1. 1. Prepared For:- Diploma Sem 4(Civil ) Prepared By:- Aparna Sharma
2. 2. Road Engineering Bridge Engineering Railway Engineering Harbour Engineering
3. 3. Bridge Introduction Investigation for Bridge Bridge Foundation Bridge Sub-structure and Superstructure Maintenance of bridges
4. 4. A bridge is a structure for carrying the road traffic or other moving loads over a depression or obstruction such as river, channel,road or railway.
5. 5. Road & railway traffic can run uninterrupted in monsoon. Saving in time & fuel. It improves aesthetic of a road. Distance between two place can be reduced. Agricultural & industrial products & raw materials can reach to the industries quickly which helps in economic development of the area. Construction of a bridge on railway alignment at level crossing reduces numbers of accidents. Bridges are important from military point of view.
6. 6. Substructure Foundation (Pile/Spread footing) Pier (Column) Abutment Superstructure Any structure above bearing Wearing surface Bridge Components
7. 7. Bridge Components
8. 8. This includes slab, girder, truss, etc. This bears the load passing over it and transmits the forces caused by the same to the substructures.
9. 9. The BEARINGS transmit the load received from the decking on to the substructure and are provided for distribution of the load evenly over the substructure material which may not have sufficient bearing strength to bear the superstructure load directly.
10. 10. These are provided as extension of the abutments to retain the earth of approach bank which otherwise has a natural angle of repose.
11. 11. Based on the material used As per alignment Location of bridge floor Purpose Types of superstructure According to HFL According to spans Span length Navigation facility Life of bridge As per loadings
12. 12. Timber Bridge Stone Masonry Rcc bridge Steel bridge Prestressed cement concrete bridge Composite bridge
13. 13. Straight alignment: When the alignment of a bridge is perpendicular to the centre line of a river, it is called straight bridge or square bridge. Skew bridge: when the alignment of a bridge is not perpendicular to the centre line of a bridge, it is called skew bridge.
14. 14. Deck Bridge:-When the bridge flooring is provided at the top of the super structure,it is called Deck bridge. Through Bridge:-When the bridge flooring is provided at the bottom of the super structure, it is called through bridge. Semi-Through bridge:-When the bridge flooring is located at some intermediate level in the super structure, it is called semi-through bridge.
15. 15. Aqueduct Viaduct Grade separator Highway bridge Railway bridge Foot bridge Pipe bridge
16. 16. Slab bridge Girder bridge Truss bridge Suspension bridge Arch bridge
17. 17. The most common and basic type Typical spans : 10m to 200m
18. 18. Truss is a simple skeletal structure. Typical span lengths are 40m to 500m.
19. 19. In design theory, the individual members of a simple truss are only subject to tension and compression and not bending forces. For most part, all the beams in a truss bridge are straight.
20. 20. Arches used a curved structure which provides a high resistance to bending forces. Both ends are fixed in the horizontal direction (no horizontal movement allowed in the bearings). Arches can only be used where ground is solid and stable. Hingeless arch is very stiff and suffers less deflection. Two-hinged arch uses hinged bearings which allow rotation and most commonly used for steel arches and very economical design. Hinge-less Arch Two hinged Arch
21. 21. A typical suspension bridge is a continuous deck with one or more towers erected above piers in the middle of span. The deck maybe of truss or box girder. Cables pass over the saddle which allows free sliding. At both ends large anchors are placed to hold the ends of the cables.
22. 22. Submersible bridge or cause way Low level causeway High level causeway Non submersible bridge
23. 23. Simply supported bridge Continuous bridge Cantilever bridge Balanced cantilever bridge According to span length Culvert-span up to 8m Minor bridge-8-30 m Major bridge-30-120 m Long span bridge-above 120 m
24. 24. Swing bridge Bascule bridge Traverse bridge Lift bridge Transporter bridge
25. 25. Temporary bridge Pontoon bridge Boat bridge Flying bridge Raft bridge Permanent bridge Rcc bridge Masonary bridge Steel bridge Prestressed concrete bridge
26. 26. Class AA bridge Class A bridge Class B bridge
27. 27. A low coast bridge may be define as bridge constructed at low cost and capable of being maintained at low cost. Reason to construct low coast bridge Lack of money, resource Lack of time and materials Temporary need Repairs to permanent works Undertaking project surveys in the interiors To facilitate the execution of permanent works.
28. 28. Causeways Culverts Timber bridges Floating bridges Flying bridges
29. 29. Span length Bridge length Beam spacing Material available Site conditions (foundation, height, apace constraints) Speed of construction Aesthetics Cost Access for maintenance Which Type Should I Use?Selection of site
30. 30. Width of bridge A straight reach Foundations River banks Square alignment Materials and labour Velocity of flow Free board Minimum obstruction to waterway Absence of scouring and silting No confluence of large tributaries Adequate vertical height
31. 31. Length of the bridge:- The distance between inner faces of two abutments is called length of the bridge.(L) The clear distance between two piers or between abutment and pier is called the clear span. Let , there are n numbers of spans. NO. of piers=n-1 Length of bridge, L=(n*l)+(n-l)*b where, l=clear span n=number of span b=width of span
32. 32. Linear water way: The area through which the water flows under a bridge super structure is known as the water way of the bridge & the linear measurement of waterway between the two edges of the flow of the water, perpendicular to the abutments is called linear water way. Linear water way=sum of all the clear span Effective linear water way: = width of river bed - obstructions to flow like pier width
33. 33. Afflux: The phenomenon of heading up of water on the upstream side of the stream is known as afflux. = Increased in water level due to obstructions - Normal water level. Free board: Free board is the vertical distance between the designed high flood level, allowing for afflux, if any , and the level of the bottom of the bridge girders. Vertical clearance: They are of two types: 1) Below super structure 2) Above super structure
34. 34. Below super structure: IT is a vertical intercept between the lowest level of supporting structure of bridge flooring and the maximum water level at time of HFL. Above super structure: When vehicle travel on abridge any projecting part of the vehicle should not strike with sides or at the top. High flood level: it is the level of the highest flood ever recorded or calculated. Formation level: The level of flooring of a bridge super structure is called formation level.
35. 35. Scour depth: The term scour used to indicate the increase in depth in vertical direction of the bed of river , such increase in depth in mainly due to the currents of flowing water. The bridge foundations should be taken beyond the depth of scour. Economic span: The economic span of a bridge is the one which reduces the overall cost of a bridge to be a minimum. Thus most economic span length is that which satisfies the following,i.e, The cost of the super structure=The cost of the substructure.
36. 36. It consist of the following : Piers Abutment Wing wall Approach Foundation
37. 37. Solid pier Dumb bell Column pier Cylindrical pier Abutment pier Pile pier Trestle pier Cellular pier
38. 38. To transfer the load of the superstructure to the soil through foundation. To divide the bridge length into suitable spans. Function of weep holes: Weep holes are provided to drain off water which gets access to the earth filling.
39. 39. The end support of a bridge super structure is known as an abutment. Function : To finish up the bridge so that it can be put for use. To retain the earth filling. To transmit the reaction of superstructure to the foundation.
40. 40. The device which are provided over the supports of the bridge to accommodate the changes in the main girders due to deflection, temperature, vertical movement due to shrinkage, creep. prestressing etc ,and to transmit the load from the superstructure to the substructure are known as bearings.
41. 41. To absorb movement of girders. To distribute load on large area. To simplify the procedure in design. To keep the procedure in design. To keep the compressive stress within limits. To transfer horizontal forces due to braking.
42. 42. Bearings For steel & Iron bearings Fixed bearings 1)Shallow plate bearing 2)Deep base bearing 3)Steel hinge bearing 4)Rocker bearing 5)Laminated rubber bearing 6)Cement mortar pad bearing Free bearings 1)Sliding plate bearing 2)Rocker type bearing 3)Roller bearing For concrete bearings a)Bearings for slab bridge 1)Tar paper bearing 2)Laminated copper bearing b)For girder bridge 1)Lead bearing 2)Rubber bearing 3)Slide plate bearing with curved top plate 4)Neoprene bearing 5)Bearing for submersible bridge
43. 43. Factors affecting deterioration: Defective design of bridge Poor quality of construction materials Poor quality control during construction Effect of water on the parts in contact with water Resistance to weathering effects Temperature changes Movement of vehicles heavier than the design load Miscellaneous factors like flood,earthquake,etc. Negligence to minor defects.
44. 44. Various inspection were carried out to prevent deterioration are: Inspection of foundation Inspection of substructure Inspection of superstructure Inspection of approach road Inspection of bearings Inspection of waterway Inspection of protection works Inspection about scouring
45. 45. Weakening of foundation : In such case, the bridge should be closed for traffic. By underpinning technique the foundation should be strengthened by providing grillage foundation or pile foundation. Erosion of foundation: If erosion is substantial, urgent repair is required. The soil surrounding the old foundation is excavated and new concrete bed is provided. If depth of scour is more sheet piles are driven around the old foundation.
46. 46. Damage flooring and approaches: In case of cement concrete road , if the wearing surface of road is worm out due to heavy traffic and reinforcement bars are visible , it is visible to provide a new layer of cement concrete or bituminous concrete. Defects in bearings: For effective functioning of bearing following care is to be taken: Cleaning of bearing regularly Regular lubrication There should not be cracks in the bearing It should be free from corrosion.
47. 47. Purpose of inspection report: To get the information regarding damage to the various components. To prepare an estimate of repair To know the cause of damage To decide the importance of works of repair To make arrangement of funds for repair Necessity of inspection report: Inspection report is necessary to decide the requirement of skilled and unskilled labours machinery machinery and equipments. To make alternative planning for diversion of traffic in advance.
48. 48. Railway Introduction Points, crossing and Yards Maintenance of railway tracks
49. 49. Rail transport is where at rain runs along a set of two parallel steel rails, known as a railway or railroad. The rails are anchored perpendicular to ties(or sleepers) of timber, concrete or steel, to maintain a consistent distance apart, or gauge. The rails and perpendicular beams are placed on a foundation made of concrete, or compressed earth and gravel in a bed of ballast.
50. 50. It facilitate long distance travel and transport of bulky goods which are not easily transported through motor vehicles. It is a quick and more regular form of transport because it helps in the transportation of goods with speed and certainty. It helps in the industrialization process of a country by easy transportation of coal an draw- materials at a cheaper rate.Ballast
51. 51. rail sleepers Ballast
52. 52. The clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of the two rails forming the track at the top is called the gauge of the rails. There are four types of the gauges in india. Broad gauge(B.G.)=1.676m Metre gauge(M.G)=1.00m Narrow gauge(N.G.)=0.762m Light gauge(L.G.)=0.610m
53. 53. Gauge to be used in particular country should be uniform throughtout as fsr as possible,because it will avoid many difficulties. Advantages The delay cost and hardship in transhipping passengers and goods from the vehicles of one gauge to another is avoided. As the transhipping is not required,there is no breakage of goods. Difficulties in loading and unloading are avoided and labour charges are saved.
54. 54. Points and crossing are special arrangements provided on railway tracks for enabling trains to be diverted from one track to another. It provided flexibility of movement by connecting one line to another according to requirements. They also help for imposing restrictions over turn outs which necessarily retard the movements.
55. 55. A railway station is a place on a railway line,where trains stop for clearing passengers and goods traffic. Purposes of railway stations: For exchange of passengers For exchange of goods For control of train movements To enable the following express trains to overtake.
56. 56. A yard is a system of tracks laid usually on a level within defined limits, for receiving, storing, making up trains, dispatch of vehicles and for other purposes over which movements are not authorized by a time table.
57. 57. An adequate number of plateforms should be provided so that all trains can be dealt with at the same time. There should be convenient sidings where extra carriages can be stabled after having been detached from trains Unless all trains are booked to stop at the station, it should be possible to run a train through the station at a prescribed speed Washing lines, sick lines, stabling lines, etc should be provided at the station yard.
58. 58. HARBOUR: SHELTERED AREA FOR LOADING AND UNLOADING OF CARGO VESSELS ARE ALSO BUILT, REPAIR, AND LAUNCH
59. 59. CLASSIFICATION: 1. NATURAL HARBOUR 2. SEMI NATURAL HARBOUR 3. ARTIFICIAL HARBOUR
60. 60. NATURAL HARBOURS: A harbor, is a place where ships, boats, and barges can seek shelter from stormy weather.
61. 61. SEMI NATURAL HARBOUR: Same as natural but harbour needs some artificial and man made construction
62. 62. ARTIFICIAL HARBOUR: Harbour having no natural protection but artificial arrangement are made to protect the harbour from storm and wind.
63. 63. REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD HARBOR: The depth of a harbor should be sufficient for every type of visiting ships. The bottom of harbor should provide secured anchorage to hold the ships against high winds. To prevent destructive wave action, break water are provided. The entrance of a harbor should be wide enough to provide the easy passage of ships.
64. 64. DEFECTS IN HARBOR: Depth of water is found insufficient for different ships. The size of harbor is found insufficient to accommodate the increased traffic. Obstruction These defects can easily be avoided at the time of planning and designing.
65. 65. SIZE OF A HARBOUR Size depends upon: of ships length:275m-300m width:30m
66. 66. HARBOUR PLANNING It should be carried out after collecting necessary information of the existing features at the proposed site. Following important facts should be studied. A thorough survey of the neighborhood including the foreshore & depths of water is necessary Nature of a harbor wether sheltered or not, be studied The existance of sea insects & various animals residing at site.
67. 67. Natural phenomenas concerning planning of a harbour are: Storms Rainfall Range of tides Maximum & minimum temperatures Direction & intensity of wind etc
68. 68. SITE SELECTION: Following factors play a great role in the choice of site of a harbour. 1.Availability of cheap land & construction material. 2.Natural protection from waves & winds 3.Transport & communication facilities 4.Industrial development of the locality 5.Sea bed,sub soil & foundation conditions 6.Avaibility of electrical energy 7.Defence & strategic aspects 8.trafic potentiality of harbour
69. 69. FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION: 1. HARBOR OF REFUGE 2. COMMERCIAL HARBOR 3. FISHRY HARBOR 4. MILLITARY HARBOR OR NAVEL BASE
70. 70. HARBOR OF REFUGE: The harbor used for ships in storms or emergency condition good anchorage and safe and easy access from the sea. e.g: DOVER IN ENGLAND
71. 71. COMMERCIAL HARBOR: Facilities for loading and unloading of cargo are provided. The may be: 1. Part of bigger complex harbor 2. Independent unit or single commodity harbor. 3. Terminal as oil terminal, coal port.
72. 72. FISHRY HARBOR: Provided for fishing crafts and trawlers.
73. 73. MILLITARY HARBOR: This harbor is meant for accommodating naval crafts and serves as a supply deport. The layout of this type of harbor is greatly influenced by its location.
74. 74. FEATURES OF A HARBOR: 1. Entrance Channels 2. Berthing Basin 3. Break Water 4. Turning Basin 5. Pier Head 6. Wharves 7. Jetties
75. 75. ENTRANCE CHANNEL: Depth and width are kept more at entrance Width depends upon density of traffic and no: of entrances
76. 76. BERTHING AND TURNING BASINS: Berthing basins are used for the parking of ships While turning for the turning of ships
77. 77. BREAK WATER: The structure constructed to protect harbor from storm waves They are generally stone masonry
78. 78. PIER HEAD: The structure provided at the tip of break water Such as light house
79. 79. WHARVES: The structure constructed parallel to the shore or break water, having wide plate form at the top Function is to permit berthing of vessel along side for cargo working
80. 80. JETTIES: Same as wharves. Used for loading and unloading of cargo. Made usually from shore towards sea water to prevent silting and dredging to allow free flow of tidal currents.
81. 81. DOCK: A dock is dug out and usually has gates so that the water level is kept up even though the tide has gone out. A dock is for mooring ships for cargo or passenger exchange, or sometimes repair.
82. 82. HARBOR: A harbour may be natural or partly dug out, or even made with floating materials. It doesn't have gates, but may have a narrow entrance. Provides safe anchoring or mooring for ships
83. 83. PORTS: A port is a location on a coast or shore containing one or more harbors where ships can dock and transfer people or cargo to or from land.