i

Note to instructor:

This document has been designed with low vision standards in mind.

It has also been optimized for view on an iPad. Select pages have been rotated in order to fit this format.

Thank you!

IKatie LeeSenior CapstoneProcess Book

T R A NS I T I O NA L T Y P E F OR T H E V I S U A L

L Y I M P A I R E D

II

Table ofContents

Katie LeeProcess BookTable of Contents

III

05 Introduction

11 Design Brief

11 Project Statement

12 Project Description

13 Channel & Application

13 Audience and Research

14 Desired Results

14 Capstone Rubric

16 Report Log

17 Terminology

23 Causes of Vision Loss

31 Precedents

37 Legibility Standards

41 Legibility Checklist

43 Interviews

45 Type Program

46 Next Steps

47 Calendar

49 Appendix

59 Works Cited

Katie LeeProcess BookTable of Contents

4

Introduction

Katie LeeProcess BookIntroduction

5

There’s a problem.

Low vision or blindness affects

1 in 28 Americans over the age

of 40, and increases significantly

with age – especially for people

over the age of 65.

Source: Grand Junction Center for Independence

Katie Lee Introduction

6

Source: National Federation of the Blind

It’s gettingworse.

Today, 6.5 million Americans over

the age of 65 have a severe visual

impairment, and experts predict

that by 2030 the rate of severe

vision loss will double along with

the country’s aging population.

Katie Lee Introduction

7

I see aneed.

Currently, there are few standard

typefaces designed specifically

for those with low vision. Most

materials use existing typefaces

set at large point sizes and fail

to consider other visual factors.

Katie Lee Introduction

8

I’d like tochange that...

Katie Lee Introduction

9

by designing a font just for them.

Katie Lee Introduction

10

DesignBrief

Working Title

Transitional Type for the Visually Impaired

Katie LeeProcess BookDesign Brief

11

To read efficiently, individuals with low vision require typographic solutions tailored to their visual needs. Despite a rising number of Americans with this condition, few options exist for them today. I would like to design a transitional typeface that clarifies roman letterforms and accounts for these unique visual considerations in order to make reading easier for those who have low vision.

“Project Statement

Katie LeeDesign BriefProblem Statement

12

Project Description

The inspiration for this project came from a desire to apply my

visual communication skills to a real world problem.

After learning about the prevalence of vision problems in the

United States, I was astonished to discover how few visual

considerations have been made for those with low vision needs.

With so few typeface options in existence for this audience, it is

a huge opportunity to solve a growing need through design. This

project poses an interesting challenge of my design skills as I will

be designing for those who cannot see as I do.

Increasing one’s ability to function and read, especially as one

ages, can maintain and improve quality of life. It is my belief that

visually impaired individuals should not be hindered in their ability

to read or communicate simply because they do not have the

necessary tools to do so.

I hope this exploration will prove useful as the consideration of

accessibility becomes increasingly relevant to the design world.

Channel

The media best suited for this problem is a typeface with

potential applications to wayfinding, reading materials, or

a standards guide.

Katie LeeDesign BriefProject Description

13

Audience

Americans aged 40 years old and older whose age-related eye

conditions render them with “low vision,” and consequently

functional limitations and an impairment to read average type.

The individuals in this age group have enjoyed normal vision

at one point but now require specialized or supplementary

materials. Their low vision is legally defined as a visual acuity

20/70 to 20/200, and is often caused by macular degeneration,

glaucoma, cataracts, or diabetic retinopathy.

Research Methods & Activities

I plan on conducting various types of research in order to

accumulate relevant information for my topic. Books, articles,

and online resources will make up the majority of this research.

However, I feel that interviewing several visually impaired

individuals would be extremely valuable and enlightening.

I will also need to revisit some basic fundamentals of graphic

design in order to develop typography that will best meet the

needs of my audience. If time and resources permit, I would

also like to interview a professional in the field, either dealing

with eyesight or as a professional in the blind community. All

of this research will ultimately be published to my blog.

Katie LeeDesign BriefAudience

14

Desired Results

I want to:• Improve overall legibility• Increase speed and ease• Reduce eye strain

by:• uniquely adjusting letterforms• creating a system of standards• adjusting for other visual factors

Capstone Rubrics

Critical Thinking: This criteria will be met by considering what

solution most effectively meets the need of my audience, and by

translating large amounts of research into a useful reading tool.

Effective Communication: The communication aspect of my

project will be fulfilled with one of graphic design’s most effective

communication tools: typography.

Knowledge Integration: My understanding thus far of graphic

design and typography principles will be integrated with this

typeface as I will have to clarify as best I can the existing roman

letterforms to meet the specific needs of low vision individuals.

Social Responsibility: My social responsibility will be met by

catering to the growing elderly population whose vision is on

track to become a serious health issue, and who will desperately

need attention in regards to graphic and industrial design.

Katie LeeDesign BriefDesired Results

15

ReportLog

Katie LeeProcess BookReport Log

16

Report Log

Terminology

Katie LeeResearch LogTerminology

17

Visual Acuity

A measurement of clearness of vision, which is dependent

on the sharpness of the retinal focus within the eye and the

interpretative faculty of the brain.

Low Vision

A range of vision (beyond correction of eyeglasses, medicine

or surgery) that makes everyday tasks difficult. In addition

to reading, a person with low vision may find it difficult or

impossible to accomplish activities such as writing, shopping,

watching television, driving a car or recognizing faces.

Individuals with low vision need help to learn how to make the

most of their remaining sight and keep their independence.

Losing vision does not mean giving up activities, it means finding

new ways of doing them.

Low vision is defined as a visual acuity between 20/70 and

20/200. A visual acuity below 20/200 is considered to be blind.

Vision

Katie LeeTerminologyVision

18

Low Vision

Blind

Visual Acuity

Distancefrom Object

20/20

20/30

20/4020/50

20/60

20/70

20/80

20/100

20/20020/400

30 ft

20 ft

15 ft

12 ft

10 ft

8.75 ft

7.5 ft

6 ft

3 ft

1.5 ft

Katie LeeTerminologyVision

19

Due to an increase in the number of

aging baby boomers and the growing

prevalence of such diseases as diabetes

and age-related macular degeneration

(AMD), some 61 million Americans are

at high risk of serious vision loss.

Lighthouse International

“

Katie LeeTerminologyVision

20

Typography

Illustration from FontShop

ascender – The portion of lowercase

letters which ascends above the x-height,

as found in the letters b, d, f, h, k, l.

baseline – The vertical origin upon which

capital and non-descending lowercase

letters sit.

bowl – The round or elliptical portion of

letters such as C, D, O, a, b, e, o and p.

cap height – The height of capital letters

such as H, O and X.

character – The smallest component of

written language with semantic value.

character set – A list of characters,

which defines the required character

support for a font in a particular

environment.

counter – The negative space within a

letter, surrounded by positive elements

such as stems, bowls and serifs.

descender – The portion of lowercase

letters which descends below the

baseline, as found in the g, j, p, q, y.

glyph – The graphical representation of

one or more characters.

kern – The adjustment of horizontal

space between two glyphs. In metal type,

the portion of a letter which hangs over

the edge of the type body.

leading – The vertical distance between

lines of text. Expressed as points of lead

(white space) inserted bewteen lines of

text, such as 12 point type with 2 points

leading, or “12 on 14”.

Katie LeeTerminologyTypography

21

ligature – Two or more characters

represented on a single glyph. Common

ligatures include “fi” and “fl”.

lining figures – Numerals which have a

common height, and thus align vertically

with one another.

metrics – The generic term for any font

or glyph measurements used in the

setting of text. Horizontal metrics include

advance widths, side bearings and

kerning. Vertical metrics include ascent,

descent and line gap dimensions.

oldstyle figures – Numerals which vary

in height such that 6, 8 and 9 ascend

above the x-height and 3, 4, 5, 7 descend

below the baseline.

point – A typographic unit of measure. 72

points = 1 inch.

point size – The size of a font in points.

sans serif – A classification of typefaces

which have no serifs.

serif – A flare or spur at the end of a

stroke. A category of typefaces which

exhibit serifs.

terminal – The name given to the end of

strokes which have no serifs. Terminals

generally fall into one of the following

categories: ball, beak and teardrop.

typeface – A collection of typographic

characters (letters, numerals,

punctuation, symbols) designed to be

used together, and produced as one or

more fonts.

x-height – The height of lowercase

letters which do not ascend, such as x.

H x b y E p e tCap Height Descender Bowl

Ascender StrokeCounterX-height

Katie LeeTerminologyTypography

22

Report Log

Causes ofVision Loss

Katie LeeReport LogCauses of Vision Loss

23

Causes of Low Vision

There are four main causes of low vision among individuals aged

40 and over, all of which can lead to blindness. They are:

Cataracts

Macular Degeneration

Glaucoma

Diabetic Retinopathy

Katie LeeReport LogCauses of Vision Loss

24

Cataracts

Causes:

Affects:

Part of eye:

Risk factors:

Symptoms:

Clouding of the lens; yellow tinting; blur

Ages 40+

Lens

Age, diabetes, smoking, drinking, environmental

factors such as prolonged exposure to sunlight

Cloudy or blurred vision, faded colors, glare, poor

night vision, double vision, prescription changes

Projected Increase in U.S.

Mill

ions

of A

mer

ican

s 40

+

2008 2020

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Katie LeeCauses of Vision LossCataracts

50%Cataracts make up

of all low vision cases

25

Macular Degeneration

Causes:

Affects:

Part of eye:

Forms:

Risk factors:

Symptoms:

Loss of vision in central field; blur

Ages 50+

Macula of the retina

Wet (Advanced) and Dry

Age, smoking, obesity, Caucasian ethnicity,

family history of AMD, women

Wet: Straight lines appear wavy; Dry: slightly

blurred vision, difficulty recognizing faces,

dimness, drusen (yellow deposits in retina)

Risk of AMD:

Katie LeeCauses of Vision LosMacular Degeneration

2%

30%

Ages 75+In Middle Age

26

Glaucoma

Causes:

Affects:

Part of eye:

Risk factors:

Symptoms:

Depends on type, Loss of peripheral vision; blur

Ages 40+

Optic nerve

Age, family history, African descent,

corticosteroids, systemic diseases, trauma

Sometimes no symptoms; vision loss, tunnel

vision, sudden or severe pain, cloudy vision,

halos, nausea, red eye, swollen eye

2.2millionAmericans diagnosed

millionAmericans unaware2.0

Katie LeeCauses of Vision LossGlaucoma

27

Diabetic Retinopathy

Causes:

Affects:

Part of eye:

Risk factors:

Symptoms:

Blurred and obscured vision

Ages 18+

Retina

All people with diabetes, type 1 or 2

No symptoms in early stages; floating spots,

blocked vision by bleeding vessels, blurred vision

Vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy affects one in

every 12 people who are 40 and older with diabetes.

Katie LeeCauses of Vision LosDiabetic Retinopathy

28

Macular Degeneration

Diabetic Retinopathy

Cataracts

Glaucoma

The effects of:

Normal Affected

Katie LeeCauses of Vision LossSimulation

29

Visual Impairment in the United States by Age

50

0

5

10

15

20

25

18 25 40 60 65 70 75 80(AGE)

(MILLIONS OF AMERICANS)

Diabetic retinopathy; 5.3M

Cataracts; 20.5M

Glaucoma; 4.2M Macular Degeneration; 1.2MLow vision; 490,400

Katie LeeCauses of Vision LossInfographic

30

Report Log

Precedents

Katie LeeReport LogLegibility Standards

31

e b q aKatie Lee

Legibility StandardsPrecedents

Cleverly named by the American Printing House for the

Blind, APHont is the only typeface available to the general

public today that is designed specifically for a low vision

audience.

Although major improvements have been made to increase

legibility and distinction between similar letterforms, the font

lacks sophistication and polish, appearing almost childlike

and overly simplistic. I can spot many opportunities for

clarification in the finials, terminals, counters, ascenders,

descenders, and axis.

APHont

32Katie Lee

Legibility StandardsPrecedents

Clearview is a prime example of a typeface designed for a

specific legibility condition; in this case, not in a book, but

from a distance while the audience is simultaneously moving

closer. It was approved for use by the Federal Highway

Administration in 2004 with the growing population of aging

Americans in mind.

When the project began in 2000, only 12.4% of the U.S.

population was over 65. But that number will increase to

20% by 2030, and older drivers have disadvantages on the

road: their reaction time is not as quick, their visual acuity

is diminished and their sensitivity to contrast is reduced.

The answer came in a typeface with a heavier stroke,

enlarged interior shapes, enlarged lowercase letters, and

use in mixed cases, which also reduced overglow from its

reflective background. The results? A stationary viewer

gained an additional 200 feet of added reading distance

using a 10-inch-high letter on the demonstration pane.

Clearview

33Katie Lee

Legibility StandardsAIGA

AIGA published a comprehensive article in 2003 examining

all the visual factors that impact an aging eye's ability to

read type. These factors extended beyond typeface legibility

to loss of contrast, loss of focus, visual field loss, and

sensitivity to color. It outlines ADA standards and simulates

its approved typefaces under low visibility conditions.

AIGA considers these benefits to be beneficial for legibility:

• Consistent stroke widths

• Open counterforms

• Larger x-height

• Pronounced ascenders and descenders

• Wider horizontal proportions

• More distinct forms for each character

(such as tails on the lowercase letters “t” and “j”)

• Extended horizontal strokes for certain forms

(such as the arm of the lowercase letter “r” or the

crossbar of the lowercase letter “t”)

The following typefaces are approved by the ADA:

AIGA:

Typography

and the

Aging Eye

34

AaBbCc123Times Roman

AaBbCc123Garamond Semibold

AaBbCc123Century Schoolbook

AaBbCc123Glypha Roman

AaBbCc123Futura Heavy

Katie LeeLegibility StandardsADA Typefaces

Larger x-height

More consistent stroke

Condensed, closed counters

Wider proportion

Pronounced ascenders

Small counterforms

Wider proportion

More consistent stroke

Constricted counterforms

Distinct slab letterforms

Wider proportion

Less pronounced ascenders

Long ascenders

Simple, circular form

Short crossbar on 't'

35

AaBbCc123Helvetica Bold

AaBbCc123Univers 65

AaBbCc123Frutiger Bold

AaBbCc123Syntax Bold

AaBbCc123APHont

Katie LeeLegibility StandardsADA Typefaces

Larger x-height

Wide proportion

Short ascenders

Consistent stroke

More legible 'r' & 't'

Closing counterforms

Designed for airport

Open counterforms

Longer ascenders

Long ascenders

Pronounced 't'

Slightly condensed counters

Underslung 'j' & 'q'

Larger punctuation

Not aesthetically pleasing

36Katie Lee

Legibility StandardsInstitution Standards

Legibility Standards

Report Log

37Katie Lee

Legibility StandardsAdditional Considerations

American Disabilities Act (ADA)

The ADA does not provide many detailed explanations of

appropriate typeface usage, but it does indicate that ADA

approved fonts must have letterforms whose body width is

60% of its height and that its stroke width must be between

10-20% of the cap height.

Royal Institute for the Blind

The RNIB of the UK is more specific in its type guidelines:

• Minimum 12pt; 14pt is preferred

• Semi-bold or bold weights preferred

• Limited italics and capitals

• Limited underlining

• Write out numbers between 1-10

• Leading set at 1.5 - 2x type size

• 60-70 characters per line in columns

• Limit number of hyphenated words

• Left justification preferred

• Contrast, not color, is most important

• Avoid grey typographic color

• Leave space between paragraphs

• Do not interrupt text with images

• Should never be set vertically

• Use a vertical rule between columns

• Avoid using text over images

• Avoid glossy paper

• Avoid see-through papers

38

Additional Considerations

Katie LeeLegibility StandardsAdditional Considerations

Other factors to consider while developing deliverables or

arranging a typeface are:

• Consistency in grid and object placement

• Clear, logical order and hierarchy

• At least a 70% difference in overlapping color values

• Optimum color contrast without vibration

• Clear, logical order and hierarchy

• Proper kerning, tracking, and leading

• The difference between legibility and readability:

Legibility

Specific typographic traits affecting recognition of letters

and words, including shape, scale and style.

Readability

The clarify and speed with which content can be digested

over an expanse of text such as a paragraph or a page.

Affected by legibility, but also by design and layout

considerations such as dimension, space and alignment.

39

Typographic designers must undertake a

more comprehensive study of this subject

and develop typefaces that work well

with the common vision problems of the

aging population. It seems clear that

there is an opportunity for progress

in this area of research.

American Institute for Graphic Arts (AIGA)

“

Katie LeeCauses of Vision LossTypographic Research

40

Report Log

LegibilityChecklist

Katie LeeReport LogLegibility Checklist

41

Legibility Checklist

Sans-serif typeface

Open counterforms

Consistent stroke

Large x-height

Wide proportion; 100% x 60%

Emphasized 't' crossbar

Long ascenders and descenders

Underslung 'j' and 'q'

Consideration of finials

Attention to 'r', 'a', 'l', 'i', 't', 'j',

Katie LeeReport LogLegibility Checklist

42

Report Log

Interviews

Katie LeeReport LogInterviews

43

Lori Lindsley

Low vision expert at CABVI

I had the opportunity to speak with Lori about my capstone

topic on February 22, just two days prior to our midterm review. I

presented her with my original project statement:

"As the baby boomer generation begins to age, the number of individuals suffering

from visual impairments is increasing dramatically. Despite many experiencing

difficulty reading, very few ever learn how to read braille. I would like to design a

transitional typeface that combines clarified roman letterforms with braille dots in

order to function as both a supplemental reading aid and learning tool for the braille

system. This aid would be designed for those aged 40-75 with low vision who

experience functional limitations and impaired ability to read average type."

She kindly explained that this direction was not likely to work

well, as most individuals who are learning braille for the first time

are encouraged to use only their sense of touch. In fact, many

first-time learners are blindfolded in order to dissuade them from

using any of their remaining sight.

Eager to help me evolve my topic, she suggested that I focus my

efforts on clarifying an actual typeface, or perhaps developing a

guide that would establish typographic and visual standards for

low vision reading materials. The new direction was well received

at the midterm review.

Katie LeeInterviewsLori Lindsley, CABVI

44

Report Log

Type Program

Katie LeeReport LogType Program

45

Fontographer 5

Once a final design direction has been chosen, I hope to recreate

my selected letterforms or alphabet into working, digital typeface.

Drawn letterforms will first be scanned and retraced in vector

format using Adobe Illustrator, then converted into an .otf file

using Fontographer 5.

Once converted, final deliverables and type specimens can be

easily produced for the DAAPworks exhibition.

Katie LeeReport LogType Program

46

Next Steps

Katie LeeProcess BookNext Steps

47Katie Lee

Next StepsCalendar

48

Appendix

Katie LeeProcess BookAppendix

49

Appendix

SupplementaryResearch

Katie LeeAppendixSupplementary Research

50

Concept Map

51

Initial Questions for Research

What portion of the population is blind?

Why don’t more people learn braille?

What % currently know how to read it? Do they use it?

When do they typically learn it?

Who teaches them?

What do visually impaired people actually see?

Are there degrees of severity?

How does being visually impaired affect brain development?

Or language, communication, relationships, etc.?

How do their daily lives differ?

What causes blindness?

Do the visually impaired find value in braille?

What are the benefits? Can the system be improved?

How is visual impairment defined?

Do they have a culture? What is their culture like?

What aspects of a typeface make it more legible?

Can road sign designs be leveraged?

Does color affect or aid in contrast?

What type size is best for their reading?

How fast can the visually impaired read roman letters?

How fast can they read braille?

And perhaps the most imperative question is:

Do they actually want to learn?

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

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•

AppendixResearch QuestionsKatie Lee

52

Literature Review

"The Ultimate Braille Phone by

designer Shikun Sun"

An interesting concept design that

makes mobile phones easier to use

by the blind. The entire UI is in braille

with a corresponding touch panel.

Interesting thought in relation to

accessible design.

"So You Want to Create a Font"

Beginners guide to drawing type and

overview of different options available

in font design programs.

"Can Braille be faster than QWERTY?

App developer thinks So"

Interesting video about texting in

the form of Braille codes, even for

individuals who have full sight.

"Clear Print Guidelines from the RNIB"

Official PDF document that lists type

considerations for low vision printing.

“Creating Accessible Print

Design” Useful tool from Lighthouse

International that visualized color and

contrast choices for typography.

“Common Questions for the Blind” -

article, National Federation for the Blind

"Dyslexie font designed to help

dyslexics read, write"

A project in a similar vein; a font

developed for children with dyslexia.

Great example of how a typeface can

work around obstacles.

APHont from the APH

Only precedent found for a typeface

designed with low vision needs in mind.

Braille Devanagari by Viraj Deo

An interesting exercise in how

letterforms relate to the braille system

and proportion.

Braille Hybrid by Sam Charman

Experimental relationship between

braille and typography.

Braille Font by Lindsey Muir

Not hugely helpful; seems to be design

for design's sake.

Braille Font by Michael Russ, Theo

Seemann and Christopher Heller

Most successful experimentation

merging braille with type; chaotic.

"Low Vision and the Aging Population"

Infographic from the Vision Council

Katie LeeAppendixLiterature Review

53Katie Lee

AppendixLiterature Review

Heat Sensitive Inks

Could be an interesting application

involving the sense of touch.

"Low vision or blindness affects 1 in

28 Americans"

Facts from the Center for Independence

"Attitudes Toward the Use of Braille"

Addressing stigmas against the

blind and the use of Braille; dispels

commonly believed myths.

"Prevalence of Blindness in America"

Valuable resource for information on

individuals aged 18-45.

"Low Vision Simulators"

Potential use to test typeface and have

available at the end of quarter show to

help simulate low vision for visitors.

"Moon Alphabet"

A less well-known substitute for braille;

is more geographic and simple in form.

“How Braille Works”

A beginner's guide to braille

"Low Vision and Blindness: Changing

Perspective and Increasing Success"

"From this perspective, the difference

between blindness and low vision is not

just one of degree of visual impairment;

rather it is a difference in the methods

and strategies used to function in

everyday life."

Statistics from the World Health

Organization

Surprising information about the

prevalence of blindness and low

vision across the world

“Listening to Braille” - article, NYTimes

We stopped teaching our nation’s blind

children how to read and write. We put

a tape player, then a computer, on their

desks. Now their writing is phonetic

and butchered. They never got to learn

the beauty and shape and structure of

language. - Jim Marks, AHED

“When to Stop Relying on Low Vision

Aids” - Norman Gardner, NFB

54

Appendix

Interviews

Katie LeeAppendixInterviews

55

Randi Strunk

Learning Braille as an Adult

I had the opportunity to correspond with Randi, a family friend,

about her experiences with limited vision and learning braille as

an adult. Here are some of her responses to my questions:

Do you know the measurement of your visual acuity?

I think it's 20/400 in my left eye and nothing in my right eye.

What were your reasons for learning braille?

I wanted to learn Braille because I thought it could help me both personally and

professionally. I wanted to be able to speak publicly with notes I could read without

straining, I wanted to be able to label things around the house like spices, CD's, etc. I

really didn't see a down side to it when I decided it might be a good idea.

What were your biggest obstacles in learning it?

The biggest obstacles were learning all the symbols and rules, but beyond the actual

"learning" the biggest issue was putting that knowledge into practice and building my

reading and writing speed/proficiency.

Approximately how long did it take you to learn? Become proficient?

I learned the entire code pretty quickly, probably a month or two, but I still wouldn't

say I'm proficient as I can not read fast enough to read something out loud at a

comfortable speed.

How do you refer to your vision? (Low vision, visual impairment, etc.)

I refer to myself as blind. I don't like messing around with visually impaired, low vision,

legally blind, etc. That tends to lead to more questions like "so how much can you

see?" It's really hard to answer those questions as I have no idea what the person

with "normal" vision sees. I find saying I'm blind just lets us move on to the next thing.

Many people are afraid of the word blind because they think it's harsh or offensive or

something, to me, it's just easier. It cuts to the chase, you know?

Katie LeeAppendixInterview, Randi Strunk

56

Appendix

Low VisionResources &Institutions

Katie LeeAppendixLow Vision Resources

57

Resources

American Academy of Opthalmology

American Council of the Blind

Cincinnati Association for the Blind and Visually Impaired

Lighthouse International

National Eye Institute (NEI)

National Federation of the Blind (NFB)

Royal National Institute for the Blind (RNIB)

Katie LeeAppendixLow Vision Resources

58

WorksCited

Katie LeeProcess BookWorks CitedKatie Lee

59

“Accessible Information & Text.” Royal National Institute for the Blind, 5 Sept. 2011. <http://www.rnib.org.uk/professionals/accessibleinformation/text/Pages/text.aspx>.

“Aging Eye in the U.S.” National Eye Institute and Prevent Blindness America, 2004. <http://www.agingeye.net/mainnews/usaging.php>.

Carter, Rob, Ben Day, and Philip B. Meggs. Typographic Design: Form and Communication. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985. Print.

Cheng, Karen. Designing Type. New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 2005. Print.

“Eye Health Statistics at a Glance.” American Academy of Opthamology, Apr. 2011. <http://www.aao.org/newsroom/upload/Eye-Health-Statistics-April-2011.pdf>.

Friedman, M.D., M.P.H., David S. “Vision Problems in the U.S.” National Eye Institute and Prevent Blindness America, 2001. <http://www.preventblindness.net/site/ DocServer/VPUS_report_web.pdf?docID=1322>.

Leonard, Robin. “Statistics on Vision Impairment: A Resource Manual.” Lighthouse International, Apr. 2002. <http://www.gesta.org/estudos/statistics0402.pdf>.

Ruder, Emil. Typographie; Ein Gestaltungslehrbuch. Typography; a Manual of Design. Typographie; Un Manuel De Création. Teufen AR: Niggli, 1967. Print.

Vanderbyl, Michael. “Graphic Design Thesis: A Survivor’s Guide.” http://web.utk.edu/~staples/Thesis/Vanderbyl_Thesis.pdf California: California College of Arts and Crafts, 15 Dec. 2006.

“Vision Problems in the U.S.” National Eye Institute, Nov. 2008. <http://www.lowvision. com/information/vision-problems-in-the-united-states-s>.

“What You Need to Know About Low Vision.” American Federation for the Blind, Jan. 2002. Web. <http://www.afb.org/section.aspx?SectionID=26&TopicID=144>.

Process BookWorks CitedKatie Lee