Annals of Library Science and Documentation1980, 27(1-4), 135-144.

TOWARDS PROBLEM-ORIENTEDINFORMATION SYSTEM: A NEWPERSPECTIVE FOR INFORMATIONORGANISATION IN U.S.

Discusses a recent report published inthe United States that suggests a new pers-pective for organising information systems forproblem-solving. The organising principlehas to be science, technical and societalinformation (STSI) for this purpose. Examinesthe relevance of this study to the sUuationobtaining in India. Concludes that a highpower national commission should be set up tostudy all problems of information to develop aSTSI for India.

In the last two decades, no other publicissue in the United States has, perhaps, receivedso much continued attention from the federalgovernment, learned societies, professionalbodies and many others, as the informationproblem and the provision for a coordinatednational information infrastructure based on asound information policy. While such an infra-structure is yet to emerge despite theseefforts, the public debate that has been goingon, on the many facets of information handlingand use, has generated a useful body ofliterature, worthy of study not only for itsquality but also for its relevance to manysituations outside US. A recent report* on thesubject by a consultancy firm for the NationalScience Foundation under a grant, projects anew perspective for the organisation of in-formation in the United States as she entersthe Information Age. The Report has providedample food for thought and deserves carefulstudy and examination, particularly in thecontext of our own efforts to develop a nationalinformation system.

* Into the Information Age; a perspective forfederal action on information, by Arthur D.Little Inc., Chicago, American LibraryAssociation. 1978. vii, 134p.

Vol 27 Nos 1-4 (Mar - Dec) 1980

T.N. RAJANInsdocNew Delhi-II ()()12.

THE FOCAL POINTThe focal point of the Report is that

the complex social and economic probl~ms con-fronting the government and the people todaydemanding solutions, require the support of aproblem-oriented information system. Scienceand Technical Information (STI), an importantand vital component of the information base,used in the problem-solving processess, hasto be augmented with societal information todesign and develop a Science, Technical andSocietal Information (STS1) system for con-ducting these processes effectively andachieving tangible results. STI by itself hasfew constituents in policy making circles andappears to be dead as an organising principle.The basic organising concept, therefore, is nolonger STI but STSI and the audiences for thistype of information are orders of magnitudemuch broader than before.

The Report analyses and elaborates thesebasic hypotheses, and builds up the case for anew perspective in four parts:

1 Diagnosis or Wher~ we are?2 Issues and Problems or What's it

doing to us?3 Stakeholders or Who is involved and

How?4 Who can do What and Why?

The Study has adopted the followingmethodology:

1 Survey of past relevant studies andthe current literature;

135

2 An interview program aimed atsurfacing current issues associatedwith STI;

3 Creation of an interpretativeframework for analysing theseissues;

4 Creation of an associated rationalefor change;Analyses of stakeholders pattern toidentify factors which inhibit orfacilitate change; andLaying out the initial elements ofa strategy for achieving the changerequired.

5

6

1. THREE BASIC MODES OF STI INFORMATION TRANSFERReviewing the currently existing

information transfer patterns, the Report setsforth a framework describing three basic modesof STI information transfer, each correspondingto a different value system. The main theme ofthe Report is the integration of th~se separatepatterns to achieve a common goal V1Z, problem-solving. The three modes are:

Disciplinary Information Transfer corres-ponding to the value system of pure science,academia and basic research - called Era Itransfer.

Mission Information Transfer correspon-ding to the value system of big government -sponsored missions (like NASA, AEC in the1960's) - called ~ra II transfer.

Problem-Oriented Information Transfercorresponding to the value system of solvingsocietal problems - called Era III transfer.

The principal characteristics and featuresof the three Eras of information transfer areas follows:1.1 ERA I Discipline-Oriented Basic ethicKnowledge for Knowledge.

These are meant, primarily, to supporteducation, research and development. Infor-mation is generally disseminated throughjournals, books, seminars and meetings! us~allyassociated with academic and research lnstl-tutions, learned societies, professional bodies

* In an appendix, the Report discusses thepresent stresses and strains of publjc.academic and special libraries.

136

RAJAN

and the like. Access to the primary informationis through indexing, abstracting and biblio-graphical publications. Institutions facili-tating access to documents and use are largelythe academic and technical libraries, thoughdirect access is available. The user communi-ties are the students at different levels,academicians, scholars, research scientistsand others. Financial support to the systemis through grants and subsidies and hence thereis no question of charging a price for infor-mation services. This traditional system hasbeen continuing for·a long time, notwithstandingthe strains and stresses now being suffered bythe different components of the system*. Thesituations provide for direct feedback, inthat the producer/user complexes control thequality, content, and objectives of the system.

1.2 ERA II Mission-oriented - Basic ethic -'Organise to do a job.

The Era II Information systems developedduring the 1950s through mid 1960s, have beencreated to provide support to mission orientedagencies like AEC, NASA and such others. Herethe information transfer process is character-ised by a need for coordinating and usingsimultaneously knowledge from a variety ofdisciplines such as the inputs of informationon electronics, biology, medicine, aeronautics,chemistry, etc. required to carry out NASAmissions. Information is disseminated throughprimary publications like technical reports,besides the journals and other traditionalpublications. Secondary services, providingaccess to the primary publications, are throughvarying degrees of interpretative and abs-tracting tools. The technical informat10ncentres that offer these services, being partof the mission agencies - mostly federalestablishments - get their budget appropri-ations from the agencies. The user communi-ties are the scientists, engineers andtechnologists and lately some business managers.The feedback mechanisms for controlling thesystem and using them to determine needs forinformation or research, are more or less,similar to those of ERA I, but the flow ofinformation between the two systems has beenunequal .. While the mission oriented systemsdraw heavily on discipline-oriented informationsystem, only limited reverse f'low is providedthrough primary journals.

During this period Newsletters and Tradejournals, increasing in importance, have beenreflecting that some of the STI have relativelyeconomic value and that less formal and moremarket-oriented information transfer mechanismsare requi red.

Ann Lib Sci Doc

TOWARDS A PROBLEM-ORIENTED INFORMATION SYSTEM1.3 ERA III Problem-Oriented - Basic ethic -Solving Society's Problems.

Problem-oriented information syste~s havebegun to emerge from the late sixties withgrowing emphasis in the seventies. Thesesystems represent a context in which informationis utilized for societal problem-solving,such as economic well-being, environmentalprotection, agricultural productivity, energyavailability/use, public health/safety, disasterprevention/control. The type and structure ofsystems that can fully handle ERA III infor-mation, providing new products and services,have not yet been established, institutionalisedor legitimized, but some characteristics andpossibilities are beginning to emerge.

Information flow for the Era III has notyet clearly evolved. The users of the problem-oriented information systems are oftenill-defined, but involve a variety of groups -elected officials and their staffs, civilservants,businessmen, attorneys, unionofficials, scientists, engineers, judges, mar-ket researchers, consultants, media peopleand local citizens. Apart from informationrequired from a large number of disciplines -a major portion non-STI - some of thecategories of information required are local,ill-organised, proprietory or value-oriented,involving critical value judgements. Thefeedback mechanism is practically non-existant.

Information brokers and intermediariesare the new type of institutions emerging tooffer the specialised quality of service.Repackaged information. collected from avariety of sources with validated and authenticdata. is the type of specific information ser-vice expected. Naturally this type of servicewill be available only at a price. Informationbrokers and Intermediaries draw heavily fromEra I systems but at no cost or at best nominalcost.

New problem-oriented federal agencieshave been established in the recent yearssuch as Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),Occupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA). Federal Energy Administration (FEA)which have long range objectives. Thereare also problems viewed as "one-shot" affai rsof relatively short duration. Examples ofthis type of problems are "Crises and majorsocial discontinuities - like "Spot" energyshortages. famines, major oil spills. consumersafety issues. newly identified pollutioncatastrophies, etc". The information systemfor handling this type of problems should behighly dynamic as the~eeds are difficult~ospecify in advance. L See Tables 1 and 2 ~

Vol 27 Nos 1-4 (Mar - Dec) 1980

2. MOVING FROM STI TO STSIIn its study and research of the current

information situation and looking at the futurewith the fast changing environment, the authorsof the Report claim considerable support totheir suggested STSI from the various stakehol-ders. including the highest policy making body -the_Congress. If the suggested conceptual frame-work of STSI is accepted. the issues andproblems that need attention relate to a clearstatement of objectives. an organisationalinfrastructure-, the functions of the threedifferent components, including their productsand services.,resolution of the stakesholders'conflicts, an action plan and its implementation.All these must be viewed in the light of thetremendous growth and development of scienceand technology, their impact on informationas well as society and the consequenteconomics of information. A national informa-tion policy is imperative to draw all theforces to a central point and fix the direc-tiDns to achieve the desired goal.3. OBJECTIVES

The main objective is to integrate thethree Era framework to serve the common goalof problem-solving. This would necessitatethe introduction of a shift in the philosophiesof Era I and II, coalesce them with thephilosophy of Era III, without destroying theformers' original ethics. structure and func-tions. This would require broadening andredefining the earlier framework of STI to fitit into the Era III problem-solving frameand also ensure a smooth flow of informationbetween the three eras.

4. ORGANISATIONAL INFRASTRUCTUREThe organisational structure for a new

and more dynamic environment must be ca~ableof dealing with several sets of problems."First. the limited technical skills, and theoften transient nature well as the very largenumbers of Era III end users, suggest thatthe more traditional Era I and Era II directinformation and influence feedback paths cannotbe employed. Those concerned with Era IIIpolicy and decision-making are simply too farremoved from those engaged in research andSTI production. Instead, the feedback loopmust work through a number of intermediaries.Second, the fact that information will nor-mally be required from a multiplicity ofagencies, requires the development of agreater degree of internal federal governmentcoordination, standardization and commonalityof thrust. This impl ies, among other matters,dissolving the solid boundaries existing

137

between Era I and Era II STI structures inagencies and the newer Era III informationprograms. Third, the new information struc-ture must be sensitive to the continuingchanges in requirements." (p. 74). Figure ~gives an idea of the desired structure showingthe positions of Era I, II and III, theIntermediaries, the information flow betweenthem and the major and minor influence flow.As the 'Intermediaries' develop, they willincreasingly influence ~he nature and contentof the information provided at Era I andEra II and eventually necessititate changesin the structure. Apart from the internallinkages between the three Era framework whichshould permit smooth information flow andproper feedback, the external linkages willhave to be the Congress and the GovernmentExecutive Agencies that would provide thenecessary influence flow to reshape the exis-ting structure.5. FUNCTI ONS

The additional functions of the insti-tutions of Era I and II would be determined bythe new responsibilities they may have toundertake to fulfill the demands of the newSTSI. 'The 'information content of users ofEra III is a wide mixture of scientific,technical, economic, political, demogra-phic and other societal data; the mix will

~yar~ according to pressures to meet local'and national--neeos -and respond to changes inlegislation, regulation, court decisions, etc.(Figure 1). The intermediaries that areenvisaged to handle information in Era IIIwould have to device means and methods tocollect, organise and supply appropriate andrelevant information in special packages.Of critical importance is the quality ofinformation supplied to the highest decisionmakers who are deeply involved in problem-solving responsibilities. The informationpackages should ensure validity and authen-ticity of data, expert analysis and promptdelivery. Although some of these functionsare presently performed by some intermediaries/information brokers, the Report emphasies theneed to streamline and integrate the serviceswith the overall framework suggested.

* A Force F{eld Analysis is a diagnostictoo.l to aid seeing how a relatively statichuman situation can be converted into dynamicone through such steps as: Selected reductionof pressures/strengthening of certain pre-ssures, application of new pressures, elimina-tion of old pressures, and removal of barriersor constraints. The Pressures, here, meanssocial forces and stakeholder inf luences .(p.73).

138

RAJAN

6. STAKEHOLDERSThe stakeholders, involved in the

information transfer process, are grouped infour categories viz. 1 Producers (Academics,Research laboratories, Federal agencies), etc.);2 Marketeers/Distributors (Publishing houses,Trade press, Data base publishers, Professionalorganisations, Libraries, Information brokers/Consultants); 3 Users/Buyers (Academia, Researchor~anisations, Libraries, Planning organisa-tions, Informtion brokers/Consultants, Citizens'

'groups etc.; 4 Policy makers, Regulators,Subsidizers (Congress, Executive Offices,Regulatory agencies/Courts, NationalSc ience Foundation, Learned societies, Generalpub lic ). On the basis of a 'Field ForceAnalysis'*, the Report formulates a modelfor STSI, indicating the influence flow amongthe components, influence flow between thelegislative and executive forces and theoperating constituents, and balancing theconflicting interests of the stakesholdergroups. (Figure 2). '

The process of change will have to takeplace through the interplay of two distinctdynamic forces. They are"

1. A market-oriented dynamic, involvingprivate sector ventures of both for-profit firms and not for-profit orga-nisations, like professional associa-tions;2. A central-planning dynamic, largelyfocussed around the federal role of STSItransfer.

The first dynamics is already operatingand can be expected to assume importance astime proceeds, since the market-place providesan effective mechanism between informationpackager and user , The second dynamics is .yetto be developed. The Report mainly concentrateson the federal action needed to initiate changestowards STSI.

The process of change will involve aseries of steps which will have to be under-taken in several stages. These should beachievable in the foreseeable future, realis-tic so that the resources required could bemarshalled, catalytic to stimulate differentgroups to act, and positive in that they startchanges in directions that are congruent withthe basic requirements outlined in the Report.

The series of steps to be taken atdifferent stages to initiate action aresummed up as follows:

1 PerCeptlOn of the problem andpotential solutions.

Ann Lib Sci Doc

TOWARDS A PROBLEH-ORIENTED INFORMATION SYSTEM

2 Stakeholders interaction policyformulation process.

3 Acceptance of a need for actionderived from prior steps.Passage of legislation.4

5 Administrative implementation orreaction to existing legislation.

6 Management actions.7 Supporting policy-related research

requirements.7. RECAPITULATION OF MAIN POINTS'

A major social trend is under way inU.S. today, moving rapidly towards an infor-matjon-intensive society. In this context,Information has to be viewed as a nationalresource, worthy of development, care andeffective management (See Table 3). Aneffective information infrastructure is neces-sary to utilise the discoveries, innovationsand techniques of modern science and technologyin setting societal policies and in solvingsocial problems as they arise. The existingSTr infrastructure complex of scientific andtechnical journals, data banks, indexingand abstracting services, repositories andlibraries, undoubtedly among the very best inthe world,. cannot alone provide for an adequatelevel of information availability and effectiveutilization. Therefore a problem-solvinginformation system has to be·developed whichwould augment STI with societal informationto become STSI. This change can be broughtabout primarily by appropriate federal legis-lation and executive measures.

8. RELEVANCE OF THE REPORT TO THE INDIANSITUATION

The three Era framework of STI ispresent in the Indian context though not withall their characteristics and features.

Era I institutions of libraries, do-cumentation and information centres are operat-ing at the academic and professional levels,R & D institutions and laboratories, governmentagencies and in many public and private under-takings. They are, however, functioningwithout any proper linkages.

Era II institutions sprung up in thecountry in the mid-fifties, sixties andseventies, to fulfill the exclusive informationneeds of mission - oriented organisations likethe Atomic Energy Commission, the Indian SpaceResearch Organisation. The Electronic

Vol 27 Nos 1-4 (Mar - Dec) 1980

Commission, the National Remote SensingAgency and the like. CSIR, ICAR, ICMR andother research organisations, adopting multi-disciplinary, multilaboratory and multi-organisational approach also fall in thisgroup. Here again the information linkaqeshave been rather weak both within Era IIinstitutions and between them and Era I insti-tutions.

Problem-solving institutions of Era IIIhave been emerging slowly beginning from theseventies. The Small Enterprises Documenta-tion Centre (SENDOC) of the Small IndustriesExtension Training Institute (SIET), theDocumentation Wing of the National Health andFamily Welfare Centre and a few otherscould be identified with this group. CSIRprogrammes in the fields of housing, schoolbuildings, all-weather-rural roads, sani-tation, pollution hazards, etc. can be ,examples of this approach. The SectoralInformation Centres for Drugs, Food, Leather,Machine tools may also fall undet this group.Karimnagar and Chandrapur projects and thePoly technology Centres located at differentplaces in the country under CSIR, could alsobe classified in this group. The EnvironmentInformation System to be developed under theDepartment of Environment may be of this type.Some projects and programmes of ICAR, ICMR andsuch other research institutions and some ofthe departments of central ministries maycome under Era III. All these, however, areyet to develop into Era III information insti-tutions in the sense of their counterpartsin U.S.

Of the "one-shot" varieties of relativelyshort duration, the Silent-Valley Project,the Mathura Oil Refinery, the Asiad 1982 andsuch others may be cited.

Institutions like Insdoc, SSDCSocial Science Documentation Centre, morenational in character, function and services,should also orient themselves with theproblem so Iv inq information needs. Theyshould also develop appropriate linkagesbetween themselves.

The following observations may be madeof these institutions in India, in comparisonwith their U.S. counterparts:1 Most of these institutions, - perhapsall - have grown in the context of R & Dactivities and hence been oriented to servicescientific and technical information, seldomto supply societal information. In thisrespect, they are more or less similar toU.S. institutions. This is largely due to, .

139

!s the ~eport asserts after a good deal ofstudy and research, "R & 0 itself, perhaps,is planned or managed too rarely in t~e light)f problem oriented priorities; therefore5TIis often viewed as two steps removed frompolicy or problem centered deeision activities.It(STI) is considered more as the product ofR & 0 and the lubricants of further R & Dthan as the raw material for important declsionand po ltcy-mak tnq", "Decisions or policiesnade regarding societal issues are rarelynade on the the basis of scientific and techni-:al facts alone - legal, social, political andeconomic considerations are usually paramount!nd these too are domains of organised factualinformation. What is required is that STI)e associated with other forms of society"elated objective information to provide anore complete information universe, includingeconom[cs , demographic, pol itical, occupa-tional, health, legal, regulatory, socio-logical, cultural, environmental infor-nation.n(P,5,6,7). If this is valid in the:ontext of U.S., it is equally valid in theIndian context too. If social relevance is anajor objective of all developmental activities,5TI has to be dovetailed with societal infor-nation to make it STSI to develop goal-orientedinformation systems and services. This is:ertainly worthy of consideration.Z Information services in India have notvet reached any level of sophistication eitherin terms of utilising technologies to offerfast and versatile services or in the production)f condensed/consolidated packages to meet thespecific information needs at policy or de-:ision making levels. All the institutions)f the three era framework are offering onlythe traditional library and documentationservi~es. Thir~fore there is harHly anydistinctn€ss in the type of ser~ices

140

RAJAN

offered by these institutions, comparedto their counterparts in U.S.3 The stakeholders conflicts seen in theU.S. context, are totally absent in India, allthe institutions being government sponsored and/or supported. But there are many other conflictsand bottlenecks that obstruct proper interac-tion between the various institutions. A ForceField Analysis appropriate to this situationis perhaps necessary.4 A major problem faced in India in orga-nising and managing information systems andservices, is that.scientific and technicalinformation, almost in its entirety, has tobe imported. Not only does this pose seriousprob1ems of collection building in terms oflocation, availability, high cost, timelyacquisition etc., but this also subject us tothe effects of changes taking place in theexporting countries which are always in theirnational interests, quite often disadvantageousto us. This is an inalterable situation in theforeseeable future.

9. CONCLUSIONA national information policy is very

essential, if all the problems of informationare to be given proper attention. This couldstem only from the recognition and acceptanceat the highest levels that information is anon-depleting resource for national development,worthy of care, development and management.A high power national commission comprising across section of experts from various fieldsincluding'members of parliament should be setup to study all the problems of informationand recommend a suitable course of action fordeveloping a national Scientific, Technical,Societal Information System.

Ann Lib Sci Doc

Hierarchy Members

President, CongressGovernors, Legislatures,Board Chairmen,Regulatory Heads

Agency Heads,Mission Directors,Some R&D Directors

R&D Directors.Labor.tory andGroup HeIds.Individulls

TOWARDS A PROBLEM-ORINETED INFORMATION SYSTEM

•

-...-.--STI

Decision Nature Requirements

Social Aspects of Useof Technology; ValueJudgments; SocialTrade-offs

Autnenncitv iVai idat ion;Adequacy; Compatihility;Availability

Resource Utilization andPlanning; Data andInformation Needs;Cost-EffectivenessConsiderations

Authenticity IV alidation;Exhaustiveness;Availability;Cost Relationships

R&D Planning;Detailed Program andResearch Planning

Detailed Documentation;Reproducibility;Awareness of Research ofOthers and of KnowledgeGaps

FIGURE 1 HIERARCHICAL USES OF INFORMATION

fABLE 1THE THRE:E INFOR~ATlON CONTEXTS AND ERAST T''''''.~Rt'~ "'r"phasis Corresponding Information

Eral Basic Use of Knowledge System---- --Traditio' Ji, from Study ;,d development of Discipline-based information19t:; Century ant scientif.c disciplines; strong systems; mainly researchcontinui"g growth of knowledge libraries and journal complexes

motivation

Er,·. II---II\fVV I. v Ith height Big sc.ence & technology; Mission-based informationin the 1360's an!! emphasis on Missions iike: systems; large government-continul~g "Build an Atom Bomb"; operated documentation

"Put 'i Man on the Moon"; systems, computer-assistedstrong engineering andapplication emphasis

Era III---Some starts in the Emphasis on solving socio- Problem-based informationlate 1960's; grew· technical systems problems; systems (forms are still beinging emphasis in examples; providing better determined)1970's housinq and transportation;

improving quality of lifein cities; equalizing jobal opportunities; preserving

'"'" the environment; eic.:.0

E strong value judgmp.nt in-.,~~

puts.

Vol 27 Nos 1-4 (Mar - Dee) 1980 141

~~N

Monitorship. Management

Top Level Executive

OMSOSTPEtc.

G .,/////---

---//

/////

....Congressional

Agencies

LCGAOOTA

Congress

-----~ lntormanon FlowInfluence Flow

Major Influence Flow

~::;,::;,,~.sr

FIGURE ·2 DESIRABLE FORCE FIELD SITUATION iDEVEtQPING VIEW)

Vln

Clon

a

~

Agency STI Programs Agency Era If',lntorrnation .,.,

ProgramsEra' and Era" Users

Intermediaries(Private & Public Sector)

,II/II

III,t

Era "' lntorrnation Users

''J\'a\.\O(\"eo),'

M

<:o-'N......•

ZoInTABLE 2-I

"""

CHARACTERISTICS OF :rHREE INFORMATION ERAS

-<Ds"Wave" of Infor- Target User Typical Info_ Institu- Typical Informationmation Svstem ' Content of System Group/its size User Sophisticati:'>il tion/its Sponsor Vehicles/response time

discipline- truth of science, mostly members of the disci- very high technical research or technical print; books, journals/oriented dealing with physical pline involved; from sophistication/com- library; technical publication time of

sys'tems dozens to a few thou- municate to rnern- journal/sponsored by months to yearssands; users generally bers of a particular members of a professionindividuals and technical elite or by a universityheavily committedto disciplines

mission- all of above; also truth technologists, engineers, moderate to high special technical infer- printed reports, limitedoriented of science as it applies applications people; technical sophistica- mation centers; inte- information repackaging;

to technological objec- usually a few thousand tion/need to cornrnu- grated document anal- secondary vehicles em-tives, ways in which specialists - in a few nicate across disci- ysis, retrieval, pro- ploying computers/physical systems can special cases up to tens plines cessing systems/spon- response time of weeks,be manipulated and of thousands; users are . sored by agencies with hours or minutescontrolled for practical part of team and com- major missions; NASA,purposes mitted for multi-year 000, AEC, NLM, etc.

periods.

problem- I all of above; also wisdom large segments of the range from very low all of the above plus on- (unsettled as yet) prob-oriented and pragmatics which public in state and local to high technical line information super- ably will make heavy use

work in contexts of un- governments; and all sophistication/need markets, commercial of telecommunicationscontrollable open systems types of industries, com- to communicate purveyors of repackaged and interactive remote-that involve human as well monities, planners, can- across major cultural government-originated terminal computer svs-as physical dynamics. In- servationists, bureaucrats, ,groups !heavy involve- information, data base I terns for part of needs,

I cluded must be legal, socio- newspapers, policy Iment of nontechnical publisher/consultants together with data baselogical, economic and makers on all levels; hun- professionals and information interrnadi- publications, newslettersdemographic information dreds of thousands up to Ipolitical groups aries of various kinds I and all traditional media.

I and important social value millions; many users part i play important roles in Will eventually be inte- IInputs of transient, relativelv I I providing access. inter- grated with automated I

short-term conditions pretation, evaluation; office systems.market rnecharusrns of

I rismq impor rance

1-3

~en>'"d

~tot"'

~I

o~Hi:':I

~i:':It:I

-3QI.,

l?n-

H

~o

~HoZen0<en~::<

-"""(..oJ

•...•~~

TABLE'

BASIC SOCIETAL RESOURCES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Natural, Mineral and Physical Man-Made InformationType of Resource Materials Resources Resources Human Resources En!lrgy Resources Resources

Examples Minerals Cities Human Skills Fossil Fuels I Publishers,Natural Environment Transportation Systems Management Renewable I Libraries,The Biosphere Factories & Equipment Capabilities Energy : I Data Bases,

Buildings Effective Social Solar Intermediaries,Institutions, Geothermal Informatione.g., Families, Hydro NetworksLocal Governments Wind

Characteristics Limited - Require Limited - Require Limited - Require Limited - Require Expandable -Care & Conservation Care, Conservation, Care, Development, Care, Development, Require Development,& Research Maintenance, Management Conservation, Conservation, Conservation,

& Research Management & Management & Management &Research Research Research

Utilization Fixed and Rising Fixed and Rising Fixed and Rising Fossil Fuels Have Declining CostsCost Tendencies Costs as Supply Costs as Complexity Costs as Aspirations Rising Costs as as Information

Decreases Increases Increase Supply Decreases Technology Improves

et

):>::::I::::Ir-...•.CT

VIn.....

~