training modalities, olympic weightlifting, resistance

Effective Training Modalities, Olympic Weightlifting, Plyometrics & Traditional

Resistance Training in Children

David Behm PhDSchool of Human Kinetics and Recreation Memorial University of NewfoundlandSt. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada

Scientific Acceptance of Resistance Training for Children

American College of Sports Medicine American Academy of Pediatrics Australian Strength and Conditioning Association British Assoc. of Sport / Exercise Science Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology National Strength and Conditioning Association

Sampling of Review articles:Faigenbaum 2000, Falk and Tenebaum 1996, Falk and Eliakim 2003, Blimkie 1993, Sale 1989

Effects of Traditional Resistance Training with Children and Adolescents

Summary of the effects of resistance training (RT) in children and adolescents. Effect Children Adolescents Sample References Notes

Muscle Strength

+++ +++ Blimkie et al. 1989, 1996; Christou et al. 2006; Faigenbaum et al. 1993, 1996a, 2001, 2002, 2005b; Fukunaga et al. 1992; Lillegard et al. 1997; Nichols et al. 2001; Ozmun et al. 1994; Pfeiffer & Francis 1986; Pikosky et al. 2002; Ramsay et al. 1990; Sadres et al. 2001; Sailors & Berg 1987; Siegal et al. 1989; Tsolakis et al. 2004; Weltman et al. 1986

Smaller absolute strength gains in children compared with adults but comparable relative gains

Table 1: Behm et al. 2008

Effects of Traditional Resistance Training in Children and Adolescents

Effect Children Adolescents Sample References Notes

Muscle Power

? + Christou et al. 2006; Faigenbaum et al. 1993, 1996a, 2002, 2005b; Lillegard et al. 1997; Weltman et al. 1986

Small if any changes in children; limited data in adolescents

Muscular Endurance

++ + Faigenbaum et al. 1999, 2001, 2005b; Ramsay et al. 1990; Sailors & Berg 1987

Limited data in adolescents

Table 1: Behm et al. 2008

Objectives

• 1. What is a logical training sequence to implement power training with children?

• 2. Do plyometrics and Olympic weight lifting increase power or explosive strength in children?

• 3. Is it safe to employ power resistance exercises with children?

Warm‐up Goal: Excitation

Static stretching (SS) can depress the system resulting in impairments in muscle activation, force, power, sprint, reaction and movement time, balance(Behm and Chaouachi 2011, Chaouachi et al. 2008, Behm and Kibele 2007, Behm et al. 2001, 2004, 2006, Power et al. 2004, Young and Behm 2002)

Static stretching (SS) impairs performance even in children: ↓ sprint time with 13-15 year boys(Chaouachi et al. 2008)

SS with 11 yr. old children; ↓ vertical jump and shuttle run (Faigenbaum et al. 2005)

Effect of Trained State on Static Stretch Impairments

‐12

‐10

‐8

‐6

‐4

‐2

0

Trained Jump Untrained Jump Trained Force Untrained Force

% Cha

nge

10 studies 15 studies

31 studies 53 studies

Behm and Chaouachi 2011

Behm and Chaouachi 2011: reported average 5% deficit with static stretchingKay and Blazevich 2012: reported average 7.5% deficit with static stretching

2012 Olympics: Usain Bolt: 9.63 seconds

Gerald Phiri of Zambia: 10.11 seconds

Effect of Static Stretching Duration on Force

‐6

‐5

‐4

‐3

‐2

‐1

0

0‐30s 30‐60s 60‐90s >90s

% Cha

nge in Force / Torqu

e

Time(sec) 61 studies

4 studies

13 studies

5 studies


StaticStretchingDuration:Behm,Blazevich,KayandMcHugh2015

FigureX:Typicalwarm‐upsequenceversusresearchstudylimitations.

Aerobic Warm‐up Stretching(SS,DS,PNForcombination)

Sport SpecificActivities

Return to room forequipment,tacticalandotheradjustments

Return to field,court,icesurfaceorothervenueStartcompetition

5‐15 min 5‐15 min 5‐15 min 5‐10 min 5 minMany studiesbutnotallstudiesincludeaprioraerobicactivityExample:36/123SSstudiesdidnotincludeprioraerobicactivity

Many of the earlierstudiesemployedunrealisticallylongstretchingdurationsExample:Fowlesetal.200030mincalfstretchBehmetal.200120minquadricepsstretching

Most studies donotincludepost‐stretching,sportspecificactivities.Averagetesttimepost‐SS,DSandPNFare3.2,5.3and4.1minrespectively.Manystudiestestimmediatelypost‐stretching.

Mean changes andeffectsizeswhentestedlessthan5minfollowingstretchingSS3.7%,ES=0.25Small%andESPNF5%,ES=0.13Small%andtrivialESDS1.3%,ES=0.43Small%andmoderateES

PerformancedecrementselicitedbySSandPNFusuallyresolvewithin15‐30min

Dynamic stretching and activities can excite the system resulting in facilitation of performance

(Youth literature: Faigenbaum et al. 2005a; 2006a; 2006b; Siatras et al. 2003)(Adult literature: Behm and Chaouachi 2011, Curry et al. 2009, Hough et al. 2009, Herder et al. 2008, Manoel et al. 2008, MacMillan et al. 2006)

Dynamic Stretching

All studies +1.3% (+0.3, +2.2) 0.33 (0.20, 0.46) Strength +1.1% (+0.9, +3.1) 0.35 (0.86, 1.35) Power/speed +1.9% (+0.9, +2.8) 0.25 (0.15, 0.36) Isometric +3.0% (+0.4, +5.7) 0.27 (-0.06, 0.61) Concentric +0.4% (-2.4, +3.2) 0.43 (0.11, 0.75) Eccentric -1.2% (-18.6, +16.1) 2.46 (-1.04, 5.95)

Summaryof~50DSstudies:Behm,Blazevich,KayandMcHugh.2015

%changeEffectSizes

Effect of dynamic stretching duration on force and power

‐2

0

2

4

6

8

10

0‐30s 30‐60s 60‐90s >90s

% Cha

nge in Force/Pow

er

2 measures 6 measures

1 measure 4 measures


Optimal volume of DS“10‐15 repetitions” or “10 yards‐20 meters” x “1‐2 sets”

Stretching RecommendationsWhen a typical pre‐event warm‐up is completed a. initial aerobic activity to raise core temperature 1‐2°C, b. stretching component, c. 5‐15 min of task‐ or activity‐specific dynamic activities

The benefits of SS and PNF stretching for augmented ROM and reduced injury risk at least balance, or may outweigh, any possible cost of (trivial) performance decrements.

Performance impairments typically not apparent when stretching precedes a 5‐15 min dynamic warm‐up

Dynamic stretching and sport specific dynamic activities should always be included in a warm‐up.

Power Resistance Training (RT) Progressions

Balance and coordination are not fully developed in children (Payne and Isaacs 2005), balance training may be particularly beneficial for reducing the risk of injury while performing RT, particularly to the lower back.

Include specific exercises that require balance and coordination.

Many studies have shown ↓ force/strength, power, ROM with instability with adults (Behm and Colado 2012)

“Old Man Strength”

• When competing; who gets the ball or puck between a typical

• 27 year old, 80 kg athlete vs. • 17 year old, 80 kg athlete • (with similar lean body mass)?

• Why?• Better balance, stability and coordination

Can’t Shoot A Cannon from a Canoe

Effect of Balance Training on Balance

Subject

NumberTrainingDuration(weeks)

% change Effect Size

Young Adults18studies

N=20.311 6.22.1 25.7%17.4 1.180.92

Seniors17studies

N=57.155.7 12.39.5 25.9%29.5 0.840.92

Youth8studies

N=28.221.7 7.03.0 20.1%20.5 1.10.91

Youth balance training effects• Granacher et al. 2010• 4‐week balance‐training program integrated into high school PE lessons.• Measured postural sway, jump height, and maximal isometric leg

extension force.• Balance training improved postural control, jumping height and enhanced

RFD. • Granacher et al. 2011 Grade 1 students• Balance training resulted in tendencies in terms of small to medium

interaction effects yet not statistically significant improvements in postural sway, PF force and jump height

• Immaturity of the postural control system and deficits in attentional focus during practice of balance exercises could be responsible for the nonsignificant findings.

Static Balance

Kean et al. 2006

5 weeks of balance training with adults with no jump or strength training increased vertical jump by 9%

Static balance improved by 33%

Improve balance : improve strength/performance at any

age!

How is an increase in vertical jump possible with only balance training?

Decrease the sway and direct the forces in a more optimal direction

Balance and StabilityA positive correlation (0.65) between maximum hockey skating speed and static balance test inhockey players under 17 years reported(Behm et al. 2004)

Balance only training studies report increases in performance

Behm and Colado 2012

Effect of Instability Resistance Training on Performance

Need studies to examine instability resistance training with children

Increased Core Activation with Instability Resistance Training

Balance Training Advantages

1. Use of body weight as a resistance2. Balance and stability challenges3. High core / trunk activation with lower loads4. Instability training specificity5. Variety and fun

Resistance Training Progressions

• Gradually progress to more advanced movements that enhance strength and power production.

• Traditional Closed Kinetic Chain Resistance Training

• Plyometrics: bounding, hopping, jumping

• Olympic style lifting

Plyometrics• Essentials of Strength and Conditioning textbook (NSCA) stated that an individual should be able to leg press 1.5 times body weight before starting plyometrics.

• Common European definition of plyometrics refers to high intensity drop jumps.

• Narrow definition of plyometrics!

PlyometricsYouth can train with plyometrics if amplitude and volume are lowSimple games like skipping are plyometric in nature

Can start at any age

Pre‐pubertals should not engage in intensive depth‐jumping

Plyometrics

• Begin plyometric training with less intense drills (e.g., double‐leg jumps) and progress to more advanced drills (e.g., single leg hops) as competence and confidence improves.

• Studies indicate that few repetitions (i.e., ≤ 10) are needed for training‐induced gains in plyometric performance (Lephart et al. 2005; Myer et al. 2005; Matavulj et al. 2001).

• Early emphasis on positioning and landing

Emphasis on landing technique for performance and injury prevention

Ballerinas have significantly less knee injuries than similar jumping‐related sports such as netball (Leonie Otago: personal correspondence)

• Johnson et al. (2011 JSCR) report in their meta‐analysis that plyometric training with children had large positive effects on jumping and running performance with further evidence to suggest associated improvements in kicking distance balance and agility.

• However, there has been some reticence to apply these explosive training activities with children.

• The CSEP position stand recommends that plyometric training can be safe and effective for enhancing muscle power in children (Behm et al. 2008).

• Studies employing plyometric training programs for youth reported improvements in vertical jump height (Faigenbaum and Keiper 2007), rebound jump height (Meylan and Malatesta 2004 JSCR)

and running speed (Kotzamanadis 2006 JSCR).

• Behringer et al.’s (2011) meta‐analysis on the transfer of resistance training gains to motor performance in youth reported the highest effect sizes with a combination of plyometric and traditional resistance training programs.

Olympic Lifts

Training Specificity:Youth need to develop strength and power

from an athletic position

Velocity Specificity based on the intent to contract explosively (Behm and Sale 1993)

Training SpecificityAthletic Position

What sport is Anna playing?

Basketball?

Volleyball?

Hockey?

Football?

Olympic Style lifting

• Olympic‐style lifts involve a more complex neural activation pattern and therefore participants need to learn how to perform these lifts early in the workout with a relatively light load (e.g., wooden dowel or unloaded barbell) in order to develop coordination and skill technique without undue fatigue.

Olympic Weight Lifting (OWL)

• Ebada (2011) instituted a 3‐month children (mean of 13.2 years) OWL training program resulting in an average 4.9% increase in 9 strength tests (e.g. snatch, clean, squats).

• An 8‐week training program compared OWL and traditional closed link strength exercise (e.g. squats, dead lifts) training with high school males averaging 15.9 years (Channel and Barfield 2008 JSCR). OWL training exhibited a modest advantage over conventional power training for vertical jump performance.

Future World Champion?

Olympic weightlifting and plyometric training with children provides similar or greater performance improvements than traditional resistance training

Chaouachi, et al. 2014 JSCR

• 63 children (10‐12 years)• randomly allocated to a 12‐week control, OWL, plyometric or traditional

Resistance Training program• Pre‐ and post‐training tests included BMI, sum of skinfolds,

countermovement jump (CMJ), horizontal jump, balance, 5 and 20 m sprint times, isokinetic force and power at 600.s‐1 and 3000.s‐1.

• Magnitude‐based inferences were used to analyze the likelihood of an effect having a standardized effect size exceeding 0.20.

• Less than 0.2 = trivial effects

• The possibility of an extended learning period for OWL training might attenuate the strength or power gains compared to traditional RT over the same duration.

Olympic weightlifting and plyometric training with children provides similar or greater performance improvements than

traditional resistance trainingChaouachi et al. 2014 JSCR

OWL OWL

Effect Sizes > 0.8 = strong magnitude of change


traditional resistance trainingChaouachi, et al. 2014 JSCR

OWL OWL



traditional resistance trainingChaouachi, et al. 2014 JSCR

OWL


Is power training safe for children?

Is power training too intense for youth?

Falk and Dotan (2006) reported that children recover faster from high intensity exercise due to their lower maximal power

output and thus have lower stress levels to recover from.

10 boys: 9.7 0.94 years vs. 10 men: 25.7 2.4 years 2 randomized experimental sessions, which included either

A) 3 sets of high repetition maximum (High RM) (17 repetitions of knee extensions)B) 3 sets of low repetition maximum (Low RM), (7 repetitions of knee extensions)

(tempo of 1s concentric and 1s eccentric contraction controlled by a metronome)

1min rest interval between sets.

The children fatigued but not to the same extent as the adults.

Murphy et al. 2014 EJAP

Children’s EMG normalized to MVC does not sig change during the fatigue protocols

Murphy et al. 2014 EJAP

• Although the fatigue incurred by the children could not be explained by changes in peripheral nor central mechanisms, the increased antagonistic activity (hamstrings) suggested that the fatigue was more likely to be a result of muscle coordination difficulties (increased co‐contractions). Murphy et al. 2014

• Faigenbaum et al. (1999) states that in some countries, children learn Olympic lifts as early as 8 years, but resistance is not added to the bar until they have developed the proper coordination.

Summary• Resistance Training for children/adolescents is beneficial for health and performance

• Warm‐up should involve <60s of static stretching per muscle and >90s of dynamic stretching per muscle and activities to excite the system

• Due to an immature system, balance training without resistance should be the first step

Summary• Balance training without resistance can be followed instability resistance training with relatively lower loads

• Traditional closed kinetic chain exercises can be implemented to further increase strength and still provide balance challenges

• Plyometrics and Olympic lifts provide the greatest balance and power challenges.

Summary

• Introduce proper technique for plyometrics and Olympic lifts for athletes to attain training specific form and power (athletic position)

• Introduce low amplitude plyometrics to improve reactive strength

• Emphasize variety and FUN!!

Thank‐you! Kiitos!

training modalities, olympic weightlifting, resistance

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