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JSC 2017 Special Edition

Enriching Student Well‐Being and Success

Transition to Post-secondary Life for Students with Disabilities:

Promoting Student Success

Theresa A. Quigney

Cleveland State University

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Abstract

The transition to life after high school for students with disabilities and the vital role that

school counselors have in assisting the students and their families to achieve success

are discussed. As there may be unique requirements for these students in making this

transition, it is important that school counselors are acquainted with particular matters

and techniques critical to student success. The educational categories of disabilities and

special considerations that are presented may be beneficial to school counselors as

they enhance their students’ opportunities to achieve their goals.

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Transition to Post-secondary Life for Students with Disabilities:

Promoting Student Success

School counselors are a vital resource for all students, including students with

disabilities. On the secondary school level, they may play a particularly important role in

working with these students and their families in assisting them with the transition from

high school to post-secondary life. Most adults identified with a disability have difficulty

in being hired and maintaining a job (Heward, 2013). Moreover, continuing assistance

may be a part of the employment scenario for many individuals with a severe disability

(Heward, 2013). As some of the students with disabilities may have increased or unique

requirements for making this transition from high school successfully, it is critical that

school counselors be familiar with specific concerns and techniques of importance to

these students and their success. Although all students, with and without disabilities,

have individual goals, a discussion of each of the educational areas of disabilities and

its special considerations for the transition to post-secondary life may prove beneficial to

the secondary school counselors’ implementation of this aspect of their role.

Consequently, this discussion will focus on the particular areas of disability noted

in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) of 2004

(Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, Public Law 108–446,

2004), and highlight matters of importance to the classification in regard to transition

from high school. An in-depth conversation of the individual disability areas is beyond

the scope of this discussion. Yet, for particular disability areas in IDEA (Individuals with

Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, Public Law 108–446, 2004), this

discussion will focus on matters for the students which should be overriding topics of

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focus for the school counselor when assisting them in making the transition to life after

high school.

Post-Secondary Transition for Students With Specific Learning Disabilities

Because of the heterogeneity of the characteristics and behaviors associated

with specific learning disabilities (SLD), some students will require more support than

others as they make the transition into adulthood. If students with SLD have a serious

reading or language-related focus they may have more challenges as they pursue

postsecondary options or career options (Rosenberg, Westling, & McLeskey, 2011). In

addition to career concerns, the reading and nonverbal social difficulties may also be

problematic in making and maintaining friendships (Lerner & Johns, 2012). At the same

time, an increasing number of students with disabilities are pursuing options for college

and more institutions of higher education are providing more support (Smith, Tyler, &

Smith, 2014). Clearly, with their background and expertise, school counselors may play

a vital role in assisting students with SLD not only to complete their high school

education but make a smoother transition to their postsecondary life, be it a career

option or postsecondary education.

Examples of major skills for students with SLD as they make the transition to

adult life include the practice of self-determination, self-advocacy (Mercer. Mercer, &

Pullen, 2011), and perseverance, as well as involvement in setting goals, and working

with a strong support network (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2009). These skills and

activities should be of substantial benefit to students with SLD whether they pursue

postsecondary education or vocational options, and in their personal lives as

independent adults.

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Intellectual Disabilities

Intellectual disability (ID) is a term used when a person has certain limitations in

mental functioning and in skills such as communicating, taking care of him or herself,

and social skills. These limitations will cause a child to learn and develop more slowly

than a typical child (Ohio Department of Education, 2016a, para. 5). There are several

matters with which school counselors should be familiar in regard to students with ID.

While some students with ID will not require support in their adult lives, there are some

who will require assistance as they pursue employment, independent living, and/or

postsecondary educational options. For example, students with the more severe types

of ID may live in community residential environments or with their families after leaving

high school, and may work in supported occupational settings or more restrictive

environments, such as sheltered workshops (Rosenberg et al., 2011).

In general, the picture of employment for individuals with intellectual disabilities is

still not as positive as one would want. Through the National Longitudinal Transition

Study-2, Carter, Austin, and Trainor (2011), as cited in Wehman (2013), examined “the

early work experiences of youth with severe disabilities (i.e., intellectual disabilities,

autism, multiple disabilities). They explored the extent to which various student-, family-,

school-, and community-level factors were associated with paid work experiences

during high school. Findings highlighted the elusiveness of early work experiences for

many youth with severe disabilities” (Wehman, 2013, p 13).

Clearly, effective transitional programming, in which the school counselor may

play a critical role, should increase the likelihood for success in the challenges of

employment as well as other matters. At the same time that the employment domain

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may still be in need of attention, the area of postsecondary education for students with

ID is expanding in that opportunities in this regard have become more available in

recent years. On the website, Think College, College Options for People with

Intellectual Disabilities (n.d.), it is noted that The Higher Education Opportunity Act,

which was enacted in 2008, “contains a number of important new provisions that

improve access to postsecondary education for students with intellectual disabilities”

(para.1), including provisions for financial assistance, program funding and a National

Coordinating Center.

Along with the strong emphases on employment, postsecondary options, and

independent living, school counselors should also be aware that students with ID should

be encouraged to attain and actively practice social skills and self-determination

(Beirne-Smith, Patton, & Kim, 2006; Gargiulo, 2015; Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen,

2012; Rosenberg et al., 2011). While it is generally accepted by professionals in the

field that self-determination should be encouraged early in the student’s school career,

the emphasis is even more pronounced as the student is progressing toward life after

high school (Hallahan et al., 2012).

Traumatic Brain Injury

IDEA defines traumatic brain injury (TBI) as an acquired injury to the brain

caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or

psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects a child’s educational

performance. “Traumatic brain injury applies to open or closed head injuries resulting in

impairments in one or more areas, such as cognition; language; memory; attention;

reasoning; abstract thinking; judgment; problem- solving; sensory, perceptual, and

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motor abilities; psychosocial behavior; physical functions; information processing; and

speech. Traumatic brain injury does not apply to brain injuries that are congenital or

degenerative, or to brain injuries induced by birth trauma. (20 §1401 [2004], 20 CFR

§300.8[c][12])” (Heward, 2013, p. 425).

Students with TBI may access the same post-high school options as other

students. As to the level and type of accommodations and modifications required to

promote a successful transition, that will depend on the student’s individual

requirements, preferences, and interests. Effective transition programming will have a

critical role in the student’s success in making the progression from one environment to

another (Gargiulo, 2015). The importance of transition programming is particularly

evident when considering the results of a national investigation, which found that the

outcomes were not particularly favorable for individuals with TBI in regard to the areas

of postsecondary education, employment, and living independently (Newman, Wagner,

Cameto, & Knokey, 2009, as cited in Rosenberg et al., 2011). In this study, the students

had been away from high school for a period of time between 1 and 4 years: only 43%

were identified as being employed when they were interviewed, and only 18% were

considered to be living independently.

Rosenberg et al. (2011) note that some individuals with TBI are employed in jobs

based in the community while being provided supports (e.g., job coaches) to implement

the functions of the position. These authors note that, for these students, transitional

activities which promote them being engaged in vocational training in authentic

environments may be advantageous to the acquisition of critical skills.

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Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is “characterized by impairment in social

interactions, deficits in communication, and patterns of restricted or repetitive behavior”

(Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services,

2011, p. 7). Some students with ASD can be successfully employed, but their matters

with social skills and the requirement for sameness could be problematic in the

workplace (Smith, 2006). In addition, participation in community options can also be

limited by the availability of programming and an inadequate skill set for leisure activities

of some students with ASD (Gargiulo, 2015). Consequently, it is clear that transition is

critical for students with ASD, and should focus on various areas, including life skill

activities, communication and social abilities, self-management and self-determination,

participation in community opportunities, transportation and mobility concerns, housing

and residential matters, and vocational skills (Gargiulo, 2015; Hall, 2013).

Emotional Disturbance

According to the Ohio Department of Education (2016b), IDEA defines emotional

disturbance (ED) as:

…a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long

period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child’s educational

performance:

1. An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or

health factors.

2. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with

peers and teachers.

3. Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.

4. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.

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5. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with

personal or school problems (para. 1).

As defined by IDEA, emotional disturbance includes schizophrenia but does not apply to

children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have an

emotional disturbance” (Ohio Department of Education, 2016b, para. 1-2).

Students who have been identified as having emotional or behavioral disorders

have the highest rate of dropouts among all the classifications of students with

disabilities (Gargiulo, 2015). Clearly, school counselors as well as other pertinent

individuals in the student’s life should identify the importance of providing appropriate

services and programming for the student’s transition to post-school life.

There are many facets that may be involved in successful transitional

programming for students with emotional or behavioral disabilities. Components take

into account “vocational training, parental and student involvement, interagency

collaboration, paid work experience, follow-up employment services, community-based

instruction, and community- referenced curriculum” (Gargiulo, 2015, p.316). An

additional consideration for transition programming for students with ED is the

importance of making the process student-centered and involving the acquisition of

such skills as self-determination for the student. The practicing of such skills should

enable the students to actively participate in and achieve their post-school goals

(Katsiyannis, Zhang, & Mackiewicz. 2012).

Multiple Disabilities

According to the Ohio Department of Education (2015a):

“Multiple disabilities” means concomitant [simultaneous] impairments (such as

intellectual disability-blindness, intellectual disability-orthopedic impairment, etc.),

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the combination of which causes such severe educational needs that they cannot

be accommodated in a special education program solely for one of the

impairments. The term does not include deaf- blindness (para. 1).

In addition to pursuing postsecondary educational and/or employment opportunities

which may be appropriate for the specific individual with multiple disabilities (MD),

“transition to adulthood should honor the concepts of person-centered planning and

natural supports, feature vocational programming, and include community and domestic

living skills” (Hallahan et al., 2012, p.394). Person-centered planning should involve

collaboration among stakeholders who will be partners with the students and provide

services and supports as they move into their adult years (Wehmeyer & Shogren, 2013;

Westling & Fox, 2009). Inclusion in community activities and the fostering of positive

social relationships are also key considerations when looking to future outcomes for

students with MD (Westling & Fox, 2009).

Vocational education may be the course to pursue for some students with MD

and the goal of such instruction should be community placement. Students may even be

involved in work placements in the community before leaving school to provide

authentic experiences as a foundation upon which to build their post-school job

opportunities (Hallahan et al., 2012; Westling & Fox, 2009).

Whether the students will be pursuing postsecondary education or employment

options, technology is a major matter for consideration in the transitional process.

Assistive technology and augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices

are items that must be addressed for students whose particular matters require them.

This is the case whether the technological option is for postsecondary education,

employment options, and/or independent living skills. Technology has opened up

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numerous possibilities for students with disabilities and has increased accessibility to

jobs for many students (Gargiulo, 2015).

A skill which has been a running theme in this discussion of successful transition

for students with disabilities is that of self-determination. “It has become best practice

for transition teams to focus on promoting and enhancing self-determination as a means

to improve outcomes for students with disabilities” (McGuire, 2010, p. 103). It is

imperative that students be aware of their interests and aptitudes and have the

proficiency to make educated choices in regard to their future goals and activities

(Storey & Miner, 2011).

Physical Disabilities

According to the Ohio Department of Education (2015b):

Orthopedic impairment is defined as a severe orthopedic impairment that

adversely affects a child's educational performance. The term includes

impairments caused by congenital anomaly (e.g., clubfoot, absence of some

member, etc.), impairments caused by disease (e.g., poliomyelitis, bone

tuberculosis, etc.), and impairments from other causes (e.g., cerebral palsy,

amputations, and fractures or burns that cause contractures)” (para. 1).

In addition, the Ohio Department of Education (2013) stipulates that:

Other health impairment means having limited strength, vitality, or alertness,

including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited

alertness with respect to the educational environment, that is due to chronic or

acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention

deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia,

lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and

Tourette syndrome; and adversely affects a child’s educational performance.

[§300.8(c)(9)] (Ohio Department of Education, 2013, para. 1-2).

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Depending on the disability and its impact, students with orthopedic impairments (OI)

and other health impairments (OHI) may have to learn to compensate for particular

limitations, such as mobility matters, problems with motor skills, lack of stamina, and

pain (Rosenberg et al., 2011). Even with these matters, however, with the assistance of

“legislation, technological advances, and options for support, more opportunities now

exist for individuals with physical and health disabilities than ever before” (Gargiulo,

2015, p.521). Students with OI and OHI have the right to access the same opportunities

as non-disabled students. Therefore, the same options for postsecondary education and

training, employment with varying levels of support, if needed, and independent living

skills and arrangements that have been discussed in regard to other disability areas are

applicable herein. Moreover, the strong emphasis throughout this article on self-

determination is also vital for students with OI or OHI. If the students engage in self-

determination and self-advocacy, they will be able to pursue accommodations and

modifications as well as assistive technology options which may assist them in all areas

of their adult lives.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Although attention deficit hyperactivity (ADHD) is not noted as a particular area of

disability category in IDEA, students may have the option of accommodating and/or

modifying programming, which makes it important to discuss the classification. There

are some matters which should be taken into consideration when assisting students

with ADHD make the transition to life after high school. Although behavior may be a

focus of various disabilities, behavioral difficulties such as depression or low self-

esteem may become more apparent in adolescence, and adults with ADHD may

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continue to have problems with organization, interpersonal relationships, and post-

secondary or vocational success (Lerner & Johns, 2012). For example, the post-

secondary environment may prove problematic in that the student is moving from a

relatively structured environment to one with less organization. Assisting the student

with learning how to make contacts with college offices for students with disabilities is

vital (Kewley, 2011). Employment also has some challenges and as Gargiulo (2015)

notes: “Successful employment for adults with ADHD often depends on a ‘goodness of

fit’-that is, matching the job requirements with the individual’s unique profile of

symptoms” (p. 276). Counseling strategies and interventions focusing on critical

behaviors may prove beneficial to students with ADHD as they make the transition from

school to post-school life.

Sensory Impairments

The Ohio Department of Education (2016c) provides the following definitions for

deafness and hearing impairments:

Definition of Deafness (Ohio Administrative Code 3301-51-01 (B)(10)(D)(iv))

“Deafness” means a hearing impairment that is so severe that the child is

impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without

amplification that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.

Definition of Hearing Impairment (Ohio Administrative Code 3301-51-01

(B)(10)(D)(vi)) “Hearing impairment” means an impairment in hearing, whether

permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance

but that is not included under the definition of deafness in this rule (para. 2-3).

The concepts and practices which were discussed in the previous section should

be taken into consideration during the transition process for students with HI. Such

accommodations, as well as others not discussed herein, should be made available to

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the students, depending on their individual requirements, as they progress from high

school to post-school life. As with all areas of disability, students with HI should have

access to the same post-secondary options as students without disabilities.

If students with HI pursue employment after high school, they must be aware that

the Americans with Disabilities Act mandates that employers provide reasonable

accommodations for individuals with hearing loss, which may involve such activities as

the installation of a telecommunication device (TDD), the implementation of pagers, and

access to interpreters (Turnbull, Turnbull, Wehmeyer, & Shogren, 2013). Institutions of

higher education also have disability service offices or some systems of support which

may provide counseling and tutoring, as well as provide for note takers and lecture

captioning (Turnbull et al., 2013).

Students with HI should also be made aware of the community services available

to them, such as their state’s vocational rehabilitation service, which may provide

counseling, vocational evaluation, job site placements, and assistance for entry into

postsecondary educational options. There are also state commissions or offices that

may provide such services as advocacy, agency referrals, and occupational placements

(Gargiulo, 2015). Clearly, self-advocacy and self-determination are vital skills for the

students as they pursue their postsecondary goals.

Visual Impairments

“Visual impairment” including blindness means an impairment in vision that, even

with correction, adversely affects a child’s educational performance” (Ohio Department

of Education, 2016d, para. 1) As was recommended with students with HI, practices

and matters which were discussed previously should be considered in regard to

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assisting the students in making a successful transition to postsecondary life. As with all

areas of disability, students with visual impairments (VI) should have access to the

same post-secondary options and activities as students without disabilities.

Students with VI must also be aware of the opportunities and supports that are

available to them whether they pursue employment or postsecondary educational

options. Disability service offices are present on college and university campuses, and

reasonable accommodations are to be made in regard to employment opportunities. As

with all students with disabilities, students with VI should be aware of these facts and

practice self-determination and self-advocacy. Schools can be instrumental in teaching

such skills and promoting their practice, as well as provide opportunities for the students

to engage in problem-solving and in refining their technological capabilities (Bishop,

2004).

In addition to postsecondary education and employment, major areas of focus to

consider for adults and adolescents with VI are the ability to succeed in the areas of

mobility and orientation in the community, movement toward appropriate levels of

independent living (Turnbull et al., 2013), access to reading options, implementation of

travel skills, and involvement with socialization opportunities, community activities and

appropriate community resources (Gargiulo, 2015). Technological advances can also

play a key role in the lives of students with VI as adults in numerous ways, and

individuals with VI should be provided the opportunity to access such options. With

these and other alternatives, many individuals, even with blindness, have the

opportunity for leading independent lives (Hallahan et al., 2012).

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Deaf-Blindness

“Deaf-blindness” means concomitant hearing and visual impairments, the

combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental and

educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs

solely for children with deafness or children with blindness. OAC 3301-51-01

(B)(10)(d)(iii)” (Ohio Department of Education, 2016e, para. 2).The topics and options

which have been discussed previously in regard to the other areas of disability apply to

students with deaf-blindness, depending on their individual interests and requirements.

There are, however, a few points which should be emphasized, in particular.

Students who have had limited experiences in life because of their disability may

encounter limitations in employment opportunities, which speaks to the importance of

setting up students with deaf-blindness for the world of work while they are in school.

Community-based experience could be particularly beneficial (Rosenberg et al., 2011).

As for the pursuit of postsecondary education, while the same options for assistance

should be made available to students with deaf-blindness, the students should also be

strongly encouraged to practice self-advocacy in that they may not only have to

coordinate services and obtain orientation and mobility assistance and training, they

may be involved in teaching others about their disability (Arndt, 2011).

Speech or language impairment

IDEA officially defines speech and language impairments as “a communication

disorder such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice

impairment that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.” (Ohio Department

of Education, 2015c, para. 1).

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Based on data reported by Smith et al. (2014), the outlook for students with

speech or language disabilities, as they make the transition from school to post-school

life, is encouraging. As Smith et al. note, upon review of a follow- up investigation of

young people with disabilities, the students with communication matters were among

the most probable to exhibit behaviors associated with independence and were most

likely to have employment or be in attendance at some type of postsecondary

educational option.

Clearly, the degree of impairment and whether or not there are concomitant

conditions or factors that influence the individual’s speech or language will have an

impact on the amount and type of services and supports that will be required for post-

school life. Individuals with serious speech and/or language involvement may continue

to require the services of a speech language pathologist (SLP). Augmentative and

alternative communication (AAC) materials/instruments may also continue to be

required, and mastery of functional language may be a priority for some individuals with

more involved impairments (Hallahan et al., 2012). Collaboration and partnerships with

community agencies and interdisciplinary approaches may be warranted, again

depending on the particular requirements of the individual.

Summary

Successful transitioning from high school to post-secondary life is a major area of

focus for all students. The likelihood of increased requirements for students with

disabilities to achieve an effective transition is a critical area of focus for the school

counselor. While each student with an identified disability is unique and has individual

goals for the future, school counselors may add to their effectiveness if they focus on

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such matters as discussed in this paper, categorized according to area of disability.

Moreover, the welfare and success of the students will be enhanced as they move into

new facets of their lives.

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References

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Biographical Statement

Dr. Theresa A. Quigney is an associate professor emerita of special education at

Cleveland State University, in Cleveland, Ohio. Prior to moving into higher education,

she had been both a teacher and supervisor of special education. She has written

professional publications, made professional presentations and been involved in

research activities. She is also co-author of the text, Working with Students with

Disabilities: A Guide for School Counselors. Her research and writing interests relate to

the roles of school counselors and principals in special education, and matters related

to teacher preparation.

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