trends in british hotel and catering industry employment in the 1980s

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Trends in British hotel and catering industry employment in the 1980s

The structure and nature of employment growth in the hotel and catering industry in the 1980s is presented. Comparisons with the 1970s highlight some interesting differences in sectoraI employment trends and point to areas of potential research interest. Part-time employment remains and looks set to continue as an instit~tioF~alized feature of the industry.

The purpose of this article* is to present a preliminary analysis of lahour market data produced by the Employ- ment Department for the hotel and catering industry (HCI) in the 1980s and thereby begin to contribute to an update of the important work of Robinson and Wallace which considered similar data for the 1970s.’

In broad terms, the article seeks to:

l identify the main trends in the structure and nature of HCI employment in the 1980s;’

l compare these with developments of the preceding decade;

l identify issues of potential significance, particularly in relation to future research.

The article begins with an outline of the methodology and a definition of the HCI, then presents an overview of employment trends in the economy as a whole, by way of background context for the subsequent discussion of HCI trends. The main part of the article begins with a broad overview of

* This article is a major revision of a paper entitled ‘Employment trends in the hotel and catering industry in the 198Os‘, which was presented to the International Associa- tion of Hotel Management Schools Confer- encc, Manchester, May 1992. ’ The 1980s needs to be viewed in terms of two distinct periods - the early years of recession and the later years of the ‘consumer boom’. Whilst some of this is men- tioned and, for instance, some observa- tions are made about employment trends in relation to unemployment and labour supply conditions, the major analysis needed to develop these issues in more depth is outside the main focus of this paper.

trends in HCI employment and identi- fies significant sectoral employment developments. Next, trends in male and female full-time and part-time jobs are discussed together because of the complex relationship between gender and hours of employment. Finally, some developments in distributions of hours of work are examined. Where trends in the 1980s show a significant variation from trends in the 197Os, these will be highlighted. Issues of potential significance in research terms are also identified.

Hotel and catering employment: parameters and contextual factors

Methodology

The main source of data used in this discussion is the Quarterly Estimates of Employees in Employment for June of each year (updated March 1992).* This is based on Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Class 66 and cov- ers restaurants, snack bars, cafes, etc; public houses and bars; night clubs and licensed clubs; canteens and mes- ses; and the hotel trade. Employment Department statistics do not identify all catering employment. Employees in hospitals, schools, industry can-

* Although provisional and revised Quarterly Estimates of Employees in Em- ployment (March, June, September and December) are published in the Employ- ment Gtcietti?, final revisions are not always published. The figures used in this paper are final revisions supplied by the Employ- ment Department direct. June is the most appropriate quarter for comparison with other published labour market data.

Tourism ManaRemerrt 1994 Volume 15 &lumber 2

teens, department stores, etc are ex- cluded because, under the SIC 1980, they are included under the main busi- ness of the sector, eg medical and other health care, education, manufacturing, retail, etc.

These statistics show employment figures for males and females, but whilst female full-time and part-time data are shown throughout the period, separate male full-time and part-time figures are only available from 1985. However, estimated male employment trends for the decade can be, and have been made, using Census of Employment data for 1981 (cited in Robinson and Wallace’**). Other sources include primary labour market data from the annual Neut Earnings

Survey and literature that has been based on similar primary sources and from empirical study.

It should also be noted that the figures discussed in this paper relate to the period before the economy went into the current recession. Finally, any minor numerical discrepancies that occur arise from rounding in original figures or because an earlier cited analysis was based on figures not subject to the most recent update.

General employment trends

In order to provide some context for the discussion of I-ICI employment trends in the 1980~5, the main national and service industry employment trends for the 1980s are presented.

Although the number of employees in employment in the economy as a whole fell marginally during the 1980s (by 89 000 to a level of 22 369 ON)),

** Robinson and Wallace used Census of Employment data for 1971 (June) and 1981 (September) so it will not be possible to update their data fully until the results of the 1991 Census of Employment have bc- come available (not yet published at the time of writing). Although the 19X1 Census was a survey of every workplace. the 1991 Census involved a sample of small firms (less than 25 employees) and is estimated to cover around 85% of all employees. In between, quarterly estimates are produced on the basis of much smaller samples and different sampling methods.

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Table 1

Year

1980 1981 19x2 1983 1984 1985

Employees in employment in the hotel and catering industry 1980-90 (000s)

Mafe (all) wtt

321.7 -

(PM (all)

637.6

Female (f/t)

20X.2

(pit,

429.4

Totaf (all)

959.3 310.6 - - hlY.3 202.2 417.1 929.9 316.8 - 641.9 199.x 442.1 958.7 322.9 _ - 625.9 105.8 330. I 94x.x 333.6 - _ 661.7 205.6 456.1 995.3 351.Y 216.4 135,s 674.9 204.8 470. i 1026.8

1986 353.3 215.3 13x.0 672.4 200.5 471.9 102.5.8 1987 354.4 213.3 141.1 673.9 203.2 470.7 1028.3 198X 1989 1990 % increase for years available

377.2 221.5 155.7 727.6 219.9 507.7 1104.8 407.1 226.5 180.6 790.x 241.5 s49.3 1197.‘) 445.3 258.7 1X6.6 810.9 244.4 Sh6.5 1256.2

38.4 19.5 37.7 27.2 17.4 31.9 3O.Y

Source: Quarterly Estimates of Employees in Employment (June), Employment Depart- ment ,

such figures disguised the continuing shift in the relative positions of the manufacturing and service sectors as foliows:

In employment terms (19X0-90), service

sector employment grew by 2 132 000 jobs

(16%) while manufacturing employment

declined by 1 740 000 jobs (-25%). By 1990, service industry employment had

risen to 69% of all employment in Great Britain from a level of 60% in 1980. During

the 1980s only banking, finance and insur-

ance employment grew faster (62%) than

hotel and catering employment (31%).

Employment growth in the hotel and cater-

ing industry continued at around twice the

rate as in the service sector as a whole, and

by 1990 hotel and catering employment

comprised 8% of all service sector jobs, an

increase from 7% in lYgO.‘++

The main beneficiaries of service sector job growth continued to be females, both in full-time and part- time employment. Over the decade, total female employment rose by 1 617 000 jobs (23%), whilst male employment rose by 566 000 jobs (9%). In fact these figures disguise a small decrease in the number of jobs between 1980 and 1982 and are accounted for by job growth between 1982 and 1990. By 1990 males and females occupied 44% and 56% of all service sector jobs respectively; which represents a small shift towards more female employment; one-third of all

tt This earlier published article used an interim revision of figures for June 1990 which have the effect of marginaiIy under- stating the position discussed in this paper.

146

service sector jobs were part time (the figure for the economy as a whole is 24%). Since 1985 the rate of increase in part-time employment has been greater than in full-time employment for both sexes.??

The 1980s: a broad overview of hotel and catering employment

Between 1980 and 1990, HCI employment grew by 296 900 jobs to a total of 1 256 200 jobs. More new employment opportunities were created among females (173 300 jobs) than among males (123 600 jobs), although job creation was more evenly split between the sexes than in the service sector as a whole. Whilst male employment grew steadily from 1981, female employment was subject to greater fluctuations in the early part of the decade, and did not show real sustained growth until the later 1980s. Detailed employment figures for the 1980s are shown in Table 1.

In overall terms, the HCI did not grow by as much in the 1980s (31%) as it did in the 1970s (36%). In the 198Os, growth was slower in the earlier years of the decade during recession. This

iT The Workplace rndustriai Relations Sur- vey (1990) found that the substantial growth in part-time employment in the 19gOs occurred through two distinct routes: ‘the use of increasing proportions of part- time workers and through growth in the numbers of workplaces in the private services sector, while the proportion of employees working part-time remained at the same, relatively high level‘.”

can be more clearly illustrated in Table 1, by drawing a line at 1986, the year at which male and female adult unemployment peaked.*** Between 1986 and 1990 when unemployment began to fall and the ‘consumer boom’ came on stream, the rate of growth in male and female employment increased markedly.

Sectoral data for the 198Os, given in Table 2, show that the largest employment sectors - public houses, restaurants and hotels respectively - employed nearly three-quarters of the I-ICI’s total workforce. The majority of new jobs were created in the two largest employment sectors: 110 000 in restaurants (37% of all new ,jobs in the HCI) and 89 000 in public houses.

In 1990, 35% of HCI jobs were undertaken by males and 65% by females. Restaurants employed the highest proportion of males (40%) and contract catering employed the highest proportion of females (73%); 60% of jobs were part-time (30 hours a week or less). The sectors employing the highest proportion of part-timers were clubs and public houses (both 77%), whilst the hotel sector employed the smallest proportion of part- timers (43%).

Within the sectors, the pattern of employment change has revealed marked variation, as shown in Table 3. Whilst the 1980s witnessed continued employment growth in all sectors, the rate of growth was slower than in the 1970s in all sectors except restaurants, which enjoyed a period of marked expansion in the later 1980s. Employ- ment growth was also significantly higher in the second half of the 1980s in public houses and hotels, but in clubs and contract catering the main gains in employment growth were achieved in the early part of the decade.

Although the restaurant sector de- serves more attention than can be

*** Int~restingiy, the steady growth in unemployment between 1971 and 1986 was matched by a more or less continued growth in female part-time jobs. Robinson and Wallace suggested that unemployment growth emphasized the permanent role of part-time jobs.

Table 2 Employees in employment by industry sector 1980-90 (000s) The part-time female factor

HCI 1980 1990 % change Restaurants 1980 1990 ‘% change Public houses 1980 1990 % change C1Uh.S 1980 1990 % change Contract catering 1980 1990 % change Hotels 1980 1990 % change

Total m

959.3 _ 1256.2 258.7

30.9 _

196.4 306.4 56.0

- 73.5

248.2 337.2

35.9

- 41.2

130.4 _ 142.3 19.2

9.1 _

104.2 147.0 41.1

241.7 283.2

17.2

31.3 _

- 80.3

Male (PM

186.6 _

48.5

-41.4 _

35.x

9.0

-2s. 1 _

(all)

321.7 208.2 443.3 244.4

38.4 17.4

69.4 122.0 75.8

41.6 54.3 30.5

74.7 27.9 102.6 37.2 37.3 33.3

47.0 13.7 55.0 13.2 17.0 -3.6

24.0 40.3 67.9

88.4 108.4 22.6

wtt

40.4 47.8 1X.3

73.3 81.3 10.9

Female (Pit) (all)

429.4 637.6 566.5 810.9

31.9 27.2

8.5.3 126.9 130.1 184.4 52.5 45.3

145.6 173.5 197.4 234.6 35.6 35.2

69.6 83.3 74.3 87.5

6.8 5.0

39.8 80.2 58.9 106.7 48.cJ 33.0

80.0 153.3 93.5 174.8 16.9 14.0

Source: Quarterly Estimates of Employees in Employment (June), Employment Depart- ment.

given here, it is still worth highlighting some of the characteristics of its significant employment growth. It has already been noted that this sector accounted for 37% of all new HCI jobs in the 1980s. In terms of numbers of new jobs, the growth was split pretty evenly between male jobs and female jobs, but the restaurant sector alone accounted for 43% of all new male jobs in the HCI. In fact, restaurants exceeded their earlier fore- casts of employment growth, as did public houses.” Public houses saw the biggest growth in numbers of female jobs. In both these sectors, the vast majority of new female jobs were part time (78% in restaurants and 85% in public houses). This is consistent with

Robinson and Wallace’s observation that part-time employment was more likely to predominate in expanding branches of the industry.

Gender, fulI-time and part-time jobs

In the 198Os, HCI male employment grew at a faster rate (38%) than female employment (27%) which de- notes a change from the observed trends in the 1970s when female employment grew at twice the rate (44%) of male employment (22%). This shift is largely a reflection of a slowing down in the growth rate of female part-time employment during the 1980s.

Table 3 Increase in employment by industry sector

1971-N Sector (%)

Hotets 23 Restaurants etc 30 Public houses 41 Clubs 63 Contract catering 44 All HCI 36

1980-90 (%)

17 56 36 9

41 31

Source: Robinson and Wallace (1983, p 270 Table 6,) and Quarterly Estimates of Employees in Employment, Employment Department.

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In the 197Os, female full-time employment fell by -2%. whilst part-time employment rose by 87%, but in the 1980s female part-time employment grew at nearly twice the rate (32%) of full-time employment (17%). It is interesting to note the close corres- pondence between the growth rates of female part-time employment and overall employment growth for each sector as a whole, shown in Table 2.

Indeed the major development of the 1970s - the substantial growth in female part-time employment in the HCI - was not repeated in the 198Os, although part-time jobs remained the main growth area. In the 197Os, the substantial proportion of new female part-time jobs (79% of all new HCI jobs) was said to reflect changes in employers’ labour demands;’ in the 1980s this proportion had reduced such that only 46% of new HCI jobs were female part-time jobs. It therefore becomes important to try and estimate the male dimension of part- time employment in the 1980s. This can be done over a nine-year period, using the male part-time figures from the 1981 Census of Employment.’ These show that between 1981 and 1990 around 69% of all new I-ICI jobs were part-time, whereas the figure in the 1970s was 95%. Figures for the 1980s suggest that employment growth patterns have become more diverse, which is amplified below.

It has already been noted that female full-time labour increased in the 198Os, whereas it had actually declined marginally in the 1970s. In fact the numbers of female full-time jobs remained more or less constant between 1971 and 1987, at or around 200 000. The only real sustained growth in numbers of female full-time jobs actually occurred between 1988 and 1990. This is consistent with Robinson and Wallace’s observation that periods of very high labour demand were ‘met by wider ~u~tuations in the number of full-time than of part-time jobs” and it is therefore highly probable that such gains are temporary and will be lost in the current recession. Male employment developments are considered more specifically in the next section, which

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Table 4 Growth rates in employment by industry sector 1985-90

Male Female (f/t) (PM (f/O (p/t)

Sector Co/o) (%) 1%) (%)

Hotels 22.0 54.4 14.5 18.5 Restaurants 14.7 108.2 31.X 38.3 Public houses 23.4 43.5 27.4 22.6 Clubs -13.5 7,s 16.8 I.9 HCI 19.5 37.7 19.3 20.5

Notes: Separate male full-time and part-time figures are not given for contract catering.

Source: Quarterly Estimates of Employees in Employment (June), Employment Depart- ment.

employment structures than occurred in the 197Os,’ although the 1980s witnessed a small shift towards increasing proportions of male part-timers in all sectors, particularly in restaurants, and the proportion of male HCI jobs increased marginally. On a macro- level at least, the HCI’s pattern of ‘flexible working’, which has its roots in the 1960s and 1970s. has continued. although marked variations exist at sectoral level.

relates to the period when more com- prehensive data became available.

Hours of work

The male part-time factor

A more precise comparison of the growth patterns of male and female employment can be considered since 1985, when separate male full-time and part-time jobs began to be included in the Quarterly Estimates of Employees in Employment (see Table

4). The period covered by Table 4

(1985-90) corresponds largely to the ‘consumer boom’ years of the later 1980s when demand for labour was high. These figures seem to indicate that employment growth was satisfied through a more diverse approach than in the 1970s (when nearly all employment growth was in female part-time jobs), particularly an increasing utilization of male part-time labour. From Table 1, it can also be seen that males, rather than fentales, were the main gainers in terms of the rate of employment growth, particularly from 1988. As noted earlier, this is related to sectoral developments, particularly the rapid expansion of restaurant employment. It will be interesting to observe how male employment con- tinues to fare relative to female employment in the present recession.

male part-time employment is an interesting point that justifies more research*” but seemingly it could have significant implications for labour market theory. as thus far the increasing use of part-time labour has been discussed primarily in relation to ‘cheaper’ women. Unfortunately, offi- cial statistics in annual New Earnings Surveys give only female part-time earnings (which have continually rein- forced the point that part-time labour is cheaper) so the relationship between male part-time work and low earnings might be difficult to estab- lish.

Structural stability

However, the growth rate in male part-time employment, significant though it may be, relates to a relatively small proportion of jobs overall. Thus, in the HCI, the distribution of employees in employment in 1990 is more or less consistent with that observed in 1981, as shown in Table 5.

The relative stability between full- time and part-time employment that has been identified thus far does not take account of any changes in the distribution of hours within full-time and part-time jobs. Some analysis of related hours data in a separate context has already identified a significant development in female part-time hours in the hotel and restaurant sectors that were covered by the Licensed Residential Establishment and Licensed Restaurant Wages Council’ and in public houses and clubs covered by the Licensed Non-residential Establishment Wages Council.’ It should be noted that the Employment Department’s definition of part time for labour market purposes (employment/earnings data) relates to jobs of 30 hours a week or less: this differs from hours’ definitions for employment legislation purposes which effectively deem jobs of 16 hours a week or more to be ‘full time’.

In other words, the 1980s saw a much more stable position in regard to

+” A three-year research project entitled ‘Youth, gender and part-time employment’, due to begin towards the end of 1993, is expected to throw more light on this area.

Evidence from New Earnings Sur- veys has evinced a marked shift towards increasing proportions of female part-time jobs of 16 hours and below in hotels and restaurants, and in public houses and clubs during the 198Os, as shown in Table 6. Indeed

Related to issues discussed above, particularly the growth rate of male part-time employment in hotels and restaurants, it is worth noting that, while the later 1980s was characterized by a reducing supply of young people in the labour market, increasing proportions of young people have been seeking part-time work. Nearly one- third of male part-time job seekers are students/still at school.” The issue of

Table 5 Distribution of employees in employment in the hotel and catering industry 1971-90

Year

1971 1981 1990

(all) (%)

38 34 3s

Male (f/Q (Oh)

27 22 21

(p/t) (Oh)

11 12 15

Female (f/t) (%)

30 22 19

(P/U (%)

32 45 45

Total (all) (%)

100 100 too

Source: Robinson and Wallace (1983, p 270, Table 6) and Quarterly Estimates of Employees in Employment, Employment Department.

148 Tourism Management 1994 Volume 15 Number 2

Table 6 Hours of part-time females (by wages council)

% below 8 % 8-16 Year hours hours

Licensed residential establishment and licensed restaurant

Average weekly hours

1981) 3.3 1991 11.3

Licensed n~)n-residential es~blishm~nt 1980 IO.4 1991 16.2

Sourer: New Earnings Survey, Table I81

this development in female part-time jobs is particularly interesting given that all these sectors showed significant growth rates in male part-time employment between 1985 and 1990, a point which is developed below.

This particular development towards increasing proportions of female part-time jobs of fewer hours lends support to another of Robinson and Wallace’s major contentions that reductions in working hours provide a means of controlling wage costs (with implications for employee rights/ benefits under employment and social welfare legislation),‘*’ although it does not square entirely with some of their other main conclusions on part- time job growth relative to labour demands and unemployment growth, perhaps because economic circum- stances of the later 1980s have been different. If the effects of an economic boom, increased demand for labour and reducing unemployment have failed to shift the structure of HCI employment towards a greater proportion of full-time jobs. then, seemingly, part-time employment can be said to have become institutional- ized. Additionally, if employers have had to tailor their employment practice (based on an increasing utilization of male workers, particularly in restaurants) to a changing labour supply position, it would be interesting to discover whether the need to recruit more ‘expensive’ males has necessi- tated employers further reducing the cost of female part-time employment through a reduction in hours. Much

*** The justification for, and benefits of part-time employment as a flexible mea- sure, the means to reduce costs or as a control mechanism to deal with fluctuating demand, are topics of not inconsiderable debate.“%”

16.5 22.6 29.3 19.1

33.6 17.9 At.9 IS.5

more research is necessary to develop this area more fully.

Conclusions and future issues

It is acknowledged that there is some- thing arbitrary in comparing employment trends on the basis of decades: the line may be drawn in an in- appropriate place. Indeed some of the findings on employment discussed above suggest that features and cir- cumstances of the early 1980s had more in common with the 1970s (rising unemployment) than the later 1980s (falling unemployment and a ‘consumer boom’) and that these may have had some bearing on employers’ labour demands. Even so, the HCI continued to grow at a significant rate in the 198Os, although growth was generally slower in the early part of the decade.

In terms of the numbers of new jobs, the balance was more evenly distributed between the sexes (42% male:SX% female) than in the 1970s when the vast majority of new jobs were for females (77%). The majority of new jobs in the 1980s were created in restaurants and public houses, particularly in the boom years, whereas job creation was more evenly spread among the sectors in the 19705.

As a consequence, the 1980s saw male employment grow at a faster rate than female employment, whereas the opposite had occurred in the 1970s. Part-time employment, now an insti- tutionalized feature of the HCI, has continued to be the main area of job growth but the substantial rate of growth in female part-time jobs that occurred in the 1970s has not been sustained. The small increase in the overall level of part-time employment was accounted for by an increase in

Tourism Management 1994 Volume 1.5 Number 2

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male part-time employment, whilst the proportion of female part-time employment remained at the same level. During the 1980s there was a marked shift in the distributions of female part-time hours towards increased proportions of jobs at or below 16 hours a week.

Seemingly the boom years may have forced employers to adopt a more diverse approach to secure staff; this could also be related to a changing lahour supply situation, but this point requires more study. Male part-time employment was the fastest growing area in the later 1980s and only from 1988 did female full-time employment show real significant growth since 1971. Even so, HCI employment structures remained pretty stable throughout the 1980s although the proportion of male jobs increased very marginally.

As noted earlier, the figures analy- sed relate to the period before the current recession. Employment in all HCI sectors decreased in 1991 and 1992 but, perhaps surprisingly, has been predicted to grow in varying degrees from 1992. In percentage terms, restaurants and catering con- tractors are expected to sustain the highest average annual percentage growth rates until 1995,’ although there is little optimism that unemployment will fall significantly in the im- mediate future. It is probable that most new jobs will continue to be part time.

The analysis and discussion of HCI employment, based on the published macro-data, is inevitably limited. First, gaps in Employment Depart- ment data on male employees’ part- time employment, hours of work (and pay) make for difficuiti~s in presenting a complete picture. Second, none of the data differentiates employment by age. Even though the WC1 is acknowledged to be a significant employer of young people, precise statistics are difficult to obtain.’ Therefore an important dimension of the labour force is missing from this discussion, particularly in relation to the rapidly expanding fast-food area of the restaurant sector, known to employ a disproportionately large number of under-21s. Third, a macro-level analy-

149

sis cannot take account of the significant variations in the nature and structure of HCI employment that un- doubtedly exist among the various sectors at a micro-level.‘,’ Finally, the analysis has been unable to reflect other factors that affect employment. including the complex relationship between labour demand and supply.

Nevertheless, this article has attempted to provide some continued analysis of employment trends in the HCI, and to offer some pointers to areas that need to be researched in greater depth to aid understanding of employment in an industry that is likely to remain a significant provider of jobs into the 21st century.

Rosemury Lucas Senior Lecturer in Employment

Studies Deprtment of Hotel, Catering und

Tourism Management Manchester Metropolitan University

Old Hall Lane, Manchester Ml4 6HR

UK

References

‘Robinson. 0. and Wallace. J. ‘Employ- ment trends in the hotel and catering industry in &eat Britain’, The Srrviw Industries Journal. 3(y), (1983) pp. 26K 27X ‘Lucas, R.E. ‘Minimum wages and the labour market - rcccnt and contemporary issues in the British hotel industry’, Em- ployee Relations, 14(l), (1092) pp. 33-48 ‘Hotel and Catering Training Company Meeting competence nerds in the hotel and catering induyrry - now and in the future, London, HCTC ( 1992) “Naylor, M. and Purdic, E. ‘Results of the 1991 Labour Force Survey’, Employmmr Guzerrr~, April, (1992) pp. IX-171 ‘Lucas. R.E. ‘The Social Charter - oppor- tunity or threat to employment practice in the UK hospitality industry?‘, Internutionul Journul of Hospilality Manugemenr, 12(l), (1993) pp. 8Y~lOO ‘Wood, R.C. ‘Hospitality lahour trends: British and International experience’, Tourism Munugrmrnr, 13(J). (19Y2) pp. 297-301 ‘Hotel and Catering Industry Training Board Ho@/ und colering esruhLshment.s in Great Brituin: Part I. Wemblcy. HCITB (1985) ‘Hotel and Catering Industry Training Board Horel und cutering manpower in Britain 1984, Wemhley. HCITB, (1985) “Millward, N., Stevens, M., Smart M. and Hawes, W.R. Workplace industrial relations in rransirion, Dartmouth Publishing,

Aldershot (19Y2) “‘Robinson, 0. and Wallace. J. ‘Earnings in the hotel and catering industry in Great Britain’, The Service Indusrriev Joumul, 4(2), (19X9) pp. 143-160 “Disney, R. and Szyszczak, E. ‘Part-time work: a-reply to Catherine Hakim‘, Hindus/- rial Law Journul, 18(4), (198’)) pp. 22% 230 “Hakim, C. ‘Employment rights: a comparison of full-time and part-time cm- ployccs’, Industrial LUM, Journal, 1X( I), (19X9) pp. 6Yp83 “Bagguley. P. ‘Gender and Iabour flexihil- ity in hotel and catering’, The Srrvice Industrie.r Journul, I O(4), ( 1990) pp. 5 l7-

530 ‘“Hakim, C. ‘Core and periphery in employers’ workforce stratcgics: evidence from the 1987 ELUS survey’. Work, Em- ploymenl and Socirry, 4(2). (IYYO) pp. 1.57-188 i5W,rlsh 7‘. ‘Flexible lahour utilisation in ‘ 1 the private service sector’, Work. Employ- ment and Society, 4(4). pp. Sl7-530 (IYYO) “Deakin, S. and Wilkinson. F. ‘The ccon- omits of employment rights’, Institute of Employment’Rights. London (1901) “Dickens, L. ‘Whose flexibilitv discri- mination and equality isbucs i;l atypical work’, Institute of Employment Rights, London (1992)

Growth of tourism in East Asia and the Pacific

Tourism to and within the East Asia and Pacific region has been growing at a rapid pace. In this paper, Perry Hobson, Lecturer in the Department of Hotel and Tourism Management at Hong Kong Polytechnic, looks at the various levels of growth in tourism around the region and examines the key factors behind it. The paper then examines the implications of the growth of tourism particularly in relation to infrastructure, the environ- ment and human resource developments.

The East Asia and Pacific (EAP) region is often looked at enviously by the tourism industry in the rest of the world. The region has seen consistent and rapid increases in the growth of its tourism industry. According to World Tourist Organization data,’ tourist arrivals in the region have increased almost threefold over the last 12 years alone. In 1980 arrivals in the region totalled some 21 million. By 1992 this had grown to over 5X million. The average growth rate over this period has been 8.9% per annum, which is almost double the world average. In terms of global market share. the EAP region, which had a 1% market share of total international arrivals in 1960,

had risen to 7% by 1980 and to 12% by 1992.

Not only have tourist arrivals increased rapidly, but more importantly so have tourism receipts. The EAP region saw its tourism receipts grow from US$8 billion in 1980 to US$43 billion by 1992, an average growth rate of 15% per annum. Furthermore, the EAP region has seen its share of world tourism receipts approximately

doubled from 8% in 1980 to 15.5% in 1992.

Where has the growth come from?

Following the Second World War. in- traregional travel was hampered by a displaced rural population base, weak economies, communist insurgencies,

travel restrictions and poor air link- ages. Whist this situation has im- proved continuously over the last SO years, it has changed most dramatically in the past 25 years.

First of all, there has been a very rapid growth and urbanization of the population. The population of the world is expected to be 7.9 billion by the year 2000, up from 2.4 billion in 1950. It is projected that Asia will account for 60% of the growth over that period. By 1990, Asia and Oceania represented 56% of the world’s population.’ The population has risen and is continuing to rise most dramatically in the developing coun- tries, such as Indonesia and the Philip- pines. For example, the population in

1.50 Tourism Managemenl 1994 Volume IS Number 2

trends in british hotel and catering industry employment in the 1980s

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