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Transcriptomics General approaches of microarrays and pyrosequencing. What do they deliver? EU research network on flame retardants (INFLAME) Tim Williams

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Page 1: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

TranscriptomicsGeneral approaches of microarrays and pyrosequencing. What do they deliver? 

EU research network on flame retardants (INFLAME)Tim Williams

Page 2: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

1. Introduction: Trancriptomics – What? Why?2. DNA Microarrays3. High Throughput Sequencing4. What does it Deliver?5. Experimental Design

11.20 – Metabolomics – Mark Viant11.40 – Proteomics – Caroline Vanparys

13.00 – Omics, biomarkers & risk assess. – Kevin Chipman13.30 – Bioinformatics & predictive tox. – Francesco Falciani

Page 3: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

Genome Transcriptome Proteome

DNA mRNA ProteinsTranscription Translation

Differential SplicingRNA stability etc

Post TranslationalModification etc

Metabolites

Metabolome

Genomics Transcriptomics Proteomics Metabolomics

3 billion bases(H sapiens)

EnzymeActivity

20‐30,000genes

~100,000proteins

Functional Genomics

Epigenetics

Page 4: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

Tf

RNA

mRNA

cell

nucleus

ribosomeEnzyme activity

ToxicChemical

Damage

Receptor Proteins

SignalTransduction

Activate Transcription Factor Proteins

DNA

ResponseElement

Tf gene 1Transcription

Complex Pol IITranscription

Specific transcription factors bind to specific response elements, at specific genes.

These bind the transcription complex, which then increases RNA transcription from that gene.

Translation

Protein

Compound A

Compound B

Transcription(heavily simplified)

Page 5: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

The Transcriptome:The collection of ALL mRNA transcripts present within a biological sample at any one time

Biological sample:

Single cell type Single organA few cell types

Whole organismMany tissue and

cell types

Each eukaryotic cell contains ~360,000 mRNA transcripts in total at any one time

Most eukaryotic cells transcribe >10,000 different mRNA transcripts 

Gene expression varies over at many orders of magnitude.

Highly expressed genes dominate mRNA, generally >75% of the mRNA comes from <5% of the genes. 

To study the transcriptome we therefore need a sensitive technique with a wide dynamic range to get the most information on the greatest number of transcripts

Page 6: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

TranscriptomicsFinding the amount of mRNA that has been produced from each gene simultaneously

DNA Microarrays

•Make a slide with ‘probes’ specifically binding each gene•Hybridise your mRNA to it•Quantify how much bound to each probe

High Throughput Sequencing

•Isolate mRNA, sequence the whole lot•Find how many sequences you got from each individual gene

Page 7: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

DNA Microarrays‐ Specificity and Sensitivity

ProbesDesign ‐ Start with sequences of all genes from your species, find unique 20‐ to 60‐nucelotide long sequences for each gene (all in silico), synthesise oligonucleotides(single strand DNA eg 5’‐ATCGGTGCATGCATGTAGAGTAGGGGTTTCATTCAGTAACT‐3’)that specifically bind the mRNA (done on‐chip by company – Agilent, Affymetrix etc)

Slides or Chips Oligos can be printed on and bound to slides in precisely located ‘spots’ that are small (microns), so that 100,000s+ can be printed in the area of a microscope slide

HybridisationUnder stringent hybridisation conditions each oligonucleotide will specifically bind only the complementary sequence from the mixture of mRNAs in your sample. Can co‐hybridise with control labelled with a different fluorophore for eg internal control.

DetectionFluorescent labelling of the mRNA sample allows very sensitive detection. Fluorophores are excited by a laser and light emitted at a specific wavelength passes through filters and is detected by photomultiplier tubes 

Page 8: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

Microarray SchemeDesign specific 

probes for each mRNA transcript

Print Array Slides cRNA labelled withFluorescent dyeeg Cy‐3 dCTP

Hybridize to arrayRead with Scanner

Fluorescence of spot is proportional to amount of RNA for that specific gene

TestControl

RNA

Cells or Tissue

Analyse spot intensities

Compare between test and control samples

Microarrays areSpecies‐specific

But are commercially available for model 

species eg human, rat, mouse, yeast, E. coli etc

Page 9: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

9

Stickleback 8x15k Agilent Array

One 15,000 spot subarray Zoomed in on spots (false colour)

Page 10: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

High Throughput Sequencing – RNA SeqNext‐Generation Sequencing

Roche 454: 400 Mb per run, 400bp seqs

Ion Torrent: 200 Mb to 1Gb per run, 200 bp seqs

ABI SOLiD: 5‐20 Gb per run, 50bp seqs

Illumina/Solexa: >100 Gb per run, 35‐100 bp seqs

Throughput improving rapidly

Highly expressed genes dominate mRNA, generally >75% of the mRNA comes from <5% of the genes. Therefore more and more sequencing is required to find ‘rare’ transcripts. This is referred to as ‘sequencing depth’. 

Page 11: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

Number of sequences 

Sample 1Sample 2

Sample 3

Example from: Oliver et al., BMC Genomics 2009, 10:641 

Gene Sequence

Samples 1 and 2 were wild‐type Listeria, sample 3 was a sigma 70 transcription factor knockout 

High‐throughput sequencing identified genes controlled by sigma 70 transcription factor

Page 12: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

BREAKING NEWS:

January 10, 2012 5:06 amMachine to read individual’s DNA for $1,000By Clive CooksonA US biotechnology company will on Tuesday announce the first machine that can read all 3bn letters of an individual’s DNA for as little as $1,000 – a development that will greatly accelerate medical treatment tailored to a patient’s genes but also raises ethical questions.

Life Technologies says its new Ion Proton sequencer – a $149,000 instrument about the size of a laser printer – can read a whole human genome in less than a day for $1,000 including all chemicals, running costs and preliminary data analysis.

Page 13: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

What do you get from Transcriptomics?

•A simple experiment (note that biological replication is essential)

Control Treated

Omicsassay

Omicsassay

Omicsassay

Omicsassay

Omicsassay

Omicsassay

Omicsassay

Omicsassay

Omicsassay

Omicsassay

Omicsassay

Omicsassay

Omicsassay

Omicsassay

Omicsassay

Omicsassay

Omicsassay

Omicsassay

Gene 1 Mean SDGene 2 Mean SDGene 3 Mean SD..Gene 20000 Mean SD

Gene 1 Mean SDGene 2 Mean SDGene 3 Mean SD..Gene 20000 Mean SD

Stats TestsFDR CorrectionFold Change

Generate a list of transcripts that are significantly differentially expressed in test v control,Showing direction of the change and apparent magnitude of change eg.

CYP1A1 (Cytochrome P4501A1) 11‐fold induced with FDR 0.001MT1 (Metallothionein I) 3‐fold repressed with FDR 0.05

Etc..

Page 14: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

Omics Techniques

Lots of Data!

What do you do now?

Biological Experiment

Page 15: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

Scatter Plot ‐ LogarithmicExample scatter plotof Cadmium‐treatedflounder day 1

X-axis: Cd stage2 (Default Interpretation) : treatment b Cd ...Y-axis: Cd stage2 (Default Interpretation) : treatment b Cd ...

Colored by: Cd stage2, Default Interpretation (treatment b ...Gene List: Good Cd (8117)

100 1000 10000

10

100

1000

10000

treatment b Cd d1 (control)

Induced genes

Repressed genes

1:1 ratio2‐fold up

2‐fold down

Log2 of Controls

Log 2

of Test 

HSP30 Clones

Each dot represents one array probe

Page 16: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

Enrichment AnalysisApproaches for inferring functional change from gene annotation, eg Gene Ontology

Interpretation

Most genes induced encode ribosomal proteins 

Evidently something going on at the ribosome

Ribosomes translate mRNA into protein

Increased protein synthesis is required when cells proliferate

Cancer cells are proliferating

What we have just done is ‘Enrichment Analysis’

Genes induced in tumour Computational

Use eg. Fisher’s Exact Test with a multiple testing correction

Some Options‐

DAVID – good for model specieshttp://david.abcc.ncifcrf.gov/

Blast2GO ‐ good for de novoannotation of non‐model species http://www.blast2go.com/b2ghome

EASE via TMeV– very flexible, analyse any type of annotationhttp://www.tm4.org/mev/

Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) –Commercial package (limited free trial) integrates enrichment analyses and interaction data etchttp://www.ingenuity.com/

Page 17: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

Finding significantly enriched functional groups of genes helps organise, visualise and understand the data.

Example – Flounder fish response to single intraperitoneal injection with cadmium over a timecourse

Highlights functional groups and pathways responding to treatment

Page 18: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

Brominated Flame Retardants• Pentamix – commercial penta‐brominated diphenylether mixture

• 70 ug/kg to 70 mg/kg pentamix‐dosed sediment and food

• Adult male flounders 

• Livers sampled at 3 months

1

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

0 0.07 0.7 7 70

Mean fold cha

ne versus  con

trols

Pentamix [mg/kg] sediment 

Significantly induced at low dose

Correlate >0.9 with Pentamix concentration

VitellogenesisCell CycleCell Death

Oxidative phosphorylationProtein ubiquitinationPentose phosphate pathwayAmino acid metabolism

High UK PBDE environmentalsediment concentration~1mg/kg (late ‘90s)

• Changes in transcription of metabolic enzymes at and below environmental concentrations

•Induction of energy pathways•Increase in protein turnover

• Endocrine disruption at highest concentration•Vitellogenesis (Vtg A and Vtg B) in male fish•Disruption of cell cycle•Induction of cell‐death related transcripts

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

Control        0.07          0.7            7             70

Vitellogeninexpression

Page 19: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

Thinking about the experiment

• 1‐What is your biological question?

• 2‐ Has it been done before? In which species?– Search the databases eg. PubMed, CTD, GEO, ArrayExpress

– Consider using real‐time PCRs, PCR‐arrays etc to compare with the response in your species

• 3‐ Use data from previous studies to plan yours– No point exceeding the lethal dose. Consider the concentrations and timepoints carefully

• 4‐ Physiological Anchoring & Multi‐omics– Data from other assays integrated with omics allow more in‐depth analyses and provide confidence

– Multi‐omics ‐ gives greater insight into the interplay between regulation and mechanism

“Maximum information from minimum effort”

Cost, Time, Lab capacity  Information‐ Quantity & Quality

Page 20: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

Variation and ‘Omics• Systematic variation

– Must be avoided (Experimental design)

• Technical variation– Must be minimised (Quality control)

• Biological variation– Is INEVITABLE

• Evolution requires it!

• The ‘Real World’ rarely involves inbred animal strains or clonal cell cultures

• Biologists must use statistics intelligently

• Replicates, replicates and more replicates

• If possible do a Power Study on preliminary data before finalising experimental design

Pritchard et al 2001

•Normal variability in gene expression in the mouse: Up‐to 68‐fold change!

Page 21: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

Insufficient labelling

When Arrays Go Bad

TECHNICAL VARIATION

Page 22: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

As with any experiment, optimal experimental design is essential. Transcriptomics tends to reveal problems with experimental design that are less obvious with other techniques.

For example consider gene expression in 2 groups of mice ‐

Group1 ‐ ‘control’ group  Group 2 – ‘test’ groupUntreated Treated with BFR in solvent carrierFed at 10am Fed at 10amSampled at 4pm Sampled at 11amRNA prepared on 26th by Amy RNA prepared on 31st by BobMicroarrays run on slide batch ‘C’  Microarrays on batch ‘D’ slides

These are likely to show SYSTEMATIC VARIATION between groups

Are the differences in gene expression between the 2 groups caused by BFR or other factors? – Solvent? Circadian? Nutrition? Operator differences? Slide Batch?

RANDOMIZATION can help avoid systematic variationRemember the basics – only change one factor while the rest are kept the same!!

Experimental Design

Page 23: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

Bovine Micro-array

Photo courtesy of Brendan Wren

Page 24: Transcriptomics - University of Birmingham · 2019-02-12 · Transcriptomics. General approaches of microarrays and ... Pentose phosphate pathway Amino acid metabolism HighUK PBDE

Acknowledgements

Birmingham‐ Kevin Chipman, Francesco Falciani, Mark Viant, Leda Mirbahai, Nil Turan, Olga Hrydziuszko, Huifeng Wu, Anthony Jones, LaineWallace

Cefas Weymouth – Brett Lyons, Grant Stentiford, Ioanna Katsiadaki, John Bignell

Stirling – Steve George, Mike Leaver, Amer Diab, John Taggart, Carolynn Mackenzie, Katie Bartie, Vicky Sabine

AWI Bremerhaven – Angela Kohler, Katya Broeg

Glasgow Caledonian – John Craft, Kate Dempsey

Holland – Ron van der Oost, Erwin Roex, Edwin Foekma, Tinka Murk

Far East – Beijing Genomics Institute , University of Singapore

Funding