transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 1 transitional settlement: displaced...
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transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 1transitional settlement: displaced populations
Case study: Bhutanese refugees,
Nepal, 1997trainer name
2004
transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 2transitional settlement: displaced populations
case study
1. background
2. description of the Jhapa camps
3. situation profile
4. profile of potential sites
5. forced migrant profile
6. local population profile
7. environmental profile
case study
transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 3transitional settlement: displaced populations
case study
1. background
2. description of the Jhapa camps
3. situation profile
4. profile of potential sites
5. forced migrant profile
6. local population profile
7. environmental profile
case study
transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 4
background
case study
government repression in Bhutan
during the 1980’s the regime in Bhutan became dominated by the Ngalung and Drukpa ethnic groups
since that time, the government has aggressively pursued policies to strip the Nepali-speaking population of their citizenship rights and expel them from the country
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background
case study
flight to Nepal
refugees began to arrive in Nepal (via India) at the end of 1990
the peak-influx was in mid-1992, with 600-800 arrivals daily
refugees self-settled very densely around the town of Maidar, arriving during the dry season
when UNCHR and the Lutheran World Foundation (LWF) arrived however, they realised the site was prone to flooding
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background
case study
establishment of camps
the refugees were moved to seven new sites in the Jhapa and Moreng districts of south-eastern Nepal
the camps held a total population of 90,000 people in 1997
co-operation between the aid community, Nepalese government, and the displaced population has resulted in the camps often being held up as examples of good management
transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 7transitional settlement: displaced populations
case study
1. background
2. description of the Jhapa camps
3. situation profile
4. profile of potential sites
5. forced migrant profile
6. local population profile
7. environmental profile
case study
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description of the Jhapa camps
case study
the sites were distributed throughout the Jhapa region of the east Nepali Terai, adjoining the foothills of the Himalayas
the sites were all on government forestry department land, with many large saal trees cleared to provide accommodation space
the climate was hot and humid, with heavy rains in June and July, and melt water from the mountains in spring making flooding common
flood protection was required on some sites, but the engineering works undertaken were not wholly successful
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description of the Jhapa camps
case study
planning in each camp was very dense, with shelters often less than one metre apart
fires did occur and were destructive
there was very little violence within the refugee population
community committees undertook much of the everyday management of the camps
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description of the Jhapa camps
case study
the local population was competing with the refugees over environmental resources, such as fuelwood and bamboo for construction
locals complained that wells near some camps ran dry, as result of over extraction and ‘draw down’ near refugee wells
relations were relatively good however, with some local population representation in camp management
construction materials and perishable foodstuffs were sourced regionally, but without sustainable strategies
transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 11transitional settlement: displaced populations
case study
1. background
2. description of the Jhapa camps
3. situation profile
4. profile of potential sites
5. forced migrant profile
6. local population profile
7. environmental profile
case study
transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 12
situation profile
case study
security situation in the region and in the migrant and host populations
organised violence was rare, whether by refugees, locals, or the authorities
large protest demonstrations by both refugees and locals were treated with tolerance, although policing was heavy-handed by western standards
police posts were established in the camps in response to criminal activity and refugees were involved in security measures
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situation profile
case study
points of entry or sources of influxes
refugees transited from the lowland region of southern Bhutan through Sikkim in India, arriving at a border reception centre at Karkavitta in Nepal
India provided buses to help refugees with the transfer
Nepal also provided some buses to move refugees along the East-West Highway to the camps
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situation profile
case study
host government policy and attitude towards influxes
the presence of the refugees became politically charged through continuous reporting by the Nepali media
UNCHR and its implementing partners had been quick to head off crises and the focus remained largely on negotiations with the Kingdom of Bhutan
the government of Nepal maintained that the integration of the refugees into Nepal was impossible
the government of Nepal negotiated to ensure that the international aid community bore as much of the economic burden as possible
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situation profile
case study
access by migrants to employment
officially, access to employment was illegal, as was the keeping of livestock
many local teachers were refugees, as the education in the camps was better than in the local community
refugee labour was used by roads contractors for rock-breaking
informal work in harvesting caused resentment in local landless populations, although much of the seasonal labour force came from India
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situation profile
case study
contingency plans already in place for migrant influxes
there were no contingency plans at the time of the influx and none for future influxes
site extensions were however being prepared for, in response to the natural population growth of 2 – 2.5%
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situation profile
case study
regional development plans in operation or planned
the improvement of the East-West Highway was the major developmental initiative, funded by the UK DFID
small ‘Refugee affected Area Programmes’ were initiated by UNHCR
UNDP did not operate in Jhapa or Moreng districts, in spite of some need amongst landless IDPs (Internally Displaced Persons)
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situation profile
case study
external and local agencies operating regionally
literally thousands of NGOs were registered in Nepal
most concentrated on development projects for Nepalese in the foothills of the Himalayas, with few operating in the districts were the camps were sited
in the camps themselves, UNHCR, the LWF and Oxfam were operating
transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 19transitional settlement: displaced populations
case study
1. background
2. description of the Jhapa camps
3. situation profile
4. profile of potential sites
5. forced migrant profile
6. local population profile
7. environmental profile
case study
transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 20
profile of potential sites
case study
access and supply routes, security concerns and seasonal variations
there was reasonable all-year road access to all camps and an airstrip
improvements were made to roads by UNHCR
security was not an issue
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profile of potential sites
case study
proximity to local settlements, local agriculture, and other refugee camps
villages abutted some of the camps
agriculture and animal husbandry were intensive
landless settlements throughout the districts had a total population of a similar size to the refugee population
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profile of potential sites
case study
land use by locals for agriculture, grazing, fuelwood collection, hunting
the sites were originally used for agro-forestry, grazing and fuelwood collection
usage by local groups was informal but well-defined
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profile of potential sites
case study
standing water and other opportunities for vector proliferation
there was standing water in some camps, although programmes were in place for draining and reclaiming these areas for inhabitation by refugees
initial site preparation included land drainage
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profile of potential sites
case study
area suitable for occupation
all land used for the camps was government owned, mostly by the forestry ministry
there was insufficient land area for the refugee population, with only 10-15 square metres per person
UNHCR/WHO 1982 standards specify 30 square metres per person
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profile of potential sites
case study
topography, surface water drainage patterns
the land was relatively flat, with slopes under ten degrees
serious gullying from a nearby river was evident in a number of the camps, with additional erosion occuring every spring from the Himalayan meltwater
there was danger of flooding in more than one camp
flood protection schemes were in place, with varying results
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profile of potential sites
case study
vegetation cover, influencing soil erosion, shading, and wind shielding
most sites were covered with saal trees, although many had been cut down by the forestry ministry
microclimatic conditions were much better where there was tree cover, both in terms of shading and wind
plants unsuitable for fodder had been planted by UNHCR in gullies to help prevent soil erosion
bush was initially destroyed
since the camps were built, kitchen gardens had been established between all of the shelters
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profile of potential sites
case study
soil conditions, such as suitability for latrines, drainage and agriculture
in six of the camps, soil was bad for drainage, but good for latrines and agriculture
in the remaining camp, the situation was reversed
transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 28transitional settlement: displaced populations
case study
1. background
2. description of the Jhapa camps
3. situation profile
4. profile of potential sites
5. forced migrant profile
6. local population profile
7. environmental profile
case study
transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 29
forced migrant profile
case study
reasons for flight
the Bhutanese government was taking an increasingly tough and restrictive stance against the ethnically Nepali minority
number in current influx and estimated size of imminent influx
92,426 refugees (UNHCR May 1997) lived in seven camps, with populations ranging from 8,000 to 46,000
approximately an additional 10,000 refugees had spontaneously settled elsewhere in Nepal
no future influx was expected
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forced migrant profile
case study
physical condition and vulnerable groups
health and vulnerability were not issues within the camps and both were better than in surrounding villages
accusations were made of some refugees being engaged in prostitution
ethnic or economic links with the host population
all the refugees were ethnically Nepali, although they considered themselves Bhutanese
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forced migrant profile
case study
endemic diseases in home areas
malaria and Japanese encephalitis were the main diseases
composition: ethnicity, origin, caste, gender, age and family size
all castes were represented and maintained in the camps
the proportion of males to females was normal
good primary health care meant that the proportion of children was much higher than normal
the average family size as defined for food distribution was 7-8 members although family structures were extended
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forced migrant profile
case study
backgrounds and skill bases, whether urbanites, farmers or pastoralists
most refugees were hill farmers, although some were from villages or towns, with skills consistent with a developing Asian community
leadership, politicisation and cohesion of communities
communities were well organised and generally cooperative with camp management
political groups did exist, although in hiding, and were suspected of militant action by the Bhutanese government
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forced migrant profile
case study
presence of intimidating or violent factions
neither intimidation nor violence was an issue
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forced migrant profile
case study
livestock and its distribution amongst the migrants
no livestock was brought from Bhutan
agreements were in place where:
• refugees provided the capital for purchasing the livestock and took part of the proceeds of their sale
• locals provided official ownership and grazing
morning milk from cattle went to locals, and evening milk went to the refugees
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forced migrant profile
case study
connections with any land under cultivation in home areas
refugees rarely travelled to and from Bhutan to find out the fate of their farms
many farms had been compulsorily purchased by the Bhutanese government for sums below the market price
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forced migrant profile
case study
traditional settlement patterns and shelter construction practices
before they left Bhutan, most refugees lived in mud brick one- or two-story homesteads with ancillary agricultural structures
urban buildings were sometimes in fired brick
bamboo structures were used for poor shelters
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forced migrant profile
case study
traditional patterns of water use, such as quantity used
in Bhutan, water was generally plentiful in both rural and urban areas, although access was often time consuming
traditional hygiene practices, such as use of pit latrines
in Bhutan, latrines were common in urban areas, but not in poorer rural areas
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forced migrant profile
case study
traditional cooking practices, such as how much fuelwood is used
large clay wood-burning ranges were common, involving ovens and wood drying areas
fuelwood use was therefore quite efficient
transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 39transitional settlement: displaced populations
case study
1. background
2. description of the Jhapa camps
3. situation profile
4. profile of potential sites
5. forced migrant profile
6. local population profile
7. environmental profile
case study
transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 40
local population profile
case study
endemic diseases:
malaria and Japanese encephalitis were the main diseases
land use practices and land law
land in the districts was under pressure from a growing population
land ownership was rigidly-defined, as was the collection of firewood from communal and government land
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local population profile
case study
agricultural and livestock practices suitable in the area
the land was suitable for intensive farming
cattle, pigs and chickens were kept on spare land
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local population profile
case study
use and sources of environmental resources, such as water and wood
water was diverted from streams to flood rice paddies
dead wood from forests provided sufficient fuelwood for local use
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local population profile
case study
economic profile
the Terai lowland area of Nepal, in which the camps are situated, is relatively prosperous
population growth in the foothills had resulted in migration into the Terai, which did not have sufficient employment opportunities or land to accommodate the population
the presence of the aid community, purchasing food and other materials for the refugees, had significantly inflated the costs of certain products
transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 44transitional settlement: displaced populations
case study
1. background
2. description of the Jhapa camps
3. situation profile
4. profile of potential sites
5. forced migrant profile
6. local population profile
7. environmental profile
case study
transitional settlement: displaced populations slide 45
environmental profile
case study
water sources, quantity, location and quality
the water table was high enough for hand pumps in some camps, but mechanically pumped boreholes were required in others
water quality was good
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environmental profile
case study
carrying capacity for extraction of fuelwood and construction materials
there was insufficient fuelwood for both local and refugee needs
in response, kerosene wick stoves were distributed by UNHCR, and fuelwood burning in the camps was forbidden, although some cooking with wood continued illegally
bamboo was used for construction
the one-year UNHCR funding cycle meant it was impossible to cure the bamboo prior to distribution
the result had been over-harvesting of bamboo, with the accompanying soil erosion and large maintenance costs for UNHCR
cured bamboo can last up to 20 years
green bamboo is unlikely to last 2 years
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environmental profile
case study
vulnerable areas or areas with global ecological significance
the river edge was prone to soil erosion
the Himalayas contained much unique ecology
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environmental profile
case study
seasonal variations, impacting on water and environmental resources
heavy flooding in the spring and after monsoon rains threatened to flood areas of camps
there was no significant impact upon potable water supply or environmental resources