training and development is vital part of the human resource development

7/31/2019 Training and Development is Vital Part of the Human Resource Development

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Training and development is vital part of the human resource development. It is assuming ever important role in wake of advancement of technology which has resulted in ever increasing competition, rise in customers expectation of quality and sersubsequent need to lower costs. It is also become more important globally in order to prepare workers for new jobs. In the currup, we will focus more on the emerging need of training and development, its implications upon individuals and the employers.

Noted management author Peter Drucker said that the fastest growing industry would be training and development as a result

replacement of industrial workers with knowledge workers. In United States, for example, according to one estimate technologyskilling 75 % of the population. This is true for the developing nations and for those who are on the threshold of development. Iexample, with increasing number of women joining traditionally male jobs, training is required not only to impart necessary job also for preparing them for the physically demanding jobs. They are trained in everything from sexual harassment policies to thnecessary job skills.

Before we say that technology is responsible for increased need of training inputs to employees, it is important tounderstand that there are other factors too that contribute to the latter. Training is also necessary for the individualdevelopment and progress of the employee, which motivates him to work for a certain organisation apart from justmoney. We also require training update employees of the market trends, the change in the employment policies andother things.

The following are the two biggest factors that contribute to the increased need to training and development in

organisations:

1. Change: The word change encapsulates almost everything. It is one of the biggest factors that contribute tothe need of training and development. There is in fact a direct relationship between the two. Change leads tothe need for training and development and training and development leads to individual and organisationalchange, and the cycle goes on and on. More specifically it is the technology that is driving the need;changing the way how businesses function, compete and deliver.

2. Development: It is again one the strong reasons for training and development becoming all the moreimportant. Money is not the sole motivator at work and this is especially very true for the 21st century.People who work with organisations seek more than just employment out of their work; they look at holisticdevelopment of self. Spirituality and self awareness for example are gaining momentum world over. Peopleseek happiness at jobs which may not be possible unless an individual is aware of the self. At ford, forexample, an individual can enrol himself / herself in a course on self awareness, which apparently seemsinconsequential to ones performance at work but contributes to the spiritual well being of an individual which

is all the more important.

The critical question however remains the implications and the contribution of training and development to the bottomline of organisations performance. To assume a leadership position in the market space, an organisation will need toemphasise on the kind of programs they use to improvise performance and productivity and not just how much theysimply spend on learning!

Source: http://www.managementstudyguide.com/training-and-development.htm

TRAINING DEFINED

It is a learning process that involves the acquisition of knowledge, sharpening of skills, concepts,

rules, or changing of attitudes and behaviours to enhance the performance of employees.

Training is activity leading to skilled behavior.

Its not what you want in life, but its knowing how to reach it
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Its not where you want to go, but its knowing how to get there

Its not how high you want to rise, but its knowing how to take off

It may not be quite the outcome you were aiming for, but it will be an outcome

Its not what you dream of doing, but its having the knowledge to do it

It's not a set of goals, but its more like a vision

Its not the goal you set, but its what you need to achieve it

Training is about knowing where you stand (no matter how good or bad the current situation

looks) at present, and where you will be after some point of time.

Training is about the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSA) through professional

development.

ROLE OF TRAINING

Source: http://traininganddevelopment.naukrihub.com/training.html
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DevelopmentThe act of developing or disclosing that which is unknown; a gradual unfolding process by

which anything is developed, as a plan or method, or an image upon a photographic plate;gradual advancement or growth through a series of progressive changes; also, the result of

developing, or a developed state.

The series of changes which animal and vegetable organisms undergo in their passage from

the embryonic state to maturity, from a lower to a higher state of organization.

The act or process of changing or expanding an expression into another of equivalent value

or meaning.

The equivalent expression into which another has been developed.

The elaboration of a theme or subject; the unfolding of a musical idea; the evolution of a

whole piece or movement from a leading theme or motive.

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TYPES OF TRAINING

Induction training is important as it enables a new recruit to become productive as quickly as possible. Itcan avoid costly mistakes by recruits not knowing the procedures or techniques of their new jobs. Thelength of induction training will vary from job to job and will depend on the complexity of the job, the size ofthe business and the level or position of the job within the business.

The following areas may be included in induction training:

Learning about the duties of the job

Meeting new colleagues

Seeing the layout of the premises

Learning the values and aims of the business Learning about the internal workings and policies of the business

On-the-job training

With on the job training, employees receive training whilst remaining in the workplace.The main methods of one-the-job training include:

Demonstration / instruction - showing the trainee how to do the job

Coaching - a more intensive method of training that involves a close working relationship betweenan experienced employee and the trainee

Job rotation - where the trainee is given several jobs in succession, to gain experience of a wide

range of activities (e.g. a graduate management trainee might spend periods in several differentdepartments)

Projects - employees join a project team - which gives them exposure to other parts of thebusiness and allow them to take part in new activities. Most successful project teams are "multi-disciplinary"

The advantages and disadvantages of this form of training can be summarised as follows:
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Advantages Disadvantages

Generally most cost-effectiveEmployees are actually productiveOpportunity to learn whilst doingTraining alongside real colleagues

Quality depends on ability of trainer and timeavailableBad habits might be passed onLearning environment may not be conducive

Potential disruption to productionOff-the-job training

This occurs when employees are taken away from their place of work to be trained.

Common methods of off-the-job training include:

Day release (employee takes time off work to attend a local college or training centre)

Distance learning / evening classes

Block release courses - which may involve several weeks at a local college

Sandwich courses - where the employee spends a longer period of time at college (e.g. six months)before returning to work

Sponsored courses in higher education Self-study, computer-based training

The main advantages and disadvantages of this form of training can be summarised as follows:

Advantages Disadvantages

A wider range of skills or qualifications can beobtainedCan learn from outside specialists or expertsEmployees can be more confident when starting

job

More expensive e.g. transport andaccommodationLost working time and potential output fromemployee

New employees may still need some inductiontrainingEmployees now have new skills/qualifications andmay leave for better jobs

Trainings link to motivation

An important part of managing people is to let them know how they are performing. Various methods ofperformance appraisal can be used and an important output from this process should be an assessment ofan employees training needs. Training programmes should be focused on meeting those needs.

Assuming training is effective: then:

Employees feel more loyal to the business Shows that business is taking an interest in its workers

Employees should benefit from better promotion opportunities

Employees to achieve more at work and perhaps gaining financially from this (depending on theremuneration structure)

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Types of training?

TRAINING METHODS :-

All training methods can be grouped into two categories :-

a] Training methods for operatives and

b] Training methods for managers

a] Training Methods for Operatives :-Under these methods the new employee is assigned to a specific job at a machine or workshop or

laboratory. He is instructed by an experienced employee or by a special supervisor who explains to him

the method of handling tools, operating the machines etc.

Vestibule Training :- This method involves the creation of a separate training centre within the plant

itself for the purpose of providing training to the new employees. An experienced instructor is put in-

charge of this training. Machines and tools are also managed in the training centre, so as to create

working conditions similar to those in the workshop.

Advantage :- No interference with regular production.

Disadvantage - Costly, adds nothing to productions during training period.

Apprenticeship Training :-This method of training is meant to give the trainee sufficient knowledge

and skill in those trades and crafts in which a long period of training is required for gaining complete

proficiency.

Generally, the trainees work as apprentices under the direct supervision of experts for long periods of

say, two to seven years. This programme consists of providing actual work experience in the actual job

as well as imparting theoretical knowledge through class room lectures which may be arranged either in

the plant or in the institution attached to the concern. This method of training enables the trainees to

become all-round craftsmen. But this method is very expensive and also there is no guarantee that a

trained worker will continue to work in the same concern after the training is completed.

Internship Training :- This method of training is generally provided to the skilled and technical

personnel. The object of this type of training is to bring about a balance between theoretical and

practical knowledge, under this method, students from a technical institution possessing only theoretical

knowledge are sent to some business enterprise to gain practical work experience. Simultaneously, the

employees of business enterprises are sent to technical institutions to gain the latest theoretical

knowledge on a subject.

Ex. B.E. (Prod.) - 6 months in plant training

B.E. (Mech.)- 2 days in a week during final year

b] Training Methods for Managers :-

Executive talent is the most important asset which a company can posses. Although, it does not appear

on the company's balance sheet, but it produces more important effects on the company's progress, its

profit and the price of its stock than any other asset in its possession.

The following are the various training methods for managers.

1] Observation Assignment :-

Under this method, the newly recruited executive called "understudy" is made an assistant to the

current job holder. He learns by experience, observation and imitation. If decisions are discussed with

him, he is informed on the policies and theories involved.

2] Position Rotation :-

Under this method, the trainee executive is rotated among different managerial jobs. This not only

broaden and enriches his experience as a manager but also enables him to understand interdepartmental relations and the need for co-ordination and co-operation among various departments.

3] Serving on Committees :-

Another important method of training on an executive is to make him serve on a committee. While

serving on a committee, the executive comes to learn not only the various organizational problems,

views of senior and experienced members, but also learns how a manger should adjust himself to the

overall needs of the enterprise.

4] Assignment of special Projects :-

Sometimes, as a method of training some special project is assigned to a trainee executive. for


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Bangladesh. Md. Mozahar Ali is an Assistant Professor (Agricultural Extension) in the

Graduate Training Institute, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh.

Learning theories and training

Training approachExtension personnel around the world in need of training

Types of training

Phases of training

Implementation phase

Evaluation phase

References

Training is the process of acquiring specific skills to perform a job better (Jucious, 1963). Ithelps people to become qualified and proficient in doing some jobs (Dahama, 1979).

Usually an organization facilitates the employees' learning through training so that theirmodified behaviour contributes to the attainment of the organization's goals and objectives.Van Dersal (1962) defined training as the process of teaching, informing, or educatingpeople so that (1) they may become as well qualified as possible to do their job, and (2)they become qualified to perform in positions of greater difficulty and responsibility.

Flippo (1961) differentiated between education and training, locating these at the two endsof a continuum of personnel development ranging from a general education to specifictraining. While training is concerned with those activities which are designed to improvehuman performance on the job that employees are at present doing or are being hired todo, education is concerned with increasing general knowledge and understanding of thetotal environment. Education is the development of the human mind, and it increases thepowers of observation, analysis, integration, understanding, decision making, andadjustment to new situations.

Learning theories and training

Learning theories are the basic materials which are usually applied in all educational andtraining activities. The more one understands learning theories, the better he or she will beable to make decisions and apply them to achieving the objectives. The behaviourists, thecognitivists, and the humanists emphasize different aspects of the teaching-learningprocess in their approaches. While the behaviourists stress external conditions(environment) resulting in observations and measurable changes in behaviour, thecognitivists are more concerned with how the mind works (mental processes such ascoding, categorizing, and representing information in memory). The humanists, on the otherhand, emphasize the affective aspects (e.g., emotions, attitudes) of human behaviour thatinfluence learning (IRRI, 1990). In extension systems, effective training must be able to takecare of all the theories of learning in order to change the action,belief, and knowledge components of a trainee simultaneously.Andragogy(a theory ofadult learning) is usually used rather thanpedagogy(a theory of child learning) in extensiontraining.
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Training approach

There are three approaches to training: (1) the traditional approach, (2) the experientialapproach, and (3) the performance-based approach (Rama, Etling, & Bowen, 1993). In thetraditional approach, the training staff designs the objectives, contents, teaching techniques,

assignments, lesson plans, motivation, tests, and evaluation. The focus in this model isintervention by the training staff. In the experiential approach, the trainer incorporatesexperiences where in the learner becomes active and influences the training process.Unlike the academic approach inherent in the traditional model, experiential trainingemphasizes real or simulated situations in which the trainees will eventually operate. In thismodel, the objectives and other elements of training are jointly determined by the trainersand trainees. Trainers primarily serve as facilitators, catalysts, or resource persons. In theperformance-based approach to training, goals are measured through attainment of a givenlevel of proficiency instead of passing grades of the trainees. Emphasis is given to acquiringspecific observable skills for a task. This performance-based teacher education (PBTE)model, developed by Elam (1971), is mostly task or skill centred and is also applicable tononformal educational organizations such as extension.

Extension personnel around the world in need of training

Worldwide, there are currently more than 600,000 extension workers comprised ofadministrative staff, subject-matter specialists (SMS), fieldworkers, and some multipurposeunidentified people; the Asian and Pacific countries have absorbed more than 70 per centof them (Bahal, Swanson, & Earner, 1992). The percentage of extension personnel byposition, as reported by Swanson, Earner, and Bahal (1990), was 7 per cent administrative,14 per cent SMS, and 79 per cent field staff, with regional differences. Almost 13 per cent ofextension workers are women, with significant regional differences (Bahal et al., 1992). Theratio of SMS to field staff is also low in Asia, Africa, the Near East, and Latin American

countries, varying from about 1:11 to 1:14. The ratio for countries of Europe and NorthAmerica varies from 1:1.5 to 1:1.6. The worldwide ratio of SMS to field staff is 1:11.5(Swanson et al., 1990).

Deficiencies in knowledge, skills, and ability among extension personnel, particularly thoseof Asia, Africa, and Latin America, are remarkable. About 39 per cent of the extensionpersonnel worldwide have a secondary-level and 33 per cent an intermediate-leveleducation (Bahal et al., 1992). Moreover, within each region, there is a lot of variation inbasic academic qualifications of the frontline extension workers, SMS, and administrators.Differences in training received are also wide. In Africa, most frontline extension workersstill have only a secondary school diploma (Bahal et al., 1992). The poor educational

background of extension personnel necessitates regular training.

Types of training

Training may broadly be categorized into two types: preservice training and inservicetraining. Preservice training is more academic in nature and is offered by formal institutionsfollowing definite curricula and syllabuses for a certain duration to offer a formal degree or


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diploma. Inservice training, on the other hand, is offered by the organization from time totime for the development of skills and knowledge of the incumbents.

Preservice Training

Preservice training is a process through which individuals are made ready to enter a certainkind of professional job such as agriculture, medicine, or engineering. They have to attendregular classes in a formal institution and need to complete a definite curriculum andcourses successfully to receive a formal degree or diploma. They are not entitled to get aprofessional job unless they can earn a certificate, diploma, or degree from the appropriateinstitution. Preservice training contents emphasize mostly technical subject matter such ascrops, animal husbandry, and fisheries as well as pedagogical skills to prepare the studentsto work in agriculture.

In general two types of preservice training are available for agricultural staff. These are (1)degree level (at least a bachelor's degree in agriculture or related field), which is usuallyoffered for four years by a university or agricultural college; and (2) diploma level, which is

mostly offered by the schools of agriculture for a period of two to three years. The entrypoint for the former is normally twelve years of schooling and for the latter ten years ofschooling.

Inservice Training and Staff Development

Inservice training is a process of staff development for the purpose of improving theperformance of an incumbent holding a position with assigned job responsibilities. Itpromotes the professional growth of individuals. "It is a program designed to strengthen thecompetencies of extension workers while they are on the job" (Malone, 1984, p. 209).Inservice training is a problem-centred, learner-oriented, and time-bound series of activities

which provide the opportunity to develop a sense of purpose, broaden perception of theclientele, and increase capacity to gain knowledge and mastery of techniques.

Inservice training may broadly be categorized into five different types: (1) induction ororientation training, (2) foundation training, (3) on-the-job training, (4) refresher ormaintenance training, and (5) career development training. All of these types of training areneeded for the proper development of extension staff throughout their service life.

Induction or Orientation Training. Induction training is given immediately after employmentto introduce the new extension staff members to their positions. It begins on the first day thenew employee is on the job (Rogers & Olmsted, 1957). This type of training is aimed atacquainting the new employee with the organization and its personnel. Induction training for

all new personnel should develop an attitude of personal dedication to the service of peopleand the organization. This kind of training supplements whatever preservice training thenew personnel might have had (Halim and Ali, 1988). Concerning the characteristics of anew employee. Van Dersal (1962) said that when people start to work in an organization forthe first time, they are eager to know what sort of outfit they are getting into, what they aresupposed to do, and whom they will work with. They are likely to be more attentive andopen-minded than experienced employees. In fact, the most favourable time for gaining


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employees' attention and for moulding good habits among them is when they are new to thejob.

Foundation Training. Foundation training is inservice training which is also appropriate fornewly recruited personnel. Besides technical competence and routine instruction about theorganization, every staff member needs some professional knowledge about various rulesand regulations of the government, financial transactions, administrative capability,communication skills, leadership ability, coordination and cooperation among institutionsand their linkage mechanism, report writing, and so on. Foundation training is madeavailable to employees to strengthen the foundation of their service career. This training isusually provided at an early stage of service life.

Maintenance or Refresher Training. This training is offered to update and maintain thespecialized subject-matter knowledge of the incumbents. Refresher training keeps thespecialists, administrators, subject-matter officers, extension supervisors, and frontlineworkers updated and enables them to add to the knowledge and skills they have already.Maintenance or refresher training usually deals with new information and new methods, as

well as review of older materials. This type of training is needed both to keep employees atthe peak of their possible production and to prevent them from getting into a rut (VanDersal, 1962).

On-the-Job Training. This is ad hoc or regularly scheduled training, such as fortnightlytraining under the training and visit (T&V) system of extension, and is provided by thesuperior officer or the subject-matter specialists to the subordinate field staff. This training isgenerally problem or technology oriented and may include formal presentations, informaldiscussion, and opportunities to try out new skills and knowledge in the field. The superiorofficer, administrator, or subject-matter specialist of each extension department must play arole in providing on-the-job training to the staff while conducting day-to-day normal

activities.

Career or Development Training. This type of in-service training is designed to upgrade theknowledge, skills, and ability of employees to help them assume greater responsibility inhigher positions. The training is arranged departmentally for successful extension workers,at all levels, for their own continuing education and professional development. Malone(1984) opined that extension services that provide the opportunity for all staff to prepare aplan for career training will receive the benefits of having longer tenured and more satisfiedemployees, which increases both the effectiveness and efficiency of an extension service.Malone stated that "career development is the act of acquiring information and resourcesthat enables one to plan a program of lifelong learning related to his or her worklife" (p.216). Although extension workers are responsible for designing their own career

development education, the extension organization sometimes sets some criteria andprovides opportunities for the staff by offering options.

Phases of training

Training is a circular process that begins with needs identification and after a number ofsteps ends with evaluation of the training activity. A change or deficiency in any step of thetraining process affects the whole system, and therefore it is important for a trainer to have


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a clear understanding about all phases and steps of the training process. In the broadestview, there are three phases of a training process: planning, implementation, andevaluation.

Planning Phase

The planning phase encompasses several activities, two of which - training needsidentification and curriculum development - are very important.

Training Needs Identification. Training need is a condition where there is a gap between"what is" and "what should be" in terms of incumbents' knowledge, skills, attitudes, andbehaviour for a particular situation at one point in time. This gap is called "a problem," whichusually occurs when a difference exists between "desired performance" and "actualperformance." The needs identification process assists trainers in making sure that theyhave matched a training programme to a training problem. For example, agriculturalextension officers (AEOs) have been giving training to village extension workers (VEWs),but performance of the VEWs is not improving. The reasons may be:

1. The AEOs lack subject-matter knowledge.

2. The AEOs do not conduct training well.

3. The training centre lacks training facilities.

4. The VEWs are organized not to work properly until their demands are satisfied by the

government.

The first two problems are related to knowledge and skills and can be solved effectively bya training programme, but the third and fourth problems need government attention tosolve.

Training needs identification is possible through different analytical procedures. The majorprocedures used in determining training needs are the following:

Organizational analysis determines where training emphasis should be placed within theorganization and is based on the objectives of an organization. Concerning what one shoulddo in analysing an organization, McGhee and Thayer (1961) suggest four steps:

1. Stating the goals and objectives of an organization

2. Analysing the human resources

3. Analysing efficiency indices

4. Analysing the organizational climate

The results of these analyses are then compared with the objectives of the organization.These comparisons point to specific areas in which training is needed.

Individual analysis aims at identifying specific training needs for an individual or group ofemployees so that training can be tailored to their needs. This analysis centres onindividuals and their specific needs concerning the skills, knowledge, or attitudes they mustdevelop to perform their assigned tasks. The possible methods or techniques for individual


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analysis include performance appraisal, interviews, questionnaires, tests, analysis ofbehaviour, informal talks, checklist, counseling, critical incidents, recording, surveys, andobservations.

Group analysis includes a number of techniques in which a group of well-informedemployees discuss different aspects of the organization, the employees, and the tasks toidentify the major discrepancies in achieving predetermined targets for each of them with aview to assessing training needs as distinguished from other necessary changes forremoving these discrepancies. The major techniques which are used in this approach arebrainstorming, buzzing, cardsorts, advisory committee, conferences, problem clinic, roleplaying, simulation, task forces, workshops, and so forth.

Many problems exist in an organization, but some problems cannot be solved by training.After a preliminary needs analysis, which gives probable causes and solutions, the resultsshould be verified with the concerned personnel of the organization to determine whethertraining is an appropriate action to solve that problem.

Curriculum Development. This is the most important part in a training programme after aneed for training has been identified. The curriculum specifies what will be taught and how itwill be taught. It provides the framework and foundation of training. The first phase ofcurriculum development determines what will be taught, that is, the training content.

Once training needs have been identified and training activities have been decided as partof the solution, a needs analysisshould be done to determine knowledge, skills, and attituderequirements and performance deficiencies. The needs analysis procedure involvesbreaking down the "training problem" into its basic parts in different successive phases toidentify and understand the important components in each phase. Ultimately it leads toidentifying and understanding the training content. The training needs analysis process can

be divided into three distinct analytical phases: job analysis, task analysis, and knowledgeand skill-gap analysis.

A. Job analysis. Job analysis is a method of determining major areas of tasks where trainingmay be needed (see JA Worksheet). It involves the dissecting of a job into its componentevents or parts. This analysis allows a trainer to better understand what an employee doesin an organization. Job analysis involves the "task identification" of a particular job(Wentling, 1992). The techniques used in task identification include job questionnaire,interview, participant observation, work sampling, job audit, and small-group discussion.The following steps may provide a guide for completion of job analysis:

1. Identify the job that is to be the subject of the analysis. This involves defining the focal

point for the job analysis. It may include the entire job of a group of employees or only a

specific segment of their job.

2. Prepare a list of tasks which can be done following different approaches and methods.Four approaches can be used to identify job tasks: (1) expertsidentify and list critical tasks,(2) observations and interviews are conducted with employees, (3) meetings are held withgroup representatives, and (4) a tentative list of task is reviewed by employees and theirsupervisors.


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3. Verify the tasks. The draft list of tasks should be verified by experts, workers, andsupervisors in the analysis process. This can be done through expert review, small-groupdiscussions, and inter views. When the tasks are verified, a final list of job tasks is prepared.

4. Determine the frequency. The workers and super visors can fill in a form indicating howfrequently each task in a job is performed. Different scales such as "seldom," "occasionally,""weekly to monthly," "daily to weekly," and "daily" can be used to quantify the intensity of atask accomplished.

5. Determine the importance. Not all tasks are equally important to a job. An occasionallyperformed task may be very important. Therefore, a relative importance rating is usefulalong with frequency rating. A scale such as "marginally important," "moderately important,"and "extremely important" may be used to determine the relative importance of the jobtasks.

6. Estimate the learning difficulty. An estimate of learning difficulty is another dimension ofthe job-task analysis. It shows the trainer the employees' perception of difficulty, which may

be different from the trainer's own perception. A scale such as "easy," "moderately difficult,""very difficult," and "extremely difficult" may be used to determine the difficulty indices of jobtasks.

7. Calculate the total score. This can be done by simply adding the scores for frequency,importance, and learning difficulty for each task. The column for total score in a worksheetindicates the priority tasks for training if these are training problems.

8. Review the findings. The results of the job-task analysis should be discussed withsignificant people in the training system, including government leaders, programmedirectors, and others interested in related training.

B. Task analysis. The output of the job analysis is a list of broad job tasks, based onimportance, learning difficulty, and frequency of doing the task. Each task is a complex setof procedures in itself, and therefore it needs further analysis to find out which specificsegment of the of the task is critical in designing a training programme (see Task AnalysisWorksheet). To do this, it is necessary to follow a method called task analysis, which issimilar to job analysis.

Task analysis procedures include preparing a blank task analysis worksheet, writing downthe name of the job at the top of each sheet, and then making copies. Each of these formswill be used for breaking down and analysing each of the most important job tasks.Therefore, it is necessary to write one important task identified for training on each of the

task analysis worksheets and to list all component parts of each task on its respective taskanalysis worksheet. This is followed by the steps used for job analysis to find out thefrequency, importance, and learning difficulty for each step of the tasks. Then the score foreach component part is put in the "total score" column, and the results are discussed withconcerned personnel in the organization. The job analysis and task analysis processes aresimilar to each other, so the model for both worksheets is the same.


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The important difference between these two steps of analysis is that "the job analysis helpsus identify major blocks of content to include in training; the task analysis helps usunderstand what comprises an individual block" (Wentling, 1992). Both are very importantto the curriculum development process. What needs to be taught and what steps areinvolved in the process are completed by these analyses and comprise the major steps incurriculum development.

C. Knowledge and skill-gap analysis. The knowledge or skill-gap analysis is a process ofdetermining the training needs of individual employees in relation to the important tasks-steps or components of tasks identified for training (see Skill-Gap Analysis Worksheet). Theskill-gap analysis determines how skilled or proficient individual employees are on thesetasks-steps or components, how much individuals differ from desired performance, andwhether or not they need training. It would be a waste of resources and frustrating to thetrainer and trainees to design and deliver training on topics and skills where the trainees arealready able and proficient. A priority list of the tasks identified for training according to thetotal score in the job analysis is made. Then, the steps or components that were identifiedon each task analysis worksheet are listed on the skill-gap analysis worksheet. This is

followed by rating each step-component in terms of the trainee's current proficiency on ascale of 1 to 5, as shown in the legend of the worksheet. Identifying the steps-componentsthat appear to have low proficiency is required because there is a gap between what isdesired and the current situation. After this, a review is done to ponder whether the gap canbe decreased or removed through training or whether training is the most appropriatemethod. There may be some steps-components for which measures other than training aremore appropriate. At this stage, key personnel such as subject-matter specialists,supervisors, and extension-training experts should discuss the findings before finalizing thecurriculum. This helps to identify different perspectives and to avoid unnoticed mistakes orbiases in curriculum development.

The training needs analyses provide many things to a trainer. The analyses determine thetraining contents and how deficient the trainees are in these contents, and the sequence oftasks provides the sequence of training activity.

Job Analysis Worksheet

Job: Agriculture Extension Officer

Tasks: Frequency performeda Importanceb Learning difficultyb Total score Focus

1. Supervision 4 3 1 8 ...

2. Conducting training 4 3 3 10 yes

3. Planning programmes 2 3 2 7 ...

4. Research trial 2 2 1 5 ...

......... ... ... ... ... ...

......... ... ... ... ... ...

......... ... ... ... ... ...a 1 = Seldom b 1 = Marginally important c 1 = Easy

2 = Occasionally 2 = Moderately important 2 = Moderately difficult

3 = Weekly to monthly 3 = Extremely important 3 = Very difficult

4 = Daily to weekly 4 = Extremely difficult

5 = Daily

Task Analysis Worksheet



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Task: Conducting training

Components/steps Frequency Performeda Importanceb

DifficultycLearning Score Total Focus

Establishing rapport 5 3 1 9 -

Introducing the topic - - - - -

Presenting the subject 5 3 1 9 -

Maintaining sequence - - - - -Maintaining eye contact - - - - -

Using A/V aids in time 5 3 4 12 yes

- - - -

- - - -

Summarizing the lecture 5 3 3 11 yesa1 = Seldom b1 = Marginally important c1 = Easy

2 = Moderately important 2 = Moderately important 2 = Moderately difficult

3 = Weekly to monthly 3 = Extremely important 3 = Very difficult

4 = Daily to weekly 4 = Extremely difficult

5 = Daily

Skill-Gap Analysis Worksheet


Task: Delivering lecture in VEWs training

Steps-components Level of proficiency

Is proficiency aproblem?

Can problem be solved bytraining?

Establishing rapport 1 2 3 (4) 5 [ ] [ ]

Introducing the topic 1 2 (3) 4 5 [Y] [Y]

Presenting the subject 1 2 3 (4) 5 [ ] [ ]

Maintaining sequence 1 2 (3) 4 5 [ ] [ ]

Maintaining eye contact 1 (2) 3 4 5 [Y] [Y]

Using A/V aids in time 1 (2) 3 4 5 [ ] [ ]

Supplying handouts 1 2 (3) 4 5 [Y] [N]

......... 1 2 3 4 5 [ ] [ ]

Summarizing thelecture

(1) 2 3 4 5 [Y] [Y]

1 = Cannot do at all

2 = Can do less than half of the task

3 = Can do more than half but less than total

4 = Can do total but cannot maintain time schedule

5 = Can do within time schedule

Selecting a Training Method

A training programme has a better chance of success when its training methods arecarefully selected. A training method is a strategy or tactic that a trainer uses to deliver thecontent so that the trainees achieve the objective (Wentling, 1992). Selecting anappropriate training method is perhaps the most important step in training activity once thetraining contents are identified. There are many training methods, but not all of these areequally suitable for all topics and in all situations. To achieve the training objective, a trainershould select the most appropriate training method for the content to involve the trainees inthe learning process. Four major factors are considered when selecting a training method:the learning objective, the content, the trainees, and the practical requirements (Wentling,


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1992). According to Bass and Vaughan (1966), training methods should be selected on thebasis of the degree to which they do the following:

1. Allow active participation of the learners.

2. Help the learners transfer learning experiences from training to the job situation.

3. Provide the learners with knowledge of results about their attempts to improve.4. Provide some means for the learners to be reinforced for the appropriate behaviour.

5. Provide the learners with an opportunity to practise and to repeat when needed.

6. Motivate the learners to improve their own performance.

7. Help learners increase their willingness to change.

These criteria indicate that a single training method will not satisfy the objectives of atraining programme.

A variety of training methods are available to a trainer. The most commonly used methodsinclude:

1. Instructor presentation. The trainer orally presents new information to the trainees,

usually through lecture. Instructor presentation may include classroom lecture, seminar,

workshop, and the like.

2. Group discussion. The trainer leads the group of trainees in discussing a topic.

3. Demonstration. The trainer shows the correct steps for completing a task, or shows anexample of a correctly completed task.

4.Assigned reading. The trainer gives the trainees reading assignments that provide new

information.

5. Exercise. The trainer assigns problems to be solved either on paper or in real situationsrelated to the topic of the training activity.

6. Case study. The trainer gives the trainees information about a situation and directs themto come to a decision or solve a problem concerning the situation.

7. Role play. Trainees act out a real-life situation in an instructional setting.

8. Field visit and study tour. Trainees are given the opportunity to observe and interact with

the problem being solved or skill being learned.

Implementation phase

Once the planning phase of a training programme is complete, then it is time to implementthe course. Implementation is the point where a trainer activates the training plan, or it is theprocess of putting a training programme into operation.


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The first step towards implementing a training programme is publicity. Most of the well-established training centres develop training brochures which contain course descriptions,prepare an annual calendar of training opportunities, and inform concerned organizations,agencies, or departments well ahead of time about their training plans. Once the trainingcentre and concerned organizations agree to implement training, the next step is to arrangeavailable resources such as sufficient funds for the course and facilities for food, lodging,transportation, and recreation. All these resources need to be well managed andcoordinated to run the programme smoothly.

Evaluation phase

Evaluation is a process to determine the relevance, effectiveness, and impact of activities inlight of their objectives. In evaluating an extension training programme, one needs toconsider that most training activities exist in a larger context of projects, programmes, andplans. Thus Raab et al. (1987, p. 5) define training evaluation as "a systematic process ofcollecting information for and about a training activity which can then be used for guidingdecision making and for assessing the relevance and effectiveness of various trainingcomponents."

Kirkpatrick (1976) suggested four criteria to evaluate training programmes: (1) reaction, (2)learning, (3) behaviour, and (4) results. Each criterion is used to measure the differentaspects of a training programme. Reaction measures how the trainees liked the programmein terms of content, methods, duration, trainers, facilities, andmanagement. Learningmeasures the trainees' skills and knowledge which they were able toabsorb at the time of training. Behaviouris concerned with the extent to which the traineeswere able to apply their knowledge to real field situations. Results are concerned with thetangible impact of the training programme on individuals, their job environment, or theorganization as a whole.

Types of Evaluation

On the basis of the time dimension, evaluation may be classified as (1) formative evaluationand (2) summative evaluation.Formative evaluation involves the collection of relevant anduseful data while the training programme is being conducted. This information can identifythe drawbacks and unintended outcomes and is helpful in revising the plan and structure oftraining programmes to suit the needs of the situation. Summative evaluation is done at theend of the programme and makes an overall assessment of its effectiveness in relation toachieving the objectives and goals.

Raab et al. (1987), however, classified evaluation into four major types: (1) evaluation forplanning, (2) process evaluation, (3) terminal evaluation, and (4) impact evaluation.

Evaluation for planningprovides information with which planning decisions are made.Training contents and procedures (methods and materials) are usually planned at this stagein order to choose or guide the development of instructional aids and strategies. Processevaluation is conducted to detect or predict defects in the procedural design of a trainingactivity during the implementation phase (Raab et al., 1987). Through this process the keyelements of the training activities are systematically monitored, problems are identified, and


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attempts are made to rectify the mistakes before they become serious. Process evaluationis periodically conducted throughout the entire period of the programme.

Terminal evaluation is conducted to find out the effectiveness of a training programme afterit is completed. The objectives of terminal evaluation are to determine the degree to whichdesired benefits and goals have been achieved, along with the causes of failure, ifany. Impact evaluation assesses changes in on-the-job behaviour as a result of trainingefforts. It provides feedback from the trainees and supervisors about the outcomes oftraining. It measures how appropriate the training was in changing the behaviour ofparticipants in real-life situations.

References

Bahal, R., Swanson, B. E., & Farner, B. J. (1992). Human resources in agriculturalextension: A worldwide analysis. Indian Journal of Extension Education, 28(3, 4), 1-9.

Bass, B. M., & Vaughan, J. A. (1966). Training in industry:The management oflearning. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.

Dahama, O. P. (1979). Extension and rural welfare. New Delhi: Ram Parsad and Sons.

Elam, S. (1971). Performance based teacher education: What is the state of theart. Washington, DC: AACTE.

Flippo, E. B. (1961). Principles of personnel management. New York: McGraw Hill.

Halim, A., & Ali, M. M. (1988). Administration and management of trainingprogrammes. Bangladesh Journal of Training and Development, 1 (2), 1-19.

IRRI. (1990). Training and technology transfer course performance objectivesmanual. Manila: International Rice Research Institute.

Jucious, M. J. (1963). Personnel management(5th ed.). Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin.

Kirkpatrick, D. (1976). Evaluation of training. In R. L. Craig (Ed.), Training and developmenthandbook. New York: McGraw Hill.

Lynton, R. P., & Pareek, U. (1990). Training for development. West Hartford, CT: KumarianPress.

Malone, V. M. (1984). Inservice training and staff development. In B. E. Swanson(Ed.),Agricultural extension: A reference manual. Rome: FAO.

McGhee, W., & Thayer, P. W. (1961). Training in business and industry. New York: JohnWiley and Sons.


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Raab, R. T., Swanson, B. E., Wentling, T. L., & dark, C. D. (Eds.). (1987).A trainer's guideto evaluation. Rome: FAO.

Rama, B. R., Etling, A. W. W., & Bowen, B. E. (1993). Training of farmers and extensionpersonnel. In R. K. Samanta (Ed.),Extension strategy for agricultural development in 21stcentury. New Delhi: Mittal Publications.

Rogers, F. E., & Olmsted, A. G. (1957). Supervision in thecooperative extensionservice. Madison, WI: National Agricultural Extension Center for Advanced Study.

Swanson, B. E., Farner, B. J., & Bahal, R. (1990). The current status of agriculturalextension worldwide. In B. E. Swanson (Ed.), Report of the Global Consultation on

Agricultural Extension. Rome: FAO.

Van Dorsal, W. R. (1962). The successful supervisor. New York: Harper and Row.

Wentling, T. L. (1992). Planning for effective training: Aguide to curriculum

development. Rome: FAO.

http://www.fao.org/docrep/W5830E/w5830e0h.htm

THE FOUR BASIC STEPS IN THE TRAINING PROCESS

Training is one of the most profitable investments an organization can make. No matter what business or industry youare in the steps for an effective training process are the same and may be adapted anywhere.

If you have ever thought about developing a training program within your organization consider the following fourbasic training steps. You will find that all four of these steps are mutually necessary for any training program to beeffective and efficient.

STEP 1: ESTABLISHING A NEEDS ANALYSIS.This step identifies activities to justify an investment for training. The techniques necessary for the data collection aresurveys, observations, interviews, and customer comment cards. Several examples of an analysis outlining specifictraining needs are customer dissatisfaction, low morale, low productivity, and high turnover.

The objective in establishing a needs analysis is to find out the answers to the following questions:

- Why is training needed?- What type of training is needed?- When is the training needed?

- Where is the training needed?- Who needs the training? and "Who" will conduct the training?- How will the training be performed?

By determining training needs, an organization can decide what specific knowledge, skills, and attitudes are neededto improve the employees performance in accordance with the companys standards.

The needs analysis is the starting point for all training. The primary objective of all training is to improve individual andorganizational performance. Establishing a needs analysis is, and should always be the first step of the trainingprocess.
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STEP 2: DEVELOPING TRAINING PROGRAMS AND MANUALS.This step establishes the development of current job descriptions and standards and procedures. Job descriptionsshould be clear and concise and may serve as a major training tool for the identification of guidelines. Once the jobdescription is completed, a complete list of standards and procedures should be established from each responsibilityoutlined in the job description. This will standardize the necessary guidelines for any future training.

STEP 3: DELIVER THE TRAINING PROGRAM.

This step is responsible for the instruction and delivery of the training program. Once you have designated yourtrainers, the training technique must be decided. One-on-one training, on-the-job training, group training, seminars,and workshops are the most popular methods.

Before presenting a training session, make sure you have a thorough understanding of the following characteristics ofan effective trainer. The trainer should have:

- A desire to teach the subject being taught.

- A working knowledge of the subject being taught.

- An ability to motivate participants to want to learn.

- A good sense of humor.

- A dynamic appearance and good posture.

- A strongpassionfor their topic.

- A strong compassion towards their participants.

- Appropriate audio/visual equipment to enhance the training session.

For a training program to be successful, the trainer should be conscious of several essential elements, including acontrolled environment, good planning, the use of various training methods, goodcommunication skills, and traineeparticipation.

STEP 4: EVALUATE THE TRAINING PROGRAM.This step will determine how effective and profitable your training program has been. Methods for evaluation are pre-and post- surveys of customer comments cards, the establishment of a cost/benefit analysis outlining your expensesand returns, and an increase in customer satisfaction and profits.

The reason for an evaluation system is simple. The evaluation of training programs are without a doubt the mostimportant step in the training process. It is this step that will indicate the effectiveness of both the training as well asthe trainer.

There are several obvious benefits for evaluating a training program. First, evaluations will provide feedback on thetrainers performance, allowing them to improve themselves for future programs. Second, evaluations will indicate itscost-effectiveness. Third, evaluations are an efficient way to determine the overall effectiveness of the trainingprogram for the employees as well as the organization.

The importance of the evaluation process after the training is critical. Without it, the trainer does not have a trueindication of the effectiveness of the training. Consider this information the next time you need to evaluate yourtraining program. You will be amazed with the results.

The need for training your employees has never been greater. As business and industry continues to grow, more jobswill become created and available. Customer demands, employee morale, employeeproductivity, and employeeturnover as well as the current economic realties of a highly competitive workforce are just some of the reasons forestablishing and implementing training in an organization. To be successful, all training must receive support from the
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top management as well as from the middle and supervisory levels of management. It is a team effort and must beimplemented by all members of the organization to be fully successful.

http://www.selfgrowth.com/articles/Infande4.html
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training and development is vital part of the human resource development

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