SOUTHERN CROSS UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT, SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

An evaluation of the City of Gold Coast draft

management plan for the Bonogin Conservation

Reserves using fauna as bio-indicators

JASON TOWERS

2015

This report has been prepared by an undergraduate student and may not have been

corrected according to the comments of University staff. The report should be cited in

the following format:

Towers, J. 2015. An evaluation of the City of Gold Coast draft management plan for

the Bonogin Conservation Reserves using fauna as bio-indicators. Unpublished Third

Year Undergraduate Report. School of Environmental Science and Management,

Southern Cross University, Lismore.

An evaluation of the City of Gold Coast draft

management plan for the Bonogin Conservation

Reserves using fauna as bio-indicators

Prepared by Jason Towers

Integrated Project prepared as partial fulfilment of the requirements

of the Bachelor of Environmental Science

Southern Cross University

2015

Davenport Park entrance to Bonogin Conservation Area. Photograph J. Towers 2015.

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Copyright declaration

I, Jason Towers, consent to this report being made available for photocopying and loan,

provided that my work is fully acknowledged and that the granting of such a licence in no

way inhibits me from exercising any of my exclusive rights under the Copyright Act 1968. I

understand this licence is granted in the interests of education and research and that no

royalties are payable.

Jason Towers, 28th September 2015

______________________________

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Dr Ross Goldingay for supervising this project and offering his expert

advice, use of equipment and knowledge for the preparation of this report. I would also like

to thank Craig Taylor for his instruction on use of the infrared cameras.

I would like to thank Naomi Christian, Tim Robson and Wayne Abbot from the Natural

Areas Management Unit, City of Gold Coast for their assistance with obtaining permits for

park use and providing valuable information about fauna, feral animal control and

conservation within the reserves.

I would like to also thank Todd Burrows from Environment and planning, City planning

branch, Environment unit for his assistance in bird identification and Georgia Schleehauf,

Sonia Marsanic and Jessica Lyne from Griffith University Gold Coast for their assistance

with surveying.

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Abstract

This study examines the complexity of conservation areas within urban environments in the

City of Gold Coast Local Government Area and how they are managed to protect and

preserve flora and fauna communities within them. It is imperative that regular evaluation of

management aims and objectives for conservation reserves is conducted and one of the best

ways to do this is to periodically monitor fauna activity within them. Fauna can be used as

bio-indicators to evaluate the condition and functionality of these reserves.

The Bonogin Conservation Reserves cluster, nested in the Gold Coast hinterland, forms the

basis for this study, with three of the largest reserves within the cluster of 43 investigated.

Desktop surveys for fauna that have previously been recorded in the area were conducted

initially and those data were then used to compare with data from field surveys in this study

in the evaluation process of the management plan. Field survey methods included

spotlighting, infrared cameras and bird surveys. The objective was to observe as many

species as possible in the field and record any new species which have not been formerly

documented.

The magpie lark (Grallina cyanoleuca), brown thornbill (Acanthiza pusilla), rainbow lorikeet

(Trichoglossus moluccanus) and red-browed finch (Neochmia temporalis) were found to be

the most abundant bird species. These four species have all been previously recorded in the

reserves. The northern mountain brush tail possum (northern mountain BT) (Trichosurus

caninus), black rat (Rattus rattus), swamp wallaby (Wallabia bicolor) and red-necked

wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus) recorded the most trigger events for mammals during the

camera survey. The northern mountain BT, swamp wallaby and red-necked wallaby have

been recorded in the reserves but not since 2007 and no record of the black rat has been found

from literature reviews. A total of 32 birds, 12 mammals and 2 amphibians were recorded

using all survey methods. These results suggest that species diversity is comparable to what is

documented for birds, however, four of the mammals observed were non-native and this

could be an indication that there is a lack of diversity of endemic species. Predation by feral

animals, shortage of suitable habitat, fragmentation from urban development and reduced

wildlife corridors which link the reserves are all factors contributing to a possible reduction in

biodiversity. It is recommended that periodic fauna surveys be conducted in the planning area

and any new species recorded should become part of the baseline data for future reference.

Management objectives for the reserves should be revised to reflect these data from this

survey and periodically revised to reflect new data from future surveys.

Key words

Bio-indicators, planning area, reserves, cluster, corridors, conservation.

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Table of contents

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................2

Abstract ...............................................................................................................................3

Key words ...........................................................................................................................3

Table of contents ................................................................................................................4

List of figures ......................................................................................................................5

List of tables........................................................................................................................6

1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................7

2. Background ....................................................................................................................8

2.1 Urban development ......................................................................................................8

2.2 Invasive species................................................................................................9

2.2.1 Flora ........................................................................................................9

2.2.2 Fauna .......................................................................................................9

2.3 Regeneration and Restoration .....................................................................10

3. Aim and objectives .......................................................................................................13

4. Site description .............................................................................................................13

5. Methods .........................................................................................................................17

5.1 Spotlighting survey .......................................................................................17

5.2 Bird survey ....................................................................................................17

5.3 Infrared Camera survey ...............................................................................18

6. Results ...........................................................................................................................19

6.1 Desktop surveys .............................................................................................19

6.2 Field surveys ..................................................................................................19

6.2.1 Bird survey ............................................................................................19

6.2.2 Infrared camera survey .........................................................................21

6.2.3 Spotlighting survey ...............................................................................26

6.2.4 Additional observations ........................................................................26

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7. Discussion......................................................................................................................27

7.1 Survey results ..................................................................................................27

7.2 Urban development and habitat requirements ................................................30

8. Recommendations ........................................................................................................32

9. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................34

10. References ...................................................................................................................35

11. Appendices ..................................................................................................................38

List of figures

Title page image. Davenport Park entrance to Bonogin Conservation Area.

Figure 1. Restoration in the riparian zone at Bonogin Creek, Davenport Park, Bonogin..11

Figure 2. Bank erosion in a section of the Wyangan creek in Wyangan VP. ....................12

Figure 3. Bonogin CA with Davenport Park in the foreground. ........................................14

Figure 4. Tourmaline Park showing a dedicated fire trail. ................................................14

Figure 5. Wyangan VP showing a disused track from a previous land use. Wild dogs and

foxes use these types of tracks for hunting.. ......................................................................15

Figure 6. The three study sites including Davenport Park within the Bonogin Conservation

reserve cluster. ...................................................................................................................16

Figure 7. Camera mounting method for flat ground. .........................................................18

Figure 8. Camera mounting method for slope. ..................................................................19

Figure 9. Northern mountain BT photographed in Wyangan VP. .....................................22

Figure 10. The black rat photographed in Wyangan VP ...................................................22

Figure 11. Bush rat photographed in Wyangan VP ...........................................................23

Figure 12. Long-nosed bandicoot photographed in Tourmaline park ...............................23

Figure 13. Australian log runner photographed in Bonogin CA. ......................................24

Figure 14. Swamp wallaby photographed in Bonogin CA ................................................24

Figure 15. Red-necked wallaby photographed in Tourmaline park ..................................25

Figure 16. European red foxes photographed in Bonogin CA...........................................25

Figure 17. Proposed quarry site at Reedy Creek showing Tourmaline Park and many other

reserves within the cluster to the west. ...........................................................................32

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List of Tables

Table 1. Bird survey showing individual species counted at each site with the level of

abundance calculated combining all three sites.

Abundance: (1-10 = L), (10-20 = M), (20+ = H). ..............................................................20

Table 2. IR Camera survey showing number of triggers per species per site and total number

of trigger events and trigger percentage across all three sites. ..........................................21

Table 3. Spotlighting survey results over three nights at all three sites. ............................26

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1. Introduction

Urban expansion is increasing at an alarming rate globally and the total global urban area is

predicted to triple by 2030, with the urban population set to double from 2.84 (in 2000) to 4.9

billion (Lopucki & Kiersztyn, 2015). Urbanisation is a major threat to the biodiversity of

endemic fauna and is responsible for the destruction of the natural habitat and displacement

of many species (Garden, et.al, 2010). Many scientific studies discuss biodiversity within the

context of a given environmental issue, however, it is necessary to understand the importance

of biodiversity in a broader context. Biodiversity is responsible for providing the balance and

stability of ecosystem functions and it ensures that life support systems vital to every living

organism within the biosphere, including humans, is sustainable (White, 1997).

Conservation reserves are relatively undisturbed natural areas within a region and may play a

significant role in the urban environment, by preserving natural ecosystems and providing

refuge for many vulnerable species. Reserves also provide vital ecosystem services such as

minimising soil erosion by reducing water runoff, air quality improvement by pollutant

absorption, carbon sequestration and mitigating the urban heat island effect (Li, et.al, 2015).

It is essential when conducting fauna studies within reserves that the focus is not only

directed toward protecting habitat and ecosystems from a wildlife conservation perspective

but also promoting the need for urban populations to have access to ecosystem services. It is

vital for humans to not regard themselves as somehow separate from the natural environment

but rather as intrinsic to it. It is therefore imperative to adopt a mindset that regards

conservation reserves as natural capital, which enriches human wellbeing (Pelenc & Ballet,

2015). When planning for and managing these reserves it is important to develop a strategic

approach as they can often contain a mix of overabundant and declining species within the

same ecosystem and must be viewed as an integrated social–ecological system (White et.al,

2009).

The City of Gold Coast (Council) Natural Areas Management Unit (NAMU) is responsible

for the management of many areas within the Gold Coast region that are of conservation

significance and currently manages over 13,000 hectares of land comprising over 780

reserves (City of Gold Coast, 2015). This study aims to evaluate NAMU strategic planning

objectives for these areas using a small cluster of reserves located in the Gold Coast

hinterland region as a case study. The diversity of fauna within these reserves were used as

bio-indicators to evaluate the objectives of the Bonogin Conservation Reserves Draft

Management Plan. Specific areas of investigation for this study which have a direct effect on

the quality of the reserves are urban development, invasive species, restoration and

regeneration. A total of 109 birds and mammals are listed as either threatened or vulnerable

in Queensland (QLD) under the “Nature Conservation Act 1992” (NCA, 1992), (Queensland

Government, Department of Environment and Heritage Protection, 2015) and a total of 203

birds and mammals listed as either threatened or vulnerable federally under the

“Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999” (EPBC Act, 1999). Some

of these species either occur or are predicted to occur in the Gold Coast reserves.

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2. Background

NAMU aim is to sustainably manage natural areas within the Gold Coast City which are of

conservation significance and used for the benefit of nature based recreation. This includes

protecting flora and fauna, rare and threatened species and ensuring that habitat is enhanced

and wildlife corridors are protected (City of Gold Coast, 2015).

2.1 Urban development

The Gold Coast is a development driven city and has experienced several decades of rapid

growth which has been heavily influenced not only at a State but also local government level,

through a period of what could be described as highly capitalistic local politics (Dedekorkut-

Howers & Bosman, 2015). Many natural areas in the region have been altered by urban

development, causing connectivity between reserves to be interrupted. This has led to

fragmentation of plant communities and reduced fauna populations. As a consequence,

reduction of species biodiversity and also genetic diversity within species occurs (Farinha-

Marques, et.al, 2011)

The Bonogin reserves cluster is linked to the Burleigh Springbrook bioregional corridor

providing connectivity to the rainforests of Springbrook National Park and several other

ecologically significant locations in the region, (City of Gold Coast, 2013). This connectivity

is compromised however through ongoing urbanisation with residential and commercial

developments, infrastructure like the Pacific Motorway and power easements and has the

potential to be further impacted by a proposed quarry at Reedy Creek.

The planning area is also under immense pressure from local drainage systems due to rapid

residential development in the surrounds and this has increased the intensity of weed

infestations in the reserves. The drainage problem is exacerbated in Wyangan Valley Park

(Wyangan VP) (one of the reserves in the cluster) as either no or inadequate bio-retention

systems were installed when the adjacent Clover Hill residential estate was developed in

2004 (Robertson, et.al, 2006). As a consequence, erosion is exacerbated and creeks

experience increased turbidity and sediment concentration leading to poor water quality

(Gold Coast City Council, 2013).

Since European settlement the area has been subject to extensive logging which resulted in

the decline of several bird species including the powerful owl (Ninox strenua), sooty owl

(Tyto tenebricosa) and glossy black cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus lathami) which rely on tree

hollows for shelter (Gold Coast City Council, 2013). Many hollowed out trees used by these

species can take around 100 years or more to form (Goldingay, 2011). The scenario where

vital components of habitats such as tree hollows are lost has become all too familiar in many

natural areas throughout Australia and provides an example of how anthropogenic activities

from many years earlier are still having repercussions today.

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2.2 Invasive species

2.2.1 Flora

The abundance of native flora can be reduced with the infestation of exotic vegetation which

in turn impacts entire habitats and alters ecosystem services (Reid, et.al, 2009). Whilst any

ecosystem would function more efficiently without introduced species the fact remains

many exotics have been introduced since European settlement and complete removal of them

over the short term would be detrimental and expensive. Complete weed removal would

increase the risk of erosion to exposed soil, cause instability for some endemic plant species

and also lead to displacement of some native fauna species that use exotic vegetation for

shelter (Fleishman et.al, 2003).

Approximately 45 invasive plant species have been identified in the planning area. The

majority of these species occur in small patches and are of little threat, however, kikuyu grass

(Pennisetum clandestinum), lantana (Lantana camara) and the giant devils fig (Solanum

chyrsotrichum) are aggressive in large patches within the reserves and pose a serious threat to

those ecosystems (Gold Coast City Council, 2013). These infestations have altered the natural

habitat of native fauna in the reserves by restricting the growth of native flora, of which many

animal species rely on as a source of food. They also increase the risk of fire as they are a

highly combustible fuel source (Gold Coast City Council, 2013). Drainage in certain

locations within the planning area is an ongoing issue and is often responsible for increased

weed infestations within some reserves.

2.2.2 Fauna

Feral cats (Felis catus), wild dogs (Canis lupus) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are the three

main predatory animals within the planning area and all are class 2 declared pests. Class 2

declared pests are those that are established in QLD, represent a serious threat to native

wildlife, the natural environment and QLD primary industries. Under the “Land Protection

Pest and Stock Route Management Act 2002” there is a legal requirement to control class 2

declared pests and it is also the responsibility of land owners to control these animals if they

occur on their property (Queensland Government, 2015). All three predators are responsible

for the decline of many native fauna species nationally and within the planning area. Prey

includes small to medium terrestrial mammals, ground nesting birds and feral cats alone are

estimated to prey on over 345 native species (Gold Coast City Council, 2013).

Feral cats tend to be the most difficult to trap due to their elusive nature and preference for

live prey. They are considered a destructive species within natural areas as they are highly

adaptive within the wild predatory animal spectrum and are also known to be vectors of

disease (Fisher et.al, 2014). There is estimated to be around 1.5 million feral cats in QLD

alone (Gold Coast City Council, 2013). Wild dogs and foxes tend to utilise man made tracks,

roads and utility corridors and it suggested that these utilities should be kept to a minimum

(Gold Coast City Council, 2013). This knowledge should also assist in determining the

approximate locations of where to target control programs.

Several methods exist to control wild dogs such as baiting, trapping and shooting, however,

the two latter methods can be labor intensive and time consuming (Queensland Government,

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2011). Baiting for foxes tends to be a reliable method, however, it presents a problem in

urban settings due to the risk of poisoning domestic animals (Gold Coast City council, 2013).

Wild dog control methods used by City of Gold Coast Council are in accordance with the

QLD wild dog strategy and QLD wild dog offensive group (Gold Coast City Council, 2013).

Methods currently used for fox and wild dog control in the planning area are trapping in the

smaller reserves and baiting for the larger more remote reserves, particularly where support is

needed by rural property owners. Very little targeting of feral cats other than a few urban

parks is currently undertaken (Abbott, 2015). Sodium fluoroacetate known as 1080 is one of

the substances used in the baiting program to euthanise pest animals. It is a naturally

occurring substance in around 30 native plants and subsequently has less of an effect on

native fauna as they have developed an evolutionary tolerance to it making it ideal to target

introduced pests like wild dogs and foxes (QLD Government, Department of Agriculture and

Fisheries, 2015). The QLD wild dog strategy adopts a strategic plan that incorporates the wild

dog barrier fence (WDBF) which currently extends 2500 km from Thargomin to Jandowae in

QLD. Wild dog populations have however increased in some areas inside the fence’s

boundary due to the reluctance of some landowners to control them. Some land owners do

not consider wild dogs as having a detrimental effect on certain land uses and there is also the

concern of possibly poisoning domestic dogs through baiting programs (Queensland

Government, 2011).

The spotted dove (Streptopelia chinensis) and Indian myna (Acridotheres tristis) are also pest

species within sections of the planning area and are responsible for the displacement of many

native birds due to competition for limited resources. The Indian myna is also responsible for

the killing of eggs and offspring of native birds (Gold Coast City Council, 2013).

2.3 Regeneration and Restoration

Restoration and regeneration within the reserves is carried out by council staff and involves a

program of work consisting of revegetation and assisted regeneration. All three study sites are

currently undergoing some form of restoration. The council runs a volunteer program called

Beaches to Bushland landcare group. The purpose of the program is to encourage ownership

of the city’s natural environmental assets by actively engaging them in revegetation of areas

such as riparian zones, swales and other natural areas that have been degraded. Davenport

Park has and continues to improve its natural assets through this volunteer program, (City of

Gold Coast, 2015). The Gold Coast Bushcare group are active in certain parts of the planning

area with a particular emphasis on the riparian zone near Bonogin Creek in Davenport Park,

(Figure 1). Under the direction of staff members from NAMU, volunteers meet once a month

to engage in ecological restoration through planting native vegetation and environmental

weed control (City of Gold Coast, 2015). Species such as Black She-Oak (Allocasuarina

littoralis) casuarina trees have been planted at various locations throughout the planning area

and these form part of the staple diet for the glossy black Cockatoo (Gold Coast City Council,

2013). Another key species for which it is important to maintain good populations of is

Blackbutt (Eucalyptus pilularis), a variety of eucalypt which occurs in the planning area and

provides habitat for vulnerable fauna like the grey goshawk (Accipiter novaehollandiae),

powerful owl and koala (Phascolarctos cinereus).

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Figure 1. Restoration in the riparian zone at Bonogin Creek, Davenport Park, Bonogin.

Photograph J. Towers 2015.

Assisted regeneration currently occurs in sections of the planning area. This is a process

where seedlings of vegetation that are vital to developing sustainable and productive

ecosystems are protected and allowed to generate under natural recovery processes (NSW

Government, Office of Environment and Heritage, 2015). Areas of seed dispersal may be

cleared of unwanted undergrowth such as weeds and potential bush fire fuel sources to assist

with regeneration. This process does have limiting factors however as consideration of seed

dispersal into cleared areas, providing the right amount of shade and limiting competition

from weeds must be part of the management plan (Hardwick, et.al, 1997).

Bonogin and Wyangan Creeks which are tributaries to Mudgeeraba Creek, a sub catchment

of the Nerang River, pass through some of the reserves in the planning area. Much of the

creek system is under pressure from urban development and around 30% of the catchment

area is estimated to be cleared (Robertson, et.al, 2006). Water quality in general is of low

quality and one of the main contributors to this was the standard or lack of sediment control

during development in the area. Poor channel bank stability is apparent in some areas,

(Figure 2), and is a consequence of cleared riparian vegetation causing erosion from extreme

weather events (Robertson, et.al, 2006). Many fauna species rely on continuous vegetation

along creek banks to facilitate movement (Robertson, et.al, 2006).

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Figure 2. Bank erosion in a section of the Wyangan creek in Wyangan VP.

Photograph J. Towers 2015.

Certain objectives within the framework of the management plan are specifically targeted

toward fauna and habitat conservation through regeneration and restoration programs. These

include maintaining and enhancing important wildlife corridors, protecting significant species

and their habitats and an overall commitment to the protection of biodiversity and integrity of

native flora and fauna communities (City of Gold Coast, 2013).

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3. Aim and objectives

Aim:

To evaluate the City of Gold Coast Bonogin Conservation Reserves Draft Management Plan

using the diversity of fauna as bio-indicators.

Objectives:

Conduct a desktop survey of fauna that have already been recorded in the reserves

over time.

Conduct fauna surveys within selected reserves to formally identify as many species

as possible to compare with data from existing surveys.

Conduct additional desktop research to qualify the preferred habitat of these species

based on observations and empirical evidence and then gauge if it is consistent with

the aims and objectives of the Bonogin Conservation Reserves Draft Management

Plan.

4. Site description

The planning area comprises 43 individual reserves covering a total of 1099 hectares (Gold

Coast City Council, 2013). Three study sites were chosen for survey with the study area

comprising three of the larger reserves within the Bonogin Conservation planning area. Site

one, Bonogin Conservation Area, (Bonogin CA), (28° 08’13.41” S, 153° 20’49.42” E); site

two, Tourmaline Park, (28° 07’37.49” S, 153° 23’09.60” E) and; site three, Wyangan VP,

(28° 05’56.22” S, 153° 22’24.29” E). A map of the study area is presented in figure 6.

The planning area sits within the Gold Coast hinterland region in a subtropical climate zone.

Average rainfall ranges from 1000mm-1500mm per year and average daily temperatures

range from 18°C-21°C (Bureau of Meteorology, 2015). All three study sites are partially

surrounded by residential areas with the largest of the three, Bonogin CA, (Figure 3),

bordering Springbrook National Park. Davenport Park, a recreational open space, has been

included in the study area as it contributes ecologically to Bonogin CA and restoration work

has occurred there in the riparian zone along Bonogin creek, attracting many species of birds.

Bird and spotlighting surveys for site one have therefore combined Davenport Park and

Bonogin CA as a single study site.

Vegetation cover varies from closed to open forest and wet to dry sclerophyll. All three study

sites have cleared tracks running through for 4WD access with Tourmaline Park housing a

dedicated fire trail, (Figure 4). The terrain in Bonogin CA and Tourmaline Park consists of

many steep slopes and ridges whilst Wyangan VP, (Figure 5), is predominantly flat terrain

with one main steep embankment running along most of the entire length of the reserve.

Vegetation consists of gallery rainforest, open eucalypt forest and woodland (Gold Coast City

Council, 2015). The majority of the reserves in the cluster are part of the emerging

communities’ domain and a key objective of this initiative is to ensure a viable nature

conservation network is retained and enhanced as the local area develops (Gold Coast City

Council, 2013).

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Figure 3. Bonogin CA with Davenport Park in the foreground. Photograph J. To wers 2015.

Figure 4. Tourmaline Park showing a dedicated fire trail. Photograph J. Towers 2015.

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Figure 5. Wyangan VP showing a disused track from a previous land use. Wild dogs and foxes

use these types of tracks for hunting. Photograph J. Towers 2015.

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Figure 6. The three study sites including Davenport Park within the Bonogin Conservation reserve cluster.

Burleigh Heads

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5. Methods

Desktop surveys were used to compile a list of animal species that had been recorded previously in

the reserves. Following this, three field survey methods were used to record as many species as

possible to compare with data from previous surveys. Surveys took place across approximately five

weeks between June and July 2015. Permission to access the reserves was obtained from council and

park rangers and relevant NAMU staff were informed of the nature and intentions of the surveys.

Liaising with park rangers and staff from NAMU from time to time was necessary to obtain

additional information about fauna, restoration works, legal issues and invasive species control.

Observational survey methods were chosen to eliminate the need for handling and causing stress and

or injury to animals. Assistance with surveying was provided by final year environmental science

students from Griffith University Gold Coast when required. Any additional observations of

significant species other than those expected during surveys were recorded.

5.1 Spotlighting Survey

Surveys were conducted over three nights and involved walking slowly along designated tracks

within each reserve using 6 volt powered spotlights. Various locations were surveyed within each

reserve each night to increase the chances of locating animals with an emphasis on keeping to the

same tracks as much as possible. Trees were scanned from crown to base and from side to side for

arboreal animals, looking for eye shine, and listening for sounds such as scratches, calls and rustling

leaves to assist in locating animals. Additional sightings of ground dwelling animals were also

recorded.

5.2 Bird Survey

Surveys were conducted over six days and involved walking along designated tracks within each

reserve looking and listening for birds and identifying them either visually or by sound. The same

tracks were used each time to ensure that species recorded were observed across the same habitat

areas each day. Site one surveying combined walking along the creek at Davenport Park and a

section of track within Bonogin CA. Where an identification could not be made on site, bird calls

were either recorded on a recording device or the bird was photographed and or a detailed

description noted. Formal identification of some species was made at a later time based on field

descriptions and available data from previous surveys or with the assistance from qualified council

staff. Where possible, the number of each individual species detected was recorded and as an

accurate count may not have been possible on site, species were recorded as either low, medium, or

high in abundance. Any additional sightings of unexpected and significant animals or other relevant

observations was also recorded.

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5.3 Infrared camera survey

Two digital infrared motion detection cameras were used over a period of five weeks within the three

reserves. Cameras were moved periodically within reserves to provide a variety of habitat types

including dense and open understory, near tracks and creeks in order to detect a greater variety of

species. Care was taken to choose sites that had target areas that weren’t overly obstructed by

vegetation and could also be mounted to trees offering a good perspective in relation to the ground.

Where the ground was flat, cameras were mounted on trees that were slightly angled downwards

toward the target area, (Figure 7), or if the target area was on an upward slope the cameras were

placed higher up from the ground on a vertical tree, (Figure 8). An object such as a back pack was

placed in the target area and a few test shots were taken to ensure the cameras were directed toward a

good position to photograph ground dwelling animals. Bait used was a mixture of oats and peanut

butter scattered within the target area. Some of the bait was scattered in small clumps just outside the

central target area to encourage foraging and some was applied to rocks and/or logs and low over

hanging branches to prolong the scent. Cameras were set to trigger at ten second intervals with 3

shots per trigger. Cameras were checked every three days and a clean SD card inserted. Images taken

of animals were viewed and formally identified on computer.

Figure 7. Camera mounting method for flat ground.

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Figure 8. Camera mounting method for slope.

6. Results

6.1 Desktop surveys

A list of significant fauna species based on conservation status from the EPBC Act and the NCA was

compiled by NAMU for the planning area (See Appendix 1). Several bird surveys have been

conducted within the planning area recording species present but not abundance. Based on literature

reviews, previous surveys for mammals and reptiles were minimal and occurred prior to 2008. Some

of the species recorded in these surveys included the sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps), fawn-footed

melomy (Melomys cervinipes), feather-tail glider (Acrobates pygmaeus), northern mountain BT and

platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus), (City of Gold Coast, 2015). A 2012 bird list for Wyangan VP

and a 2008 bird list for Bonogin CA are provided in Appendix 2. No existing bird surveys have been

found for Tourmaline Park. A list of invasive weed spices is provided in Appendix 3 and a list of

invasive fauna species is provided in Appendix 4.

6.2 Field Surveys

6.2.1 Bird Survey

A total of 27 species were recorded across the three sites (Table 1). Some species such as the red-

browed finch were given an approximate count as they were difficult to accurately count due to their

constant mobility. The red-browed finch recorded the highest count of an individual species however

they were observed in large numbers within lantana and weren’t encountered across all six days of

survey. All other species were evenly recorded across each day of survey.

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Table 1. Bird survey showing individual species counted at each site with the level of abundance

calculated by combining all three sites. Abundance: (1-10 = L), (10-20 = M), (20+ = H).

Species No. of individuals

Site 1 Bonogin CA

No. of individuals

Site 2 Tourmaline

Park

No. of

individuals

Site 3

Wayangan VP

Abundance

red-browed finch 21

35 H

rainbow lorikeet 8 13 11 H

brown thornbill 13 5 13 H

magpie lark 28

H

eastern whip bird 10 1 15 H

torresian crow 9 7 10 H

kookaburra 6 6 5 M

pied currawong 4 7 3 M

bar shouldered dove 10

3 M

masked lapwing 8

3 M

willie wagtail 5 2 3 M

striated pardalote 2 1 7 M

little wattlebird 7

1 L

brown cuckoo dove 3

4 L

grey fantail 2

4 L

little corella 3

1 L

Australian magpie 3

1 L

galah 4

L

spotted dove 3

1 L

Australian brush turkey 1

3 L

pied butcherbird 1

3 L

fan tailed cuckoo 4

L

red back fairy wren

2 L

superb fairy wren 2

L

sulphur crested cockatoo 2

L

white browed scrub wren

2 L

pale headed rosella 1

L

21 | P a g e

6.2.2 Infrared Camera Survey

A variety of small to medium sized mammals and three bird species were recorded across all three

sites, for a total of 12 species (Table 2). The northern mountain BT, (Figure 9), recorded the highest

number of trigger events for an individual species across all three sites. Unconfirmed rodents

recorded the highest number of trigger events overall for that order of mammals and were most likely

either black rats, (Figure 10) or bush rats (Rattus fuscipes), (Figure 11), and possibly a few grassland

melomys (Melomys burtoni) but these were unconfirmed. Black rats recorded the second highest

number of trigger events for an individual species. Black rats were distinguished from bush rats

when a clear view of differentiating features such as tail length and ear shape and size could be

determined. A lower number of trigger events occurred for a few other species such as the long-

nosed bandicoot (Perameles nasuta), (Figure 12), and Australian log runner (Orthonyx temminckii),

(Figure 13). The Australian brush turkey recorded the third highest number of trigger events for an

individual species. The swamp wallaby, (Figure 14), was recorded across all three sites however the

red-necked wallaby, (Figure 15), was only recorded in Tourmaline Park. False triggers were not

included in the overall tally of trigger events. The introduced European red fox, (Figure 16), was

photographed at all three sites on the first night of survey for each site.

Table 2. IR Camera survey showing number of triggers per species per site and total number of trigger

events and trigger percentage across all three sites.

Species Bonogin

CA

Tourmaline

Park

Wyangan

VP

Number

of

Trigger

events

Total

Trigger

s %

unconfirmed rodents * 20 98 290 408 32.0

northern mountain BT ** 96 19 186 301 23.6

black rat ** 10 7 126 143 11.2

Australian brush-turkey 1 7 105 113 8.9

red-necked wallaby **

111

111 8.7

swamp wallaby ** 29 31 47 107 8.4

bush rat 8 7 53 68 5.3

European red fox ** 7 3 3 13 1.0

long-nosed bandicoot 2 3 2 7 0.5

Australian log runner ** 2

2 0.2

feral dog

1 1 0.1

northern brown bandicoot

1 1 0.1

wonga pigeon 1

1 0.1

false triggers 48 43 134 225

Total not including false triggers

1276

* Most common rodents were black rats and bush rats

** Two individuals of the same species on occasion captured in the one frame

22 | P a g e

Figure 9. Northern mountain BT photographed in Wyangan VP. Photograph J. Towers 2015.

Figure 10. The black rat photographed in Wyangan VP. Photograph J. Towers 2015.

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Figure 11. Bush rat photographed in Wyangan VP. Photograph J. Towers 2015.

Figure 12. Long-nosed bandicoot photographed in Tourmaline Park. Photograph J. Towers 2015.

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Figure 13. Australian log runner photographed in Bonogin CA. Photograph J. Towers 2015.

Figure 14. Swamp wallaby photographed in Bonogin CA. Photograph J. Towers 2015.

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Figure 15. Red-necked wallaby photographed in Tourmaline Park. Photograph J. Towers 2015.

Figure 16. European red foxes photographed in Bonogin CA. Photograph J. Towers 2015.

26 | P a g e

6.2.3 Spotlighting Survey

The spotlighting survey recorded a total of 10 species (Table 3). Bonogin Conservation Area

recorded the highest number of individual species with eight in total, with Wyangan VP recording

the lowest with two individual species.

Table 3. Spotlighting survey results over three nights at all three sites

Species

No. of

individuals

Site 1

Bonogin

No. of individuals

Site 2 Tourmaline

No. of individuals

Site 3 Wayangan

Birds

tawny frogmouth 2 2

grey goshawk 1

brown cuckoo dove 1

Amphibians

great barred frog 1

cane toad

1 1

Mammals

micro bat 1

squirrel glider

1

northern mountain BT 1

red-necked wallaby

1

pacific black duck 8

Total No. of Species 7 3 2

6.2.4 Additional observations

A total of three wild dogs (Canis familiaris) were observed during surveying in Bonogin CA, two at

the southern end near Tallebudgera Creek and one near the gate at Davenport Park. Apart from a few

skinks no other reptiles were encountered during this study.

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7. Discussion

7.1 Survey results

The purpose of his study was to use the data collected at the three sites to provide an example of

some of the fauna that are present within the planning area and not to make a comparison between

sites, however, data from each site can tell us something about the habitat types and ecotones in each

reserve and where increased wildlife activity is occurring. As very few data from previous surveys,

mainly data on mammals, were found for the planning area during initial literature reviews, it was

difficult to determine if mammal species observed during this study were consistent with what has

previously occurred there.

Of the three field surveys completed during this study the bird surveys yielded the highest number of

individual species, with a total of 27 recorded across all three sites. Less bird species however were

observed within Tourmaline Park, which is possibly attributed to less variation in habitat types

within that reserve when compared to Wyangan VP and Bonogin CA. This may not be a concern if

certain species have never occurred in this location but does present a case to keep current and

accurate GIS maps. These maps can be then used to compare past and present vegetation types and

altered landscapes, which would allow for inferences to be made about fauna that occur within the

reserves.

When comparing the number of bird species from this survey with results from bird surveys in the

planning area from 2008 to 2012, results were optimistic (within a range of 25 – 45 species). When

comparing recent data to a pre-1995 survey for Wyangan VP which recorded > 60 species, results

were substantially lower. Since 1995, the diversity of bird species appears to have declined according

to surveys conducted in the area prior to that time. Reasons for this could either be loss of habitat

from urban development or competition for resources between certain species causing displacement.

Urban development can lead to vital linkages being cutoff and restricting continuity between

reserves which are required for certain nomadic and migratory species (Gold Coast City Council,

2013). It may also be the case that subsequent surveys have simply not encountered those species.

The southern book-book owl (Ninox boobook), yellow-rumped thornbill (Acanthiza chrysorrhoa)

and wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila audax) for example all appeared in a pre-1995 list for Wyangan VP

and have not been recorded again since in that reserve. All bird species recorded were observed

evenly over the six days with the exception of the red-browed finch which was only observed on two

separate days but in large numbers. One of these observations occurred in Wyangan VP in a

particular patch of lantana of which subsequent visits to this same patch produced no further

observations of that species.

During the survey period, several bird species were consistently encountered in greater abundance

than others over each day and may indicate an imbalance in species type. With the exception of the

red-browed finch, five species appeared to dominate over the three sites with magpie larks recording

the highest abundance in Davenport Park. The rainbow lorikeet and brown thornbill (Acanthiza

pusilla) were spread fairly evenly across the three sites with the eastern whip bird (Psophodes

olivaceus) being fairly common in sites one and three. The brown thornbill is commonly found in

dry and wet locations with dense shrubbery and along water courses and can feed from the ground up

(Birdlife Australia, 2015). This is consistent with where they were most observed in Wyangan VP

within thick shrubs near Wyangan Creek. Magpie larks are ground dwelling birds and like to forage

in open grassed areas such as Davenport Park. They have successfully adapted to humans and the

28 | P a g e

urban environment and are often seen in large numbers (Kitchen et.al, 2010). A study was done in

Victoria comparing the fleeing distance between a researcher approaching magpie larks in urban

environments and in rural landscapes and it was found that urban birds would flee at a shorter

distance (12m + 1m) when approached, which was nearly three times closer than that in the rural

location (Kitchen et.al, 2010). This study highlighted that there is a correlation between successful

species rapidly colonising urban environments through learning that humans pose no direct threat. It

would be beneficial to determine if this phenomena is common among other species that are highly

abundant near human settlements. Conversely, some of the smaller bird species encountered such as

the red backed (Malurus melanocephalus) fairy wren and superb fairy (Malurus cyaneus) wren were

only encountered on one occasion and whilst these species are not listed as threatened it could be an

indication that they are easily startled and uncomfortable in the presence of humans. Whilst the focus

on conservation of vulnerable and endangered species is priority, species that are considered to occur

in high abundance and are of least concern at present can still become threatened in the future if

habitat is not protected. A study carried out in Wollongong NSW in 1996 compared assemblages of

birds that were suburb specialists to those that were reserve specialists. It was found that the brown

thornbill, eastern whipbird (Psophodes olivaceus), red-browed finch, white browed scrub wren

(Sericornis frontalis) and superb fairy wren (all species that occur in the Bonogin reserves) were all

reserve specialists and low in abundance. There was a correlation between abundance and

fragmented habitat in that location and conversely suburb specialists were much higher in abundance

(Wood, 1996). This highlights the need to ensure that the size of reserves and connectivity between

them is not compromised by future urban development. Remnant vegetation alone within reserves

cannot be relied upon to sustain biodiversity without considering how surrounding landscapes are

managed and this can only be achieved with careful and informed urban planning (Catterall, et.al,

2012). Continued monitoring of biodiversity should be a major component of conservation reserve

restoration (Catterall, et.al, 2012), and this information should be available to urban planners.

Spotlighting recorded only a small number of species and could be due to the reduced fauna activity

in the cooler conditions for this time of year. Species encountered were those commonly seen in the

urban landscape such as brushtail possums and tawny frogmouths. Two significant species

encountered however were the grey goshawk, listed as near threatened in QLD and the squirrel glider

(Petaurus norfolcensis), which is common in QLD but listed as vulnerable in NSW and threatened in

Victoria (Australian Museum, 2015). The grey goshawk was spotted perched high in a tree at a

location of higher altitude in Bonogin CA in a tall closed forest section which is consistent with its

preferred habitat (Birdlife Australia, 2015). The Burleigh Springbrook bioregional corridor is a vital

ecological link for this species and is an example of the importance of maintaining connectivity

between reserves. The squirrel glider has a preference for dry sclerophyll forests and woodlands

below 300m in altitude which is consistent with the location in Wyangan VP where it was identified

(Bell, et.al, 2011). This species also relies on tree hollows for nesting and refuge (Beyer, et.al, 2008)

and it is likely that glider numbers could be low in the area as many tree hollows have disappeared as

a result of previous land clearing regimes. This provides an example of why habitat must be

preserved to ensure these species can remain in the planning area well into the future.

The majority of mammal observations were achieved with camera surveys and results showed there

was a lack of diversity and three of the recorded species were non-native. The number of trigger

events were highest for the northern mountain BT, the black rat and Australian brush turkey and

these three species were responsible for around 45% of all trigger events. The results may indicate

that these species are more abundant than others in these reserves and with evidence of predation by

29 | P a g e

feral animals, fragmentation and loss of habitat from urban development, fauna diversity may be an

issue in the planning area. This is particularly relevant for those species that cannot easily adapt to

the urban environment. Overall Wyangan VP recorded a significantly higher number of trigger

events and could be due to that reserve housing more habitat with dense protective understory,

allowing fauna, particularly smaller mammals to forage safely. The results cannot be regarded as

conclusive based on the number of cameras, individual locations used and the time frame of the

survey however they do give some insight into the dynamics of habitat structure and diversity and

habitat types where certain species are likely to occur.

The habitat where species were encountered was fairly consistent with literature records of preferred

habitat. The northern mountain BT recorded the highest number of trigger events for the camera

survey and was persistent over time with its foraging activity within the target area and appeared to

be unintimidated by other species that came into frame from time to time. Brushtail possums are

highly adapted to urban environments and can live within these reserves or in residential areas and in

close proximity to humans (Queensland Government, 2015).

Diversity of small mammals was low, with camera surveys recording only four species including the

black rat, bush rat, long-nosed bandicoot and northern brown bandicoot (Isoodon macrourus). The

highest number of observations for these species occurred in Wyangan VP which houses many

patches of thick scrub and dense understory.

Black rats are an introduced species not only in Australia but worldwide and are known to displace

many native rodents such as the Australian bush rat (Stokes, et.al, 2009). In 2004 a study was

conducted on Beechcroft Peninsula, Jervis Bay, NSW in an area covering one hectare, consisting of a

broad variation of vegetation types. Black rats were experimentally removed for a period of 12

months from five sites each 1-ha in area and compared to five control sites each 1-ha in area. At the

conclusion of this period bush rat numbers had doubled within the area where black rats had been

removed from whereas the untreated site remained unchanged (Stokes, et.al, 2009). This reinforces

the fact that displacement from introduced species is another factor which can affect the abundance

of many native species. Black rats were observed with the cameras foraging in the vicinity of other

species such as wallabies and possums. This would indicate they are unintimidated and better

adapted to foraging in the presence of other species compared to the bush rat which was only

observed on its own. This gives the black rat a distinct advantage over resources.

The long-nosed bandicoot was recorded in all three locations and the northern brown bandicoot only

recorded in Wyangan VP, with the number of trigger events for them being very low (<10). This

could indicate a low abundance of these species in the area due to a lack of suitable habitat and/or

wariness of predators.

The Australian brush turkey recorded a high number of trigger events in Wyangan VP and is a

species that is common within the urban landscape in this region. They are often attracted to these

locations when offered food by humans and are regularly seen foraging around picnic areas

(Warnken et.al, 2004). Brush turkeys can be destructive within urban natural areas and are often

responsible for reduced leaf litter density, leading to reduced ground cover and seed and seedling

density and this has negative implications for fauna that rely on these areas for habitat (Warnken

et.al, 2004).

30 | P a g e

The swamp wallaby was observed regularly with the cameras at all three sites and this can be

attributed to its ability to live in various habitat types such as open forests, ferny gullies, woodlands,

heathlands, lantana thickets and shrubby water courses (Queensland museum, Queensland

government, 2015), and all three sites contained these habitat types. Due to their dentition they are

browsing specialists and can consume a variety of shrubs, ferns, grasses and herbs. This, combined

with their ability to move at high speed through thick scrub, explains why they were observed in all

three reserves within varying habitat types (Richardson, 2012). The red-necked wallaby which

recorded a high number of trigger events can also reside in several habitat types such as dry open

forests with some undergrowth (consistent with Tourmaline Park) and also road side verges and

grasslands (Queensland museum, Queensland government, 2015). They have a selective diet

consisting of native grasses and can supplement with forbs as a secondary dietary resource

(Richardson, 2012) and they were observed foraging within what appeared to be an area of a native

species of grass. As this species was only observed in Tourmaline Park however it could represent an

isolated population. A major power easement sits adjacent to this reserve and presents another barrier

to the Burleigh Springbrook bioregional corridor in addition to nearby residential developments and

the Pacific Motorway.

Medium-sized mammals such as quolls and potoroos, which are predicted to occur in the reserves,

were not encountered during this study. It is likely that they have not been able to adapt to rapid

urbanisation as well as other species such as the northern mountain BT and introduced red fox. This

phenomena is known as biotic homogenization (Lopucki & Kiersztyn, 2015). Small mammals prefer

habitat with a dense understory and which is not spatially isolated (Lopucki & Kiersztyn, 2015). The

long-nosed potoroo (Potorous tridactylus) has been recorded in the cluster and given that it is a

vulnerable species, further studies into its numbers within the area are desirable. They are known to

be large consumers of underground fungi and thought to play an important role in fungi dispersal

throughout forested areas. It is thought their declining numbers may have an effect on species

composition to levels which may not yet be realised (Ford, 2014).

As feral animal control is one of the major objectives of the Bonogin Conservation Reserves Draft

Management Plan, Council has a dedicated team to deal with this. European red foxes are considered

a major predator and cause the decline and extinction of native medium-sized mammals and also

prey on many smaller species such as the long-nosed bandicoot and long-nosed potoroo (Dexter &

Murray, 2009). Several control methods exist, however, the one which has proven most successful in

increasing the abundance of native fauna over a larger area is broad scale baiting. Bait stations using

substances like 1080 are placed in blocks within one location, culling them in that area whilst at the

same time drawing them away from another location (Dexter & Murray, 2009).

7.2 Urban Development and habitat requirements

Isolation, habitat fragmentation and modification from urban development and predation by feral

animals have a major effect on the abundance of many of the 13 species from the significant fauna

list in Appendix 1 (EPBC Act, 1999). The long-nosed potoroo, spotted tailed quoll (Dasyurus

maculatus), northern quoll (Dasyurus hallucatus) and brush-tailed rock wallaby (Petrogale

penicillata) are all adversely affected by these factors. It would appear based on these key

threatening processes that it is a major challenge to protect these species from external influences

given the constant pressure from urban development.

31 | P a g e

Access to resources such as water and adequate food supply must also be considered with regard to

the home range of any given species. For example sections of Wyangan Creek containing water of

low quality may determine how far certain species are able to travel given they may require

continuous tracts of protective riparian vegetation to access a potable water source. The decline of

many species is often a direct result of them being habitat specialists as opposed to the increased

abundance of others that are habitat generalists (Chambers & Dickman, 2002). The northern

mountain BT and black rat which can adapt to highly modified urbanised areas could be considered

habitat generalists. In contrast, the glossy black cockatoo and long-nosed bandicoots are examples of

species that are habitat specialists. The glossy black cockatoo requires certain species of casuarina as

a staple food source in its diet and spends a large proportion of its time foraging in these trees. The

long-nosed bandicoot requires a mosaic pattern of dense understory for diurnal nesting and more

open areas for foraging at night. The specialised habitat requirement by the long-nosed bandicoot

was demonstrated during a study at a site in North Head NSW, which compared the habitat use

between natural and highly modified environments (Chambers & Dickman, 2002). The Bonogin

reserves at present do appear to offer suitable habitat for these two species and this shows that it is

vital to maintain specialised vegetation communities and providing habitat variation to ensure these

animals continue to exist there.

The proposed quarry at Reedy Creek, (Figure 17), requires an area of 216 hectares for the site

however the development company maintain that the disturbance footprint will only be 65 hectares.

The initial application was rejected by Council in 2013 however it is currently being appealed in the

Planning and Environment Court, Brisbane (Boral Resources vs Gold Coast City Council, 2014).

An environmental impact statement has been completed for the proposed development upon which

flora and fauna surveying had been conducted. A broad range of fauna surveying methods had been

used detecting a total of 12 native mammals, 11 native reptiles, 69 bird and 9 frog species (Boral

resources, 2013). Whilst koalas and glossy black cockatoos were observed during surveys no specific

fauna species list was provided in this report. It is therefore unknown if any of the recorded species

were protected under any state and or federal conservation acts.

32 | P a g e

Figure 17. Proposed quarry site at Reedy Creek showing Tourmaline Park and several other reserves

within the cluster to the west. Overlay, Boral resources, 2013.

To reduce the likelihood of genetic drift and inbreeding it is vital that reserves such as these maintain

linkages via wildlife corridors to ensure genetic diversity is increased within a given species (Miller,

et.al, 2013). Failure to do this can often result in extinction of a species. Developments such as the

proposed quarry at Reedy Creek will have an adverse effect on fauna movement through corridors if

it proceeds. Consideration must be given to all factors relating to management of the planning area

and the effect they have on a broader scale. This should then be viewed within the context of the long

term ecological sustainability of the region.

8. Recommendations

Biodiversity of fauna is a key indicator to the efficacy of conservation management for natural areas

in the urban landscape and should be one of the main evaluation methods which directly and

indirectly provides beneficial outcomes for the environment and all stakeholders and associated

groups. This evaluation could be difficult however as it is ideal to have baseline data such as

comprehensive fauna records from a previous historical state to compare with current data (Bull

et.al, 2014). Some bird species that were recorded in the planning area before 1995 and have not

been recorded since should be investigated. Previous bird surveys have been of assistance in this

study to make comparisons between past and present species observations, however, level of

abundance of each species would be more useful in determining ecosystem dynamics.

N

33 | P a g e

Survey results from this study can be used in combination with previous species lists as baseline data

with which to refer to for all future fauna studies.

In accordance with the management plan for the Bonogin Conservation Reserves Cluster it is

recommended that fauna surveys be conducted annually and include birds, mammals, reptiles and

aquatic species and the level of abundance. More comprehensive studies into why certain fauna are

more abundant than others in certain locations would also be recommended. A further study into the

effect of barriers to the Burleigh Springbrook bioregional corridor is also recommended with a

particular focus on the effect they may be having on Tourmaline Park fauna diversity.

As the Bonogin CA Reserve borders Springbrook National Park it is important that Council

conservation management strategies for that area are consistent with state or federal legislation.

Ongoing consultation for this reserve and indeed the entire planning area needs to occur between all

jurisdictions and stakeholders where relevant, for future planning.

It is highly recommended to manage the reserves to an extent that can favour habitat specialists in an

attempt to obtain a more even spread of species and abundance as opposed to having several

dominant species. It is understood however that resources may sometimes be limited to achieve this.

More signs erected in recreational areas within the reserves to discourage the feeding of wild life is

recommended to reduce reliance of certain species on human food sources and which will draw them

away from inappropriate locations.

Continued efforts to revegetate and assist in regeneration should continue, particularly in the riparian

zones such as degraded areas of Wyangan Creek. Restoration in Davenport Park provides an

excellent example of riparian restoration and should be used as a benchmark. Some sections of these

creeks are exposed to periodic intense weather events which leads to erosion causing bank instability

in some sections. Periodic assessment of the water quality and channel stability of the creeks within

the reserves particularly in Wyangan VP is recommended to ensure the overall habitat quality is

maintained to a level that can sustain native aquatic, avian and terrestrial flora and fauna

communities.

Certain exotic plant species may need to remain in small patches in the interim to provide habitat for

some fauna species such as the red-browed finch whilst keeping the majority of vegetation

populations under control so as not to displace native flora. Weeds such as lantana that are currently

being used as habitat could gradually be replaced with plant species that have similar protective

characteristics such as spines but are native and are a less aggressive alternative. Suitable lantana

replacements are (orange thorn) Pittosporum multiflorum or (black thorn) Bursaria spinose. Planting

these species and weeding lantana in a mosaic pattern would give time for the alternate vegetation to

mature and effectively replace the lantana gradually (Save our waterways now, 2015).

All survey data should be made available to all relevant Council departments, including the

Environmental Planning Unit, Parks and Recreation and Town Planning. Regular evaluations of the

performance of the conservation management objectives for Bonogin and indeed all areas of

conservation significance managed by NAMU within the Gold Coast region should be conducted.

34 | P a g e

9. Conclusion

It may be argued that natural areas such as those within the Bonogin Conservation Reserve Cluster

have entered a new phase in the evolutionary process as a result of anthropogenic influences and may

need to be managed in this altered state. The reality is that the existing vegetation matrix may not be

able to provide the ideal habitat for all species that were once in abundance there, however, the

opportunity exists and every effort must be made to provide the best possible habitat with the current

vegetation regime.

Based on the results from this study it can be concluded that the Bonogin reserves cluster are a

significant refuge for many species within the highly urbanised environment in which they reside.

They are areas of conservation significance and provide important aesthetic value and ecological

services to the local community. Management of the reserves is not without its challenges though

and often limited resources can have an effect on the degree to which they are restored and

maintained. Every resource available however should be utilised efficiently to obtain the best

possible outcomes. Whilst it is important to consider ecological impacts to the reserves, a balanced

approach to conservation management must take into account economic, social and cultural values.

This requires continued consultation and negotiation with all stakeholders who have either a direct or

indirect interest in these natural areas and the value they provide to society in general.

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11. Appendices Appendix 1

List of significant fauna for the Bonogin conservation cluster.

Scientific Name Common Name

Recorded in reserves (R) cluster (C) or predicted (P)

Status NCA EPBC

Ecological Requirements

AMPHIBIANS

Adelotus brevis tusked frog R V Inhabits rainforests and eucalypt forests. Also lives in pastures and around human settlements. Found in Bonogin Conservation Area.

Assa darlingtoni pouched frog C NT Inhabits mixed eucalypt moist open forests and broadleaved spotted gum dry open forests. Identified in the eastern and western region on the planning area.

Litoria olongburensis

wallum sedge frog P V

Inhabits wetland regions and ephemeral swamps with banksias and melaleucas. National recovery plan available.

Litoria pearsoniana cascade treefrog R V Dense riparian vegetation, streams in rainforests and wet eucalypt forests. Exists in Bonogin, Reedy and Tallebudgera Creek tributaries and south of Smith Rd.

Mixophyes fleayi fleay's frog P E E Mountain rainforests, National recovery plan available for stream frogs of SE QLD.

Mixophyes iteratus giant barred frog P E E Wet forest. National recovery plan available for stream frogs of SE QLD.

REPTILES

Coeranoscincus reticulatus

three-toed snake tooth skink P V

Rainforest and occasional moist eucalypt forests on loamy or sandy soils.

Acanthophis antarcticus death adder P NT

Inhabits dry and wets eucalypt forest, rainforests and heath, often utilises leaf litter for cover. Unconfirmed sightings in upper Bonogin conservation area.

BIRDS

Accipiter novaehollandiae grey goshawk R NT

Occurs in various forests, particularly coastal closed forests. Occurs within Bonogin Conservation Area, and the eastern sections of the planning area.

Anthochaera phyrgia

regent honeyeater P E Temperate woodlands and open forests. National recovery plan available.

Botaurus poiciloptilus

Australasian bittern P E Terrestrial wetlands with tall dense vegetation, occasionally estuarine habitats.

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Scientific Name Common Name

Recorded in reserves (R) cluster (C) or predicted (P)

Status NCA EPBC

Ecological Requirements

Calyptorhynchus lathami

glossy black cockatoo R V

Dependent on Allocasuarina, utilising forests with these trees. Regularly sighted in Bonongin conservation Area and around Reedy and Wyangan Creeks.

Cyclopsitta diophthalma coxeni

coxen’s fig-parrot P E E

Subtropical rainforests in regions bordering sclerophyll forests. National recovery plan available.

Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus

black necked stork/Jabiru C NT

Inhabits river pools, swamps and tidal flats. Recorded in the northern section of the cluster at Somerset Drive and in the western regions at Lower Wyangan Creek and around Reedy Creek.

Lathamus discolor swift parrot P E E

Migrates from its Tasmanian breeding grounds to overwinter in the box-ironbark forests and woodlands of Victoria, New South Wales and southern Queensland. National recovery plan available.

Ninox strenua powerful owl R V Inhabits open sclerophyll forests and woodlands. Recorded within the ridgeline of Bonogin Conservation Area.

Podargus ocellatus marbled frogmouth R V

Prefers subtropical rainforests, particularly wet, sheltered gullies along creek lines within the tributaries of Bonogin and Tallebudgera Creeks and in Bonogin Conservation Area.

Poephila cincta cincta

black throated finch P V E Grassy woodlands. National recovery plan available.

Rostratula australis painted snipe P V Swamp, marshes and dam areas. Turnix

melanogaster black-breasted button quail P V

Coastal scrublands, vine forests, subtropical rainforests and woodlands. National recovery plan available.

Tyto tenebricosa sooty owl R NT Occurs in rainforests, nesting in large tree hollows. Associated with the tall moist forests of Bonogin Conservation Area, and along the upper tributaries of Tallebudgera Creek.

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Scientific Name Common Name

Recorded in reserves (R) cluster (C) or predicted (P)

Status NCA EPBC

Ecological Requirements

MAMMALS

Chalinolobus dwyeri

large eared pied bat P V Forages in dry sclerophyll forests and rainforest edges.

Dasyurus hallucatus northern quoll P E

Diversity of habitats, generally encompassing rocky areas for dens. National recovery plan available.

Dasyurus maculatus maculatus spot-tailed quoll P V E

Utilised structurally diverse forests that provide a range of habitat types such as trees, hollows, logs, rocky outcrop, caves and crevices.

Petrogale penicillata

brush-tailed rock-wallaby P V

Rocky escarpments, outcrops and cliffs with a preference for complex structures with fissures, caves and ledges.

Potorous tridactylus subsp. tridactylus

long-nosed potoroo C V V

Inhabits a variety of vegetation types from subtropical and warm temperate rainforest through tall open forest with dense understory to dense coastal heaths.

Phascolarctos cinereus koala R V Occurs in dry and wet eucalypt forests.

Pseudomys novaehollandiae

New Holland mouse P V Occurs in heathlands, woodlands and dry sclerophyll forests with dense shrub layers.

Pteropus poliocephalus

grey-headed flying fox R V V Roosts in eucalypt forest, mangroves and melaleuca forests.

INSECTS

Ornithoptera richmondia

Richmond birdwing butterfly R V Eggs laid on the larval food plant Pararistolochis praevenosa which grows in rainforest.

Phyllodes imperialis pink underwing moth P E

Source: City of Gold Coast (2015).

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Appendix 2

Existing bird species list from Wyangan VP 2012

Common Name Scientific Name

Australian king-parrot Alisterus scapularis

sulphur-crested cockatoo Cacatua galerita

little corella Cacatua sanguinea

fan-tailed cuckoo Cacomantis flabelliformis

pheasant coucal Centropus phasianinus

Australian wood duck Chenonetta jubata

white-headed pigeon Columba leucomela

black-faced cuckoo-shrike Coracina novaehollandiae

torresian crow Corvus orru

pied butcherbird Cracticus nigrogularis

Australian magpie Cracticus tibicen

grey butcherbird Cracticus torquatus

laughing kookaburra Dacelo novaeguineae

plumed whistling-duck Dendrocygna eytoni

spangled drongo Dicrurus bracteatus

white-faced heron Egretta novaehollandiae

galah Eolophus roseicapillus

eastern yellow robin Eopsaltria australis

peaceful dove Geopelia striata

magpie-lark Grallina cyanoleuca

yellow-faced honeyeater Lichenostomus chrysops

eastern sedgefrog Litoria fallax

brown cuckoo-dove Macropygia amboinensis

red backed fairy-wren Malurus melanocephalus

noisy miner Manorina melanocephala

lewin's honeyeater Meliphaga lewinii

leaden flycatcher Myiagra rubecula

scarlet honeyeater Myzomela sanguinolenta

crested pigeon Ocyphaps lophotes

golden whistler Pachycephala pectoralis

striated pardalote Pardalotus striatus

noisy friarbird Philemon corniculatus

pale-headed rosella Platycercus adscitus

eastern whipbird Psophodes olivaceus

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Common Name Scientific Name

satin bowerbird Ptilonorhynchus violaceus

grey fantail Rhipidura albiscapa

white browed scrubwren Sericornis frontalis

Australasian figbird Sphecotheres vieilloti

pied currawong Strepera graculina

Australian white ibis Threskiornis molucca

forest kingfisher Todiramphus macleayii

rainbow Lorikeet Trichoglossus haematodus

masked Lapwing Vanellus miles novaehollandiae

Source: City of Gold Coast (2015).

Existing bird species list from Bonogin CA 2008.

Common Name Scientific Name

brown thornbill Acanthiza pusilla

little shrike-thrush Colluricincla megarhyncha

black-faced cuckoo-shrike Coracina novaehollandiae

white-throated treecreeper Cormobates leucophaea

Australian magpie Cracticus tibicen

laughing kookaburra Dacelo novaeguinea

eastern yellow robin Eopsaltria astralis

bar-shouldered dove Geopelia humeralis

brown cuckoo-dove Macropygia amboinensis

Lewin's honeyeater Meliphaga lewinii

scarlet honeyeater Myzomela sanguinolenta

striated pardalote Pardalotus striatus

noisy friarbird Philemon corniculatus

eastern rosella Platycercus eximus

eastern whipbird Psophodes olivaceus

grey fantail Rhipidura albiscapa

Australasian figbird Sphecotheres vieilloti

pied currawong Strepera graculina

rainbow lorikeet Trichoglossus haematodus

silvereye Zosterops lateralis

Source: City of Gold Coast (2015).

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Appendix 3

List of invasive plant species to be controlled in the planning area.

Common Name Scientific name Class

crofton weed Ageratina adenophora

mist flowerm Ageratina riparia

blue billygoat weed Ageratum houstonianum

whiskey grass Andropogon virginicus

ground asparagus Asparagus aethiopicus 'Sprengeri' Class 3

groundsel bush Baccharis halimifolia Class 2

cobbler's pegs Bidens pilosa var. Pilosa

para grass Brachiaria mutica

thorny poinciana Caesalpinia decapetala

rhodes grass Chloris gayana

camphor laurel Cinnamomum camphora

flaxleaf fleabane Conyza bonariensis

silver-leaf desmodium Desmodium uncinatum

duranta Duranta erecta

balloon cotton bush Gomphocarpus physocarpus

balsam Impatiens walleriana

mile a minute Ipomoea cairica

jacaranda Jacaranda mimosifolia

lantana Lantana camara Class 3

japanese honeysuckle Lonicera japonica

siratro Macroptilium atropurpureum

perennial horse gram Macrotyloma axillare var. axillare

molasses grass Melinis minutiflora

red natal grass Melinis repens

glycine Neonotonia wightii

mickey mouse bush Ochna serrulata

paspalum Paspalum dilatatum

broad-leaf paspalum Paspalum mandiocanum

edible passionfruit Passiflora edulis

corky passion flower Passiflora suberosa

white passion flower Passiflora subpeltata

Kikuyu grass Pennisetum clandestinum

inkweed Phytolacca octandra

common fireweed Senecio madagascariensis Class 2

easter cassia Senna pendula var. glabrata

smooth senna Senna septemtrionalis

common sida Sida rhombifolia

indian weed Sigesbeckia orientalis

giant devils fig Solanum chyrsotrichum

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Common Name Scientific name Class

wild tobacco Solanum mauritianum

Singapore daisy Sphagneticola trilobata Class 3

cape honeysuckle Tecoma capensis

stinking Roger Targes minuta

yellow bells Tecoma stans Class 3

black-eyed Susan Thunbergia alata

Source: City of Gold Coast (2015).

Appendix 4

List of invasive fauna species in the planning area.

Common Name Scientific name Class Recorded in

cane toad Rhinella marina non-declared

Bonogin CA* Tourmaline*

European red fox Vulpes vulpes class 2

Bonogin CA, Wyangan VP * Tourmaline Park *

wild dog Canis lupus class 2 Bonogin CA*

brown hare Lepus capensis non-declared Bonogin CA

house mouse Mus musculus non-declared Bonogin CA

Indian (common) myna Acridotheres tristis non-declared Davenport Park

spotted dove Streptopelia chinensis non-declared

Bonogin CA, Davenport Park* Wyangan VP*

feral cat Felis catus class 2 -

common Startling Sturnus vulgaris non-declared -

cattle Bos taurus non-declared -

* Recorded in this survey

Source: City of Gold Coast (2015).