has less tendency to accept a proton to form anilinium ion.

(d)Effect of substituent on basic character of amines:

Electron donating or electron releasing group/groups (EDG) increases basic

strength.

Electron withdrawing (EWG) decreases basic strength

6. Reactions of amines:

(a) Acylation Reaction: Aliphatic and aromatic primary and secondary amines

(which contain replaceable hydrogen atoms) react with acid chlorides,

anhydrides and esters to form substituted amide. Process of introducing an

acyl group (R-CO-) into the molecule is called acylation. The reaction is

carried out in the presence of a stronger base than the amine, like pyridine,

which removes HCl formed and shifts the equilibrium to the product side

Base

2

Base

2

Base

2 2

R NH RCOCl RNHCOR HCl

Ac id Substitutedchloride amide

O O|| ||

R ' NH R C O C R R 'NHCOR RCOOH

Ac id Substitutedanhydride amide

R NH RCOCl R NCOR HCl

− + → +

− + − − − − → +

+ → +

Important Note: Since tertiary amine do not contain replaceable hydrogen atom they do not undergo acylation reaction

(b) Carbylamine reaction: Only aliphatic and aromatic primary amines on

heating with chloroform and ethanolic potassium hydroxide form isocyanides or carbylamines

Important Note: Secondary and tertiary amines do not give the above test

(c)Reaction of primary amine with nitrous acid:

(i)Primary aliphatic amine on reaction with nitrous acid (HNO2) forms aliphatic diazonium salt which being unstable decomposes to form alcohol and evolve nitrogen

(ii)Primary aromatic amines on reaction with nitrous acid (HNO2) in cold

(273-278 K) forms diazonium salt

(d)Reaction with benzene sulphonyl chloride: Hinsberg’s reagent-Benzenesulphonyl chloride (C6H5SO2Cl) reacts with primary and secondary

amines to form sulphonamides

The hydrogen attached to nitrogen in sulphonamide formed by primary amine is strongly acidic due to the presence of strong electron withdrawing

sulphonyl group. Hence, it is soluble in alkali.

Since sulphonamide formed by secondary amine does not contain any

hydrogen atom attached to nitrogen atom, so it is not acidic. Hence it is insoluble in alkali.

7. Ring substitution in aromatic amine: Aniline is more reactive than benzene

and undergoes electrophilic substitution reaction preferably at ortho and para position.

(i) Bromination: Aniline reacts with bromine water at room temperature to give a white precipitate of 2, 4, 6-tribromoaniline

Important Note: In order to stop reaction at monosubstitution activating

effect of –NH2 group is reduced by acetylation. This prevents di and tri substituted products. Acetyl group is removed by hydrolysis.

(ii) Nitration:

(a)Under strongly acidic medium aniline gets protonated to form anilinium ion, which is deactivating group and is meta directing. Hence minitroaniline is also formed in 47 % along with ortho and para products.

Important Note: Aromatic amines cannot be nitrated directly because

HNO3 being a strong oxidising agent oxidises it forming black mass

(b) Nitration by protecting the –NH2 group by acetylation reaction with acetic

anhydride:

(iii) Sulphonation: Aniline reacts with conc. H2SO4 to form anilinium

hydrogensulphate which on heating with sulphuric acid at 453-473K produces p-aminobenzene sulphonic acid, commonly known as sulphanilic acid, as the major product

8. Reactions of benzene diazonium chloride: (a) Reactions involving displacement of nitrogen

(b) Reactions involving retention of diazo group, coupling reactions: Diazonium ion acts as an electrophile because there is a positive charge on

terminal nitrogen. Therefore benzene diazonium chloride couples with electron rich compounds like phenol and aniline to give azo compounds. Azo compounds contain –N=N- bond and reaction is coupling reaction.

Chapter : Biomolecules

Top Concepts:

1. Definition of carbohydrates: Polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy

ketones or compounds which give these on hydrolysis.

2. Classification of carbohydrates:

a. Monosaccharides

• Simplest carbohydrates

• Cannot be hydrolysed into simpler compounds

• E.g. Glucose, mannose

b. Oligosaccharides

• Carbohydrates which give 2 to 10 monosaccharide units on hydrolysis

• E.g. Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose

c. Polysaccharides

• Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give large number of monosaccharide

units.

• E.g. Cellulose, starch

3. Anomers: Such pairs of optical isomers which differ in configuration only

around C1 atom are called anomers. E.g. α-D-glucopyranose and β-D-glucopyranose

4. Epimers: Such pairs of optical isomers which differ in configuration

around any other C atom other than C1 atom are called epimers. E.g. D-

glucose and D- mannose are C2 epimers.

5. Preparation of glucose (also called dextrose, grape sugar):

a. From sucrose:

H

12 22 11 2 6 12 6 6 12 6C H O H O C H O C H O

Sucrose Glucose Fructose

+

+ → +

b. From starch:

( )+

−+ →

H

6 10 5 n 2 393K;2 3atm 6 12 6C H O nH O nC H O

Sucrose Glucoseor

cellulose

6. Structure elucidation of glucose:

→ →|

HNO3

4|

COOH

Glucose (CHOH) This indicates the presenceof

COOH primary alcoholic group in glucose

Saccharic acid

|5(CH CO) O3 2

ZnCl 3 4 3|2

2 3

CHO

Glucose (CHOCOCH ) 5 CH COOH Shows the presence

CH OCOCH of 5 OHgroups

Penta acetyl glucose

→ + →

−

Unusual reactions of glucose: (Presence of ring structure)

Glucose does not give Schiff’s test and does not react with sodium bisulphite

and NH3.

Pentaacetyl glucose does not react with hydroxyl amine. This shows the

absence of –CHO group and hence the presence of ring structure.

7. Cyclic structure of glucose:

8. Cyclic structure of fructose:

9. Reaction of Glucose with Phenyl hydrazine: Formation of Osazone:

Glucose and fructose gives the same osazone because the reaction takes

place at C1 and C2 only.

10. Lobry De Bruyn Van Ekenstein Rearrangement:

2| | | ||

NaOH NaOH

| | | |

3 3 3 3| | | |

2 2 2 2

CHO CH OH CHO H C OH

H C OH C O HO C H C OH

(CHOH) (CHOH) (CHOH) (CHOH)

CH OH CH OH CH OH CH OH

D-Glucose D-Fructose D-Mannose ene diol

− −

− − = − − −�����⇀ �����⇀ ���⇀�↽����� ↽����� ↽����

• Same results are obtained when fructose or mannose is reacted with an

alkali.

• It is because of form of ene - diol intermediate.

• It explains why fructose acts as a reducing sugar.

11. Mutarotation: The spontaneous change in specific rotation of an

optically active compound is called mutarotation. E.g. α-D-glucose (m.p. =

146°C) with specific rotation [α]D = +111° and β-D-glucose (m.p. = 150°C)

with specific rotation [α]D =+19.2° When either form is dissolved in water & allowed to stand, the specific rotation of the solution changes slowly and reaches or constant value of +52.5°.

α-D-glucose ����⇀↽���� open chain form ����⇀↽���� β-D-glucose

sp. rotⁿ = 111° sp. rotⁿ = +52.5° sp. rotⁿ = +19°

12. Haworth projection: Representation for ring structure:

6 membered ring is called pyranose ring.

5 membered ring is called furanose ring.

How to write the projection: Groups projected to the right in the Fischer

projection are written below the plane and those to the left are written above the plane.

Haworth projection of Glucose:

Haworth projection for Fructose:

13. Glycosidic linkage: The oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water

molecule when two monosaccharides are joined together through oxygen atom is called glycosidic linkage.

14. Sucrose (invert sugar): Sucrose is dextrorotatory but on hydrolysis it

gives dextrorotatory & laevorotatory and the mixture is laevorotatory.

C12H22O11 + H2O H

+

→ C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

Sucrose D – glucose D – fructose

[α]D = + 66.5° [α]D = +52.5° [α]D = -92.4°

Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar because the two monosaccharide units are

held together by a glycosidic linkage between C1 of α-glucose and C2 of β-fructose. Since the reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in

glycosidic bond formation, sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.

Haworth Projection of Sucrose:

15. Maltose: Maltose is composed of two α-D-glucose units in which C1 of one glucose is linked to C4 of another glucose unit. The free aldehyde group can be produced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it shows reducing

properties so it is a reducing sugar.

Maltose: Maltose H O2→ Glucose + Glucose

C1 α C1 α

Haworth projection of maltose:

16. Lactose (Milk sugar): It is composed of β-D-galactose and

β-D-glucose. The linkage is between C1 of galactose and C4 of

glucose. Hence it is also a reducing sugar.

Lactose H O2→ Glucose + Glucose

C4 β C1 β

Haworth projection of lactose:

17. Starch: It is a polymer of α-glucose and consists of two components — Amylose and Amylopectin.

Amylose Amylopectin

Water soluble component Water insoluble component

It is a long unbranched chain polymer It is a branched chain polymer

Contains 200 – 1000 α-D-(+)-

glucose units held by α - glycosidic linkages involving C1 – C4 glycosidic

linkage

It is a branched chain polymer of α-

D-glucose units in which chain is formed by C1–C4 glycosidic linkage

whereas branching occurs by C1–C6 glycosidic linkage.

Constitutes about 15-20% of starch Constitutes about 80- 85% of starch

18. Amino acids:

|

2

R CH COOH

NH

− − Where R – Any side chain

Most naturally occurring amino acids have L – Config.

COOH

H2

NH

R

[D] 2

COOH

H N H

R

[L]

19. Essential amino acids: Those amino acids which cannot be synthesised in the body and must be obtained through diet, are known as essential amino acids. Example: Valine, Leucine

20. Non- essential amino acids: The amino acids, which can be

synthesised in the body, are known as non-essential amino acids. Example: Glycine, Alanine

21. Zwitter ion form of amino acids: Amino acids behave like salts rather than simple amines or carboxylic acids. This behaviour is due to the presence

of both acidic (carboxyl group) and basic (amino group) groups in the same molecule.

In aqueous solution, the carboxyl group can lose a proton and amino group can accept a proton, giving rise to a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion. This is neutral but contains both positive and negative charges.

In zwitter ionic form, amino acids show amphoteric behaviour as they react both with acids and bases.

OH OH

| | |H H

3 3 2

R CH COOH R CH COO R CH COO

NH NH NH

zwitter ion

− −− −

+ +

+ +

− − − − − −�����⇀ �����⇀↽����� ↽�����

22. Isoelectronic point: The pH at which the dipolar ion exists as neutral

ion and does not migrate to either electrode cathode or anode is called

isoelectronic point.

23. Proteins: Proteins are the polymers of α -amino acids and they are

connected to each other by peptide bond or peptide linkage. A polypeptide with more than hundred amino acid residues, having molecular mass higher than 10,000u is called a protein.

24. Peptide linkage: Peptide linkage is an amide linkage formed by

condensation reaction between –COOH group of one amino acid and –NH2 group of another amino acid.

25. Primary structure of proteins: The sequence of amino acids is said to

be the primary structure of a protein.

26. Secondary structure of proteins: It refers to the shape in which long

polypeptide chain can exist. Two different types of structures:

a. α – Helix:

• Given by Linus Pauling in 1951

• It exists when R- group is large.

• Right handed screw with the NH group of each amino acid residue H –

bonded to – C = O of adjacent turn of the helix.

• Also known as 3.613 helix since each turn of the helix has approximately 3.6 amino acids and a 13 – membered ring is formed by

H – bonding.

• C = O and N – H group of the peptide bonds are trans to each other.

• Ramchandran angles (Φ and Ψ) - Φ angle which Cα makes with N – H

and Ψ angle which Cα makes with C = O.

b. β – pleated sheet:

• Exists when R group is small.

• In this conformation all peptide chains are stretched out to nearly

maximum extension and then laid side by side which are held together by hydrogen bonds.

27. Tertiary structure of proteins: It represents the overall folding of the

polypeptide chain i.e., further folding of the 2° structure.

Types of bonding which stablise the 3° structure –

i. Disulphide bridge (-S – S-)

ii. H – bonding – (C = O … H – N)

iii. Salt bridge (COO– … +NH3)

iv. Hydrophobic interactions

v. van der Waals forces

Two shapes are possible:

Fibrous proteins Globular proteins

When the polypeptide chains run

parallel and are held together by hydrogen and disulphide bonds, then fibre– like structure is formed.

This structure results when the

chains of polypeptides coil around to give a spherical shape.

Such proteins are generally insoluble

in water

These are usually soluble in water.

Examples: keratin (present in hair,

wool, silk) and myosin (present in muscles), etc

Examples: Insulin and albumins

28. Quaternary structure of proteins: Some of the proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide chains referred to as sub-units. The spatial

arrangement of these subunits with respect to each other is known as quaternary structure of proteins.

29. Denaturation of proteins: The loss of biological activity of proteins when a protein in its native form, is

subjected to physical change like change in temperature or chemical change like change in pH. This is called denaturation of protein. Example:

coagulation of egg white on boiling, curdling of milk 30. Nucleoside:

Base + sugar

31. Nucleotide: Base + sugar + phosphate group

32. Nucleic acids (or polynucletides): Long chain polymers of

nucleotides. Nucleotides are joined by phosphodiester linkage between 5’ and 3’ C atoms of a pentose sugar.

33. Two types of nucleic acids:

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

It has a double stranded α-helix

structure in which two strands are coiled spirally in opposite directions.

It has a single stranded α-helix

structure.

Sugar present is β–D–2-deoxyribose Sugar present is β–D–ribose

Bases: Purine bases: Adenine (A) and

Guanine (G) Pyrimidine bases : Thymine (T) and

Bases: Purine bases: Adenine (A) and

Guanine (G) Pyrimidine bases: Uracil (U) and

cytosine (C) cytosine (C)

It occurs mainly in the nucleus of the cell.

It occurs mainly in the cytoplasm of the cell.

It is responsible for transmission for heredity character.

It helps in protein synthesis.

34. Double helix structure of DNA:

• It is composed of 2 right handed helical polynucleotide chains coiled

spirally in opposite directions around the same central axis.

• Two strands are anti-parallel i.e. their phosphodiester linkage runs in

opposite directions.

• Bases are stacked inside the helix in planes ⊥ to the helical axis.

• Two strands are held together by H – bonds (A = T, G ≡ C).

• The two strands are complementary to each other because the hydrogen bonds are formed between specific pairs of bases. Adenine

forms hydrogen bonds with thymine whereas cytosine forms hydrogen bonds with guanine.

• Diameter of double helix is 2 nm.

• Double helix repeats at intervals of 3.4 nm. (One complete turn)

• Total amount of purine (A + G) = Total amount of pyramidine (C + T)

35. Vitamins: Vitamins are organic compounds required in the diet in small

amounts to perform specific biological functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth and health of the organism.

36. Classification of vitamins: Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon their solubility in water or fat.

Fat soluble vitamins Water soluble vitamins

These vitamins are soluble in fat and oils but insoluble in water.

These vitamins are soluble in water.

They are stored in liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues

Water soluble vitamins must be supplied regularly in diet because

they are readily excreted in urine and cannot be stored (except vitamin B12) in our body.

Example: Vitamin A, D, E and K Example: Vitamin C, B group vitamins

37. Important vitamins, their sources and their deficiency diseases:

Name of vitamin Source Deficiency diseases

Vitamin A Fish liver oil, carrots, butter and milk

e r o p h t h a l m i a (hardening of cornea of eye)

Night blindness

Vitamin B1

(Thiamine)

Yeast, milk, green

vegetables and cereals

Beri beri (loss of

appetite, retarded growth)

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

Milk, egg white, liver, kidney

Cheilosis (fissuring at corners of mouth and

lips), digestive disorders and burning sensation of the skin.

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Yeast, milk, egg yolk, cereals and grams

Convulsions

Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, egg and curd

Pernicious anaemia (RBC deficient in

haemoglobin)

Vitamin C

(Ascorbic acid)

Citrus fruits, amla and

green leafy vegetables

Scurvy (bleeding gums)

Vitamin D Exposure to sunlight,

fish and egg yolk

Rickets (bone

deformities in children) and

osteomalacia (soft bones and joint pain in adults)

Vitamin E Vegetable oils like wheat

germ oil, sunflower oil, etc.

Increased fragility of RBCs and muscular

weakness

Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables Increased blood clotting time

Chapter : Polymers

Top concepts

1. Polymers are high molecular mass substance consisting of large number of

repeating structural units. As polymers are single, giant molecules i.e. big size

molecules, they are also called macromolecules

2. Simple molecules which combine to form polymers are called monomers

3. Process of formation of polymers from respective monomers is called polymerization

4. Classification of Polymers

No. Classification based on

Types Examples

1. Natural polymers: Polymers obtained from nature,mostly plants and animals

Cellulose, starch, etc.

2. Synthetic polymers: Polymers prepared

in laboratory

Teflon,

Nylon 6,6 , Synthetic rubber (Buna -

S) etc.

1.

Source of availability

3. Semi synthetic polymers: Polymers derived from naturally occurring

polymers by carrying out chemical modifications

Rayon (cellulose acetate),

cellulose nitrate, etc.

1. Linear polymers: Polymer consist of long and straight chains

High density polythene, polyvinyl chloride, etc.

2.Branched chain polymers: Polymers contains linear chains having some

branches

Low density polythene

2. Structure of polymer

3.Cross linked or network polymers:

Polymers in which monomer units are cross linked together to form a 3 dimensional network polymers

Bakelite, melamine, etc.

1.Homopolymers: Polymers formed by

the polymerisation of a single

monomeric species

Polythene, Polystyrene

3. Mode of polymerisation

1.Addition polymers :Polymers are

formed by the repeated addition of

monomers with double and triple bonds

2.Copolymers:

Polymers formed by addition polymerisation of

two different

Buna-S, Buna -N

monomers

Condensation polymers: Polymers formed by repeated condensation reaction between two different bi-functional or tri-

functional monomeric units with elimination of simple molecules

Nylon 6, 6, Nylon 6

1. Elastomers: Polymer chains are held together by weakest intermolecular

forces. Polymers are rubber – like solids with elastic properties

Buna – S, Buna – N,

Neoprene

2. Fibre: Polymers have strong intermolecular force like hydrogen bonding. Fibres are the thread forming

solids which possess high tensile strength and high modulus

Nylon 6, 6, Polyesters

3. Thermoplastic polymers: Polymers are held by intermolecular forces which are in

between those of elastomers and fibres. These polymers are capable of repeated softening on heating and hardening on

cooling

Polythene, Polystyrene

4. Molecular forces

4. Thermosetting polymers: Polymers are

cross linked or heavily branched molecules, which on heating undergo

extensive cross linking in moulds and eventually undergoes a permanent

Bakelite,

Urea-formaldelyde resins

5. Addition Polymerisation or Chain Growth Polymerisation: Most common mechanism for addition polymerisation reactions is free radical mechanism Steps involved are:

Step 1: Chain initiating step: Organic peroxides undergo homolytic fission to form free radicals which acts as initiator. Initiator adds to C-C double bond of an alkene molecule to form a new free radical

Step 2: Chain propagating step: Free radicals formed by homolytic cleavage adds to a double bond of monomer to form a larger free radical. Radical

formed adds to another alkene molecule to form a larger free radical. This process continues until the radical is destroyed. These steps are called

propagation steps.

Step 3: Chain terminating step: For termination of the long chain, free

radicals combine in different ways to form polythene. One mode of termination of chain is shown as under:

Addition polymerisation is called chain growth polymerisation because it

takes place through stages leading to increase in chain length and each stage produces reactive intermediates for use in next stage of the growth of chain

6 .Important Addition Polymers:

No. Name of polymer Polymerisation Reaction & Uses

1 Low density

polythene (LDP)

Uses: It is used in the insulation of electricity carrying wires and manufacture of squeeze bottles, toys and

flexible pipes

2 High density

polythene(HDP)

Uses: It is used for manufacturing buckets, dustbins,

bottles, pipes, etc.

3 Polytetrafluoroethene

(Teflon)

Uses: It is used in making oil seals and gaskets and also used for non – stick surface coated utensils

4 Polyacrylonitrile

Uses: It is used as a substitute for wool in making commercial fibres as orlon or acrilan

7. Condensation Polymerisation or Step Growth polymerization:

Polymerisation generally involves a repetitive condensation reaction between two bi-functional monomers. In condensation reactions, the product of each

step is again a bi-functional species and the sequence of condensation goes on. Since, each step produces a distinct functionalised species and is independent of each other, this process is also called as step growth

polymerisation.

8 .Important Condensation Polymers: 1. Polyamides: Polymers possess amide linkage (-CONH-) in chain. These

polymers are popularly known as nylons. Examples:

(a) Nylon 6, 6: It is prepared by the condensation polymerisation of

hexamethylenediamine with adipic acid under high pressure and at high temperature.

Uses: Nylon 6, 6 is used in making sheets, bristles for brushes and in textile industry

(b) Nylon 6: It is obtained by heating caprolactum with water at a high temperature

Uses: Nylon 6 is used for the manufacture of tyre cords, fabrics and ropes

(2) Polyesters: These are the polycondensation products of dicarboxylic acids and diols

Example: Terylene or Dacron

Terylene or Dacron: It is manufactured by heating a mixture of ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid at 420 to 460 K in the presence of zinc acetate-antimony trioxide catalyst

Uses: Dacron fibre (terylene) is crease resistant and is used in blending with cotton and wool fibres and also as glass reinforcing materials in safety

helmets, etc. 3. Phenol - formaldehyde polymer (Bakelite and related polymers)

Bakelite: These are obtained by the condensation reaction of phenol with

formaldehyde in the presence of either an acid or a base catalyst. The initial product could be a linear product – Novolac used in paints.

Novolac on heating with formaldehyde forms Bakelite

Uses: It is used for making combs, phonograph records, electrical switches and handles of various utensils

4. Melamine – formaldehyde polymer: Melamine formaldehyde polymer is

formed by the condensation polymerisation of melamine and

formaldehyde

Uses: It is used in the manufacture of unbreakable crockery

9. Rubber (i) Natural rubber: Natural rubber is a linear polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene) and is also called as cis - 1, 4 - polyisoprene.

Vulcanisation of rubber: Process of heating a mixture of raw rubber with sulphur and an appropriate additive in a temperature range between 373 K

to 415 K to improve upon physical properties like elasticity, strength etc.

(ii) Synthetic rubber: Synthetic rubbers are either homopolymers of 1, 3 - butadiene derivatives or copolymers of 1, 3 - butadiene or its derivatives with another unsaturated monomer

Examples of synthetic rubber:

No. Name of polymer

Polymerisation Reaction and uses

1 Neoprene or polychloroprene

Uses: It is used for manufacturing conveyor belts, gaskets and hoses

2 Buna – N

Uses: It is used in making oil seals, tank lining, etc. because it is

resistant to the action of petrol, lubricating oil and organic solvents

3 Buna – S

10. Biodegradable Polymers: Polymers which are degraded by

microorganisms within a suitable period so that biodegradable polymers and

their degraded products do not cause any serious affects on environment

Examples of biodegradable polymer: 1. Poly -β -hydroxybutyrate – co-β -hydroxy valerate (PHBV): It is obtained

by the copolymerisation of 3-hydroxybutanoic acid and 3 - hydroxypentanoic

acid

Uses: PHBV is used in speciality packaging, orthopaedic devices and in controlled release of drugs

2. Nylon 2–nylon 6: It is an alternating polyamide copolymer of glycine

(H2N–CH2–COOH) and amino caproic acid (H2N (CH2)5 COOH)

11. Some commercially important polymers along with their structures and

uses

Name of

Polymer

Monomer Structure Uses

Polypropene Propene

Manufacture of

ropes, toys, pipes, fibres, etc.

Polystyrene Styrene

As insulator,

wrapping material, manufacture

of toys, radio and television cabinets

Polyvinyl chloride

(PVC)

Vinyl chloride

Manufacture of rain coats, hand bags,

vinyl flooring, water pipes

Glyptal (a) Ethylene

glycol Manufacture

of (b) Phthalic

acid

Manufacture of

paints and lacquers

Chapter : Chemistry in Everyday Life

Top concepts

1. Drugs are low molecular mass (∼ 100-500 u) substances which interact with targets in the body and produce a biological response

2. Medicines are chemicals that are useful in diagnosis, prevention and

treatment of diseases 3. Desirable or beneficial effect of a drug like treatment of symptoms and

cure of a disease on a living body is known as therapeutic effect

4. Proteins which perform the role of biological catalysts in the body are called enzymes

5. Functions of enzymes:

(i) The first function of an enzyme is to hold the substrate for a chemical reaction. Active sites of enzymes hold the substrate molecule in a suitable position, so that it can be attacked by the reagent effectively

(ii) The second function of an enzyme is to provide functional groups that will

attack the substrate and carry out chemical reaction 6. Main role of drugs is to either increase or decrease role of enzyme

catalysed reactions. Inhibition of enzymes is a common role of drug action. Enzyme inhibitor is drug which inhibits catalytic activity of enzymes or blocks

the binding site of the enzyme and eventually prevents the binding of substrate with enzyme. Drug can inhibit attachment of substrate on active

site of enzymes in following ways.

(a) Competitive Inhibition: Competitive Inhibitors are the drugs that compete with the natural substrate for their attachment on the active sites of enzymes

(b) Non-Competitive Inhibition: Some drugs do not bind to the enzyme’s

active site, instead bind to a different site of enzyme called allosteric site. This binding of inhibitor at allosteric site changes the shape of the active site in such a way that substrate cannot recognise it. If the bond formed between

an enzyme and an inhibitor is a strong covalent bond and cannot be broken easily, then the enzyme is blocked permanently. The body then degrades the

enzyme-inhibitor complex and synthesizes the new enzyme

7. Receptors as Drug Targets: Proteins which are vital for communication system in the body are called

receptors. In the body, message between two neurons and that between neurons to muscles is communicated through chemical messengers. They are received at the binding sites of receptor proteins. To accommodate a

messenger, shape of the receptor site changes which brings about the transfer of message into the cell. Chemical messenger gives message to the

cell without entering the cell

Receptors show selectivity for one chemical messenger over the other

because their binding sites have different shape, structure and amino acid composition. Drugs that bind to the receptor site and inhibit its natural function are called

antagonists. These are useful when blocking of message is required. Drugs that mimic the natural messenger by switching on the receptor are called

agonists. These are useful when there is lack of natural chemical messenger. 8. Therapeutic action of different classes of drugs

(i) Antacid: Chemical substances which neutralize excess acid in the gastric juices and give relief from acid indigestion, acidity, heart burns and gastric

ulcers Examples: Eno, gelusil, digene etc.

(ii) Antihistamines: Chemical substances which diminish or abolish the effects of histamine released in body and hence prevent allergic reactions

Examples: Brompheniramine (Dimetapp) and terfenadine (Seldane)

(iii) Neurologically Active Drugs: Drugs which have a neurological effect i.e. affects the message transfer mechanism from nerve to receptor

(a) Tranquilizers: Chemical substances used for the treatment of stress and mild or severe mental diseases Examples: Derivatives of barbituric acids like veronal, amytal, nembutal,

luminal, seconal

(b) Analgesics: Chemical substances used to relieve pain without causing any disturbances in the nervous system like impairment of consciousness, mental confusion, incoordination or paralysis etc.

Classification of Analgesics:

Non-narcotic analgesics:

Narcotic analgesics:

They are non-addictive drugs

When administered in medicinal doses, these

drugs relieve pain and produce sleep

Examples: Aspirin, Ibuprofen, Naproxen,

Dichlofenac Sodium

Examples: Morphine and its derivatives

(iv) Antimicrobials: Drugs that tends to destroy/prevent development or inhibit the pathogenic action of microbes such as bacteria (antibacterial

drugs), fungi (antifungal agents), virus (antiviral agents), or other parasites (antiparasitic drugs) selectively

Types of antimicrobial drugs

(a) Antibiotics: Chemical substances produced by microorganisms that kill or prevent the growth of other microbes

Classification of antibiotics on basis of mode of control of microbial diseases:

Bactericidal Bacteriostatic

Drugs that kills organisms in body Drugs that inhibits growth of organisms

Examples: Penicillin, Aminoglycosides, Ofloxacin

Examples: Erythromycin, Tetracycline, Chloramphenicol

Classification of antibiotics on basis of its spectrum of action:

Broad spectrum antibiotics Narrow spectrum

antibiotics

Limited spectrum

antibiotics

Antibiotics which kill or

inhibit a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-

negative bacteria

Antibiotics which are

effective mainly against Gram-positive

or Gram-negative bacteria

Antibiotics effective

against a single organism or disease

Examples: Ampicillin and Amoxycillin

Examples: Penicillin G

(b) Antiseptics: Chemical substances that kill or prevent growth of

microorganisms and can be applied on living tissues such as cuts, wounds etc. Examples: Soframicine, dettol

(c) Disinfectants: Chemical substances that kill microorganisms but cannot

be applied on living tissues such as cuts, wounds etc. Examples: Chlorine (Cl2), bithional, iodoform etc.

(v) Antifertility Drugs: Chemical substances used to prevent conception or

fertilization Examples: Norethindrone, ethynylestradiol (novestrol)

9. Food additives are the substances added to food to preserve its flavour or

improve its taste and appearance

Different types of food additives:

No. Name of food additive Examples

1 Artificial Sweetening Agents: Chemical compounds which gives sweetening effect to

the food and enhance its flavour

Aspartame, Sucrolose and Alitame

2 Food preservatives: Chemical substances

which are added to food material to prevent their spoilage due to microbial growth

Sugar, Salts, Sodium

benzoate

3 Food colours: Substances added to food to

increase the acceptability and attractiveness of the food product

Allura Red AC,

Tartrazine

4 Nutritional supplements: Substances added to food to improve the nutritional value

Vitamins, minerals etc.

5 Fat emulsifiers and stabilizing agents:

Substances added to food products to give texture and desired consistency

Egg yolk (where the

main emulsifying chemical is Lecithin)

6 Antioxidants :Substances added to food to prevent oxidation of food materials

Butylated Hydroxy Toluene (BHT),

Butylated Hydroxy

Anisole (BHA)

10. Soaps: (i)Soap: It is a sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids like

stearic, oleic and palmitic acid. The process of making soap by hydrolysis of fats or oils with alkalies is

known as Saponification

Detergents

(ii)Saponification: The process of making soap by hydrolysis of fats or oils with alkalies

(iii)Types of soaps

No. Descriptions

2. Medicated soaps: These soaps are the soft soaps containing substances with medicinal properties. Neem soap, carbolic soaps are some

common examples of medicated soaps.

3. Shaving soaps: These soaps are potassium sodium stearates and

produce lasting lather. These contain glycerol to prevent rapid drying. A gum called rosin is added in these soaps which forms sodium rosinate

which lathers well

4. Transparent soaps: These soaps are prepared by dissolving the soap in

ethanol and then evaporating the excess solvent

5. Floating soaps: These soaps float in water and are prepared by beating tiny air bubbles into the product before it hardens

6. Soap chips: These are prepared by running a thin sheet of melted soap

onto a cool cylinder and scrapping off the soaps in small broken pieces

7. Soap granules: These are dried miniature soap bubbles

8. Soap powder and scouring soaps: These substances contain some

soap, a scouring agent (abrasive) such as powdered pumice or finely divided sand and builders like sodium carbonate and trisodium phosphate. Builders help the soaps in its cleaning action

(iv) Advantages of using soaps: Soap is a good cleansing agent and is 100%

biodegradable i.e., micro- organisms present in sewage water can completely oxidize soap. Therefore, soaps do not cause any pollution problems

(v) Disadvantages of using soaps:

• Soaps cannot be used in hard water because hard water contains

metal ions like Ca2+ and Mg2+ which react with soap to form white precipitate of calcium and magnesium salts

These precipitates stick to the fibres of the cloth as gummy mass and block the ability of soaps to remove oil and grease from fabrics.

Therefore, it interferes with the cleansing ability of the soap and makes the cleansing process difficult.

• In acidic medium, the acid present in solution precipitate the insoluble free fatty acids which adhere to the fabrics and hence block the ability

of soaps to remove oil and grease from the fabrics. Hence soaps cannot be used in acidic medium

11. Detergents:

(i)Detergents are sodium salts of long chain of alkyl benzene sulphonic acids

or sodium salts of long chain of alkyl hydrogen sulphates

(ii)Classification of detergents:

(a)Anionic detergents: Anionic detergents are sodium salts of sulphonated long chain alcohols or

hydrocarbons. Alkyl hydrogensulphates formed by treating long chain alcohols with concentrated sulphuric acid are neutralised with alkali to form anionic

detergents. Similarly alkyl benzene sulphonates are obtained by neutralising alkyl benzene sulphonic acids with alkali

Example:

Anionic detergents are termed so because a large part of molecule is an

anion.

Uses: They are used in household cleaning like dishwasher liquids, laundry

liquid detergents, laundry powdered detergents etc.

Advantage: They are effective in slightly acidic solutions where soaps do not work efficiently

(b)Cationic detergents: Cationic detergents are quarternary ammonium salts of amines with acetates, chlorides or bromides as anions. Cationic parts possess a long hydrocarbon chain and a positive charge on nitrogen atom.

Example:

Cationic detergents are termed so because a large part of molecule is a

cation

Use: Since they possess germicidal properties, they are used as germicides

Advantage: They has strong germicidal action

Disadvantage: These detergents are expensive

(c) Non- ionic detergents: They do not contain any ion in their constitution.

They are like esters of high molecular mass. Example: Detergent formed by condensation reaction between stearic acid

reacts and polyethyleneglycol

Use: Making liquid washing detergents

Advantage: They have effective H- bonding groups at one end of the alkyl chain which make them freely water soluble.

12. Biodegradable detergents: Detergents having straight hydrocarbon

chains that are easily decomposed by microorganisms.

Example: Sodium lauryl sulphate

13. Non-Biodegradable detergents: Detergents having branched hydrocarbon

chains that are not easily decomposed by microorganisms