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TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION:What’s the literature telling us?

DAC Global Relations The Development Assistance Committee: Enabling effective development

TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION:

What’s the Literature Telling Us?

Literature review prepared by the OECD Development Co-operation Directorate

May 2013

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS – 3

TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION LITERATURE REVIEW © OECD 2013

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This literature review forms part of a series of activities conducted by the OECD Development Co-operation Directorate in 2012 and 2013 with the aim of helping to clarify what triangular co-operation is, how it is implemented and how it can be effective in promoting development. Alongside this literature review, other activities included: a survey of countries and organisations involved in triangular co-operation, a brainstorming meeting with 24 experts and a policy dialogue that brought together 70 representatives from the different constituencies in triangular co-operation. The OECD adopted an inclusive approach, involving all key partners in triangular co-operation: providers of development cooperation, developing countries and international organisations. These activities were managed by Talita Yamashiro Fordelone (OECD), under the responsibility of Michael Laird (OECD) and Karen Jorgensen (OECD).

The literature review was produced by Talita Yamashiro Fordelone (OECD) with research assistance from Folashadé Soule-Kohndou (OECD). Formatting, proof-reading and logistical support was assured by Angela Stuart (OECD). The cover page was designed by Stephanie Coic (OECD).

TABLE OF CONTENTS – 5


TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACRONYMS ..................................................................................................................................... 7

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................... 9

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 11

WHAT IS TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION? ........................................................................................ 13

Multiple descriptions but no common definition ................................................................................. 13 Different ways of establishing triangular co-operation ........................................................................ 14

PARTNERS INVOLVED IN TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION .................................................................. 17

Governments are the main players ...................................................................................................... 17 Providers of development co-operation ............................................................................................... 17 Pivotal countries ................................................................................................................................... 18 International organisations ................................................................................................................... 19 Non-governmental actors ..................................................................................................................... 20

SECTORAL AND REGIONAL SPREAD OF TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION ............................................. 21

Sectors of intervention ......................................................................................................................... 21 Regions and contexts of intervention ................................................................................................... 21

HOW TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION CONTRIBUTES TO DEVELOPMENT ............................................ 23

Benefits and challenges of triangular co-operation ............................................................................. 23 Improving triangular co-operation ....................................................................................................... 24

CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................... 27

ANNEX 1: Triangular Co-operation in International Agreements ..................................................... 29

ANNEX 2: Some Different Definitions of Triangular Co-operation .................................................... 31

ANNEX 3: Triangular Co-operation in Policies of International Organisations .................................. 33

ANNEX 4: Indicative List of Triangular Co-operation Activities ........................................................ 35

BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................................. 39

ACRONYMS – 7


ACRONYMS

ACP Africa Caribbean Pacific

AECID* Spanish Agency for International Co-operation (Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional)

ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations

AU African Union

BTC Belgian Technical Co-operation

DAC OECD Development Assistance Committee

DIRCO South African Department of International Relations and Co-operation

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation

G20 Group of 20

GIZ* Germany Agency for International Co-operation (Gesellchäft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit)

ILO International Labour Organisation

JICA Japan International Co-operation Agency

OECD Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development

SEGIB* Ibero-american General Secretariat (Secretaría General Iberoamericana)

SSC South-South co-operation

SU/SSC Special Unit for South-South Co-operation, UNDP

TCDC Technical Co-operation among Developing Countries

TDC Triangular Development Co-operation

TT-SSC Working Party on Aid Effectiveness Task Team on South-South Co-operation

UN United Nations

UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

UN-DESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UN-ESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation

UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organisation

UN-JIU United Nations Joint Inspection Unit

UNPF United Nations Population Fund

USAID United States Agency for International Development

* Denotes acronyms in original language

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY – 9


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

International attention to triangular co-operation has been growing, with an increasing number of development partners becoming involved in this form of development co-operation. In part, this is due to the advantages it offers. It brings together different partners to share knowledge and implement projects that support the common goal of reducing poverty and promoting development.

This literature review describes the “state of play” in triangular co-operation. It builds on the report “Triangular Co-operation and Aid Effectiveness” (OECD, 2009) and addresses four questions:

What do we understand by triangular co-operation and how has this understanding evolved?

Which partners are involved in triangular co-operation and why?

In which sectors, regions and contexts is triangular co-operation happening?

How can triangular co-operation contribute to development?

Multiple descriptions, but no agreed definition of what triangular co-operation is

There are multiple descriptions of triangular co-operation in the literature but no internationally agreed definition. Understanding of the term has evolved over time since the first implicit reference in the Buenos Aires Plan of Action (United Nations, UN, 1978). A recent report of the United Nations (UN) Joint Inspection Unit (2011) recommended the adoption of a common definition in the UN system, but this has not happened yet. Today, descriptions take greater account of a wide range of partners involved in triangular co-operation, including international organisations and the private sector. Triangular co-operation can start in different ways and the division of labour among different partners is not fixed but constantly evolving.

An increasingly wide range of partners are involved in triangular co-operation

Triangular co-operation involves not only governments but also international organisations and, increasingly, non-governmental actors. Several international organisations are including triangular co-operation in their strategies as an important means of supporting development. Despite this evolution, it is clear from the literature that governments remain the main partners in triangular co-operation.

Triangular co-operation is happening almost everywhere

According to the literature, triangular co-operation takes place in different sectors, regions and contexts. It tends to take place among countries with similar features (e.g. geographic proximity, common language, similar cultural heritage) and is implemented in many sectors (e.g. agriculture, education, environment, food security,

10 – EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


governance and health). Recently, security and risk management is becoming an important area for triangular co-operation, with more activities being conducted in fragile states.

There is a growing consensus that the benefits of triangular co-operation outweigh the disadvantages

Triangular co-operation presents both benefits and challenges. The literature suggests that the benefits (e.g. additional financial and technical support from providers of development co-operation1 or international organisations, knowledge sharing among all partners, and building development co-operation management capacities) outweigh the disadvantages (notably high transaction costs). In addition, there are means of addressing these challenges to make triangular co-operation more effective and enhance its impact. Looking ahead, partners could focus on clarifying the characteristics of triangular cooperation and sharing lessons on how to build on its benefits and minimise its disadvantages.

1 For the purposes of this report, a provider of development co-operation is every country that only

provides development co-operation and is not eligible to receive official development assistance. This includes DAC members, non-DAC Eastern European donors, Arab donors, among other high-income countries

INTRODUCTION – 11


INTRODUCTION

Triangular co-operation has received increased international attention and recognition in recent years. This interest has been prompted by the economic growth and development in several middle-income countries. There has also been a renewed focus on knowledge sharing as a powerful engine for development. As a result, providers of development co-operation1, international organisations and developing countries are becoming more involved in triangular co-operation as a way to achieve the common goal of reducing poverty reduction and promoting development. Furthermore, several high-level meetings on development co-operation, including the United Nations High-Level Conference on South-South Co-operation in 2009 in Nairobi and the 4th High-Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness in 2011 in Busan, have recognised the importance of triangular co-operation as a means of achieving development results (see Annex 1 for references to triangular co-operation in a selected number of international agreements on development co-operation).

This increased attention and recognition brings a need for more clarity on what triangular co-operation is, how it is implemented and how it can best support development. Building on a previous study entitled “Triangular Co-operation and Aid Effectiveness” (OECD, 2009), this report presents the “state of play” in triangular co-operation, drawing on studies, reports and summaries of relevant conferences prepared from mid-2009 to mid-2012.

This report addresses the following questions:

What do we understand by triangular co-operation and how has this understanding evolved?

Which partners are involved in triangular co-operation and why?

In which sectors, regions and contexts is triangular co-operation happening?

How can triangular co-operation contribute to development?

12 – EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


NOTES

1 For the purposes of this report, a provider of development co-operation is every country that only provides development co-operation and is not eligible to receive official development assistance. This includes DAC members, non-DAC Eastern European donors, Arab donors, among other high-income countries

WHAT IS TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION? – 13


WHAT IS TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION?

This literature review finds that there are different understandings of what triangular co-operation is and shows that triangular co-operation can be established in several ways.

Multiple descriptions but no common definition

There is no internationally agreed definition or common understanding of what “triangular co-operation” is. In fact, even the term “triangular co-operation” has several variations. Some countries, such as China and the United States, refer to “trilateral co-operation” (Li and Bonschab, 2012; USA White House, 2012), while some regional organisations, such as the Ibero-American General Secretariat (SEGIB), refer to “triangular South-South co-operation”. The expression “tripartite co-operation” is also used. For the purposes of this report, the term “triangular co-operation” is used throughout.

Triangular co-operation when defined as providers of development cooperation’s support to South-South co-operation has existed for about three decades. The first implicit reference to triangular co-operation was made in the Buenos Aires Plan of Action of 1978 (United Nations, UN, 1978) which recommended that developed countries “support…technical co-operation among developing countries” and that “all the United Nations organisations should play a prominent role as promoters and catalysts of technical co-operation among developing countries (TCDC)”. The term “triangular co-operation” originated in 1980, when the Independent Commission on International Development issues, chaired by former German Chancellor Willy Brandt, suggested the development of triangular co-operation schemes in the context of economic co-operation between developing countries (Chaturvedi, 2012).

Since the first reference to the term “triangular co-operation”, interpretations of what triangular co-operation is have evolved, varying according to the nature, partners involved and the scope of triangular co-operation (United Nations Joint Inspection Unit, UN-JIU, 2011; Special Unit for South-South Co-operation, UNDP, SU/SSC, n.d.) (See Annex 2 for different definitions of triangular co-operation). For instance, as international organisations started supporting co-operation among developing countries, they have become explicitly mentioned in definitions of triangular co-operation (UN-DESA, 2009). However, according to a report from the United Nations Joint Inspection Unit (UN-JIU), some consider “the United Nations system (and other international organisations) contribution to South-South activities as triangular co-operation, while others consider it as necessarily involving the participation of a traditional donor in the process” (UN-JIU, 2011). The UN-JIU report recommended the adoption of a common definition in the UN system, but this has not yet happened. Other institutions propose that triangular co-operation is not necessarily limited to three partners, and can, for instance, involve two or more developing countries that wish to co-operate with one another and ask for the support of one or more providers of development co-operation or international organisations, to leverage additional

14 – WHAT IS TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION?


financial, technical or logistical resources (SU/SSC, n.d). The report “Triangular Co-operation and Aid Effectiveness” describes triangular co-operation as partnerships between members of the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC)2 and pivotal countries3 to implement programmes or projects in beneficiary countries (OECD, 2009).

A recent article on challenges for triangular co-operation takes a different approach, proposing both weak and strong definitions of triangular co-operation (Li and Bonschab, 2012). According to the weak definition, triangular co-operation “unites the approaches of two donors into one project in which the two different approaches work simultaneously but in a co-ordinated way”, i.e. partners use their comparative advantages and work in a co-ordinated way. The stronger definition is “the three parties are united at each step of the project: the planning, financing, implementation, and monitoring”, i.e. partners share values and align their methodologies.

Although there is no agreed definition, the literature on triangular co-operation suggests a widely held understanding that, in practice, triangular co-operation involves at least one provider of development co-operation or an international organisation and one or more providers of South-South co-operation (i.e. pivotal countries) to promote a sharing of knowledge and experience or implement development co-operation projects in one or more beneficiary countries. A common feature of many examples of triangular co-operation is that know-how, skills, experiences and resources from both developed and developing countries are combined. Often, the “pivotal country” plays a central role, as the name suggests, contributing expertise adapted to the context in the beneficiary country and more direct or recent knowledge of development challenges, while the provider of development co-operation or the international organisation shares their development co-operation experience and provides funds. However, such a division of labour is not fixed and the role performed by different partners can vary. For instance, there are several examples of triangular co-operation where there is a two-way flow of knowledge and experiences, with all developing countries involved acting as pivotal and beneficiary of the co-operation. In other cases, providers of development cooperation and international organisations can have an important role in contributing knowledge and expertise alongside the pivotal countries.

Different ways of establishing triangular co-operation

The literature shows that there are different ways to establish triangular co-operation. Four main models were identified:4

1. South-South co-operation as the starting point: a provider of development co-operation supports an existing South-South co-operation. An example is the project “GIRESOL environmental network”, conducted by Mexico and Guatemala with Germany’s support (see Annex 4).

Pivotal country

Beneficiary country

Provider of development cooperation

WHAT IS TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION? – 15


2. Bilateral co-operation between a provider of development co-operation and pivotal country as the starting point: a provider of development co-operation and a pivotal country sign a partnership agreement to co-operate with a third, beneficiary country. Japan and Brazil’s project with Angola to build capacity in the health sector is an example (see Annex 4).

3. Bilateral co-operation between a provider of development co-operation and a beneficiary country as the starting point: a pivotal country joins an existing partnership between a provider of development co-operation and a beneficiary country. The project “Clean Development Mechanism” is an example: it was first conducted by Germany and India, then China joined later (see Annex 4).

4. Triangular agreement as the starting point: the co-operation is set up jointly by the three partners (provider of development co-operation, pivotal country and beneficiary country) who identify, negotiate, formulate and implement the activity. An example is the partnership between Spain, Chile and Paraguay to build capacity in the public sector (see Annex 4).


Pivotal country

Beneficiary

country

Pivotal country

Beneficiary country


Beneficiary country

Pivotal country Provider of development cooperation

Beneficiary country

16 – WHAT IS TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION?


NOTES

2 Current members of the DAC are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States and the European Union.

3 The expression “pivotal country” is used in this report to refer to countries that provide SouthSouth cooperation. According to the Special Unit for South-South Co-operation, UNDP (SU/SSC), “pivotal countries can be defined as developing countries which, by virtue of their capacities and experience in promoting SouthSouth cooperation, are positioned to play a ‘lead’ role in the promotion and application of TCDC [technical co-operation among developing countries], mainly by sharing their capacities and experience with other developing countries; although they could themselves also benefit from the experience of such countries.” The concept of pivotal countries emerged in 1995 from a recommendation contained in the “New Directions Strategy on TCDC” that was approved by the High-level Committee on TCDC and the United Nations General Assembly (for further information, please refer to http://ssc.undp.org/content/ssc/about/faq.html). The terms “emerging donors” and “nonDAC donors” are employed more often but do not describe this group of countries accurately. Some pivotal countries began to engage in development co-operation as early as some DAC members; therefore, it is not adequate to call them “emerging donors.” “NonDAC donors” do not define what the group is, but rather what it is not.

4 For each model presented, there can be more than one provider of development co-operation, pivotal and/or beneficiary countries. The lines represent the partnership established first and the arrows represent the partner that joined the co-operation after.

PARTNERS INVOLVED IN TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION - 17


PARTNERS INVOLVED IN TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION

The literature shows that governments are the main partners in triangular co-operation. However, international organisations are increasingly involved and they are including triangular co-operation in their development strategies. Civil society organisations (CSOs) are also participating more in triangular co-operation.

Governments are the main players

Providers of development co-operation

According to the United Nations (UN) (2012b) and Ashoff (2009), roughly two thirds of DAC members are engaged in triangular co-operation, with Japan at the top of the list, followed by Germany and Spain. Few of them include triangular co-operation in their policies and strategies, with the exception of Japan and Spain. Since 1975, Japan has promoted triangular co-operation through its regional co-operation strategies and country co-operation programmes in selected pivotal countries as a way of supporting South-South co-operation (Japan International Co-operation Agency, JICA, 2012; SU/SSC, 2009). Japan is conducting triangular co-operation through “partnership programmes” signed in 2009 with 12 partners: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Egypt, Indonesia, Jordan, Mexico, Morocco, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Tunisia (JICA, 2012). Germany and Spain have also signed triangular co-operation agreements with Brazil, Chile and South Africa (SU/SSC, 2009).

Other DAC members involved in triangular co-operation are Australia, Canada, Denmark, Ireland, Italy, Korea, Luxembourg, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States (OECD, 2013; UN-JIU, 2011). The United States included triangular co-operation in its development co-operation policies and strategies “with the aim of helping to meet the needs of developing countries by working with partners” (USA White House, 2010). It has established triangular co-operation partnerships with Brazil, India and South Africa, referring to these arrangements as “trilateral co-operation” or “trilateral assistance programs”. Brazil also signed Memoranda of Understanding with Denmark and Sweden, agreeing with each of these countries to explore the possibility for joint co-operation in development in third countries (Government of the Kingdom of Denmark and Government of the Federative Republic of Brazil, 2012; Government of the Kingdom of Sweden and Government of the Federative Republic of Brazil, 2012).

According to the World Bank’s report on Arab development assistance, the so-called “Arab donors” are also becoming more involved in triangular co-operation

(World Bank, 2010). For example, Arab agencies have supported the establishment of training institutes for officials from developing countries and have provided grant assistance for knowledge sharing initiatives. These activities are designed to help developing countries’ officials to develop policy solutions tailored to their own development challenges.

18 – PARTNERS INVOLVED IN TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION


According to a major report by the Special Unit for South-South Co-operation, UNDP (SU/SSC, 2009), providers of development co-operation engage in triangular co-operation with the aim to:

Make development co-operation more effective through jointly developed projects.

Strengthen the capacities of providers of South-South co-operation.

Encourage horizontal relationships between two or more developing countries.

Pivotal countries

According to several reports (Agencia de Cooperación Internacional de Chile, AGCI, 2011; Government of Argentina, n.d.; Government of Mexico, 2010; OECD, 2013; SEGIB, 2011; SU/SSC, 2009; Ashoff, 2009), the main pivotal countries involved in triangular co-operation are:

In Asia: Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam.

In Latin America and the Caribbean: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Mexico and Peru.

In Africa: Egypt, Kenya, Morocco, South Africa and Tunisia.

There is little information on whether triangular co-operation is part of pivotal countries’ cooperation strategies. South Africa is an exception, as triangular co-operation is part of the strategic orientation of the South African Development Partnership Agency (Government of South Africa, 2011).

According to the SU/SSC (2009), pivotal countries engage in triangular co-operation to:

Obtain support and additional resources to foster South-South co-operation, particularly for demand-driven projects in least-developed countries.

Learn from each other and share lessons on development.

PARTNERS INVOLVED IN TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION - 19


International organisations

International organisations consider triangular cooperation an important means of supporting development and several of them are incorporating triangular co-operation in their strategies. As shown below, triangular co-operation supported by international organisations happens in two ways: i) a joint activity conducted by the organisation, the pivotal country and the beneficiary country; or ii) support to a South-South co-operation activity. As mentioned above, it is important to note that the role performed by different partners in triangular co-operation can vary; the international organisation can therefore bring financial and technical support to the partnership, or even be involved in implementation.

A range of international organisations, mostly UN agencies, are involved in triangular co-operation. This includes the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the Pan-American Health Organization, the United Nations Conference and Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the UNDP and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). Other international organisations beyond the UN also participate in triangular co-operation, such as the Africa Caribbean Pacific (ACP) Group of States, the African Development Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the Caribbean Community, the Inter-American Development Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Islamic Development Bank, the New Partnership for Africa’s Development, the Organization of American States, the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie and the World Bank. Some of these organisations are developing policy and institutional frameworks to guide these efforts (Annex 3 provides some examples).

A UN report shows substantial progress in the South-South and triangular co-operation activities involving international organisations (UN, 2012b). Three trends are emerging:

Triangular and South-South co-operation are increasingly included in the policies of international organisations.

There is greater use of web-based platforms to foster the sharing of knowledge and experience.

Thematic “centres of excellence” in developing countries are being established or strengthened.

International organisation

South-South co-operation

Pivotal country

International organisation

Beneficiary country

20 – PARTNERS INVOLVED IN TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION


Regional organisations are also involved in triangular co-operation. Examples include the Ibero-American programme to strengthen South-South Co-operation (SEGIB, 2011) and the Organisation of Islamic Co-operation’s promotion of South-South co-operation through the 10-year action plan adopted in 2005 (World Bank, 2010). The African Union (AU) also underscores “the broadening and strengthening of international development through the emerging modalities and promising mechanisms in South-South co-operation and Triangular Co-operation as a relevant and cost-effective approach side by side with North-South co-operation” (AU, 2011).

According to the SU/SSC (2009), international organisations engage in triangular co-operation to:

Enhance country ownership and promote the comparative advantages of South-South co-operation, by making developing countries’ technology and know-how more readily available to other developing countries and taking advantage of common languages and similar social and cultural contexts.

Replicate and build on past successful development co-operation.

Non-governmental actors

According to the UN, the private sector and civil society are playing an increasingly important role in triangular co-operation and can strengthen both South-South and triangular co-operation (UN, 2012a). However, aside from references by the UN, there is currently little information available on the involvement of the private sector in triangular co-operation and there are few experiences reported on CSOs participating in triangular co-operation. CSOs have mostly been working with governments as well as with UN agencies and programmes, providing advice and support to their South-South and triangular co-operation activities. One example is the project conducted by the Belgian Development Agency (BTC), the University of Cordoba (Argentina) and the El Alto municipality (Bolivia) between 2007-10, through which BTC and the University of Cordoba provided technical assistance for the hospitals of the Bolivian municipality and training for their health personnel (BTC, 2010).

Potentially, CSOs can have different roles in triangular co-operation. They can implement and help adapt projects to local realities; they can broker demand and supply for co-operation or they can advocate for greater transparency and local ownership. Civil society can also facilitate interactions among individuals, associations and businesses through, for example, student exchanges, tourism, web-based knowledge platforms and electronic networks. Relevant on-line fora and social networks include the “South-South opportunity” (www.southsouth.info) and a Facebook page (www.facebook.com/TriangularCo-operation?filter=1) created in April 2011. The aim of these platforms is to promote discussions and disseminate the latest information about past and upcoming events, reports, summaries of conferences and workshops related to South-South and triangular co-operation.

SECTORAL AND REGIONAL SPREAD OF TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION - 21


SECTORAL AND REGIONAL SPREAD OF TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION

According to the available literature, triangular co-operation takes place in many sectors and regions. Security and risk management is becoming an important sector, with increasing focus on fragile states.

Sectors of intervention

The literature shows that triangular co-operation takes place in a variety of sectors (see Annex 4 for an indicative list of activities). The main sectors include: agriculture, education, employment, energy, environment, fishery, food security, government, health and water and sanitation. Most providers of development co-operation do not have priority sectors for triangular co-operation except Spain, which gives priority to governance, climate change and environment, and research and development. Most international organisations set priority sectors in line with their areas of work. For instance, a SU/SSC report shows that the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation’s (UNIDO) main areas of triangular co-operation in Latin America are agro-industries, trade capacity building and renewable energy, while the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation’s (UNESCO) focuses on education, science and sustainable development, information and communication technologies, physics and mathematics (SU/SSC, 2009).

A relatively new and increasingly important sector for triangular co-operation is security and risk management. Projects in this sector are usually implemented in countries experiencing post-conflict and other situations of fragility. According to the literature, the United States, Canada and South Africa are the main partners involved in triangular co-operation in fragile states. Examples of activities include (see Annex 4 for other examples):

Combating child labour: USA and Brazil in Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay and Lusophone Africa.

Counter-narcotics co-operation: USA, Brazil and Bolivia; Australia, Singapore and ASEAN countries – Association of South East Asian Nations.

Conflict and post-conflict resolution: Canada and South Africa in Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan and South Sudan; Norway, South Africa and Burundi.

Regions and contexts of intervention

Triangular co-operation projects are implemented in all regions of the world: Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, Asia, Oceania and Europe. The literature shows that, as with the sectors of intervention, most countries do not have priority regions for their triangular co-operation activities. However, Spain and Japan are exceptions: the first focuses on Latin America, and the second focuses on Asia, Latin America and Africa. Because of their global reach, most UN agencies and programmes do not set geographic

22 – SECTORAL AND REGIONAL SPREAD OF TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION


priorities for their triangular co-operation either, although UNIDO prioritises West Africa (SU/SSC, 2009).

Most triangular co-operation projects happen among developing countries from the same region. For instance, in triangular co-operation partnerships involving Japan or Spain as providers of development co-operation and Brazil or Chile as pivotal countries, most projects are implemented in Latin America and the Caribbean. This is also the case for triangular co-operation partnerships involving the United States or Germany as providers of development co-operation and South Africa as the pivotal country: the projects are mostly implemented in Africa. The geographic proximity as well as culture and language similarities explain the preference for triangular cooperation among countries from the same region. Nevertheless, there is increasing triangular co-operation involving partners from different continents, such as:

Germany, Singapore and Afghanistan’s co-operation in human resource capacity development and civil aviation safety.

Islamic Development Bank, Malaysia and Sierra Leone’s co-operation in palm oil industry techniques.

Japan, Brazil and Mozambique’s project to promote agricultural development in Mozambique’s tropical savannah.

Japan, Sri Lanka and Tanzania’s co-operation on improvement of hospital management and quality of health services.

United States, China and Liberia’s collaboration to improve higher education facilities.

HOW TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION CONTRIBUTES TO DEVELOPMENT – 23


HOW TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION CONTRIBUTES TO DEVELOPMENT

The literature shows that triangular co-operation has both benefits and challenges, as is the case with most aid modalities. According to the SU/SSC (2009), most of the pivotal and beneficiary countries estimate that the merits of triangular co-operation outweighed the drawbacks, and that the challenges can be addressed. In fact, maximising the benefits and overcoming the challenges in triangular co-operation has been the topic of several recent international meetings. These have underscored the common ground in the principles underpinning South-South and North-South co-operation and have concluded that there are many different ways of jointly tackling challenges in triangular co-operation.

Benefits and challenges of triangular co-operation

Drawing from the various perspectives found in the literature, different partners have distinct perceptions of the benefits and challenges of triangular co-operation (see Table 1).

Table 1. Benefits of triangular co-operation according to each type of partner

Partner Benefits of Triangular Co-operation

Providers of development co-international organisations

Promotes mutual learning among the partners involved.

Builds on and shares developing countries’ experiences and know-how.

Helps to scale up successful co-operation activities.

Is cost-effective.

Can promote new forms of partnership more adapted to development challenges and more responsive to increasingly complex development contexts.

Can strengthen capacities of pivotal countries to provide development co-operation, making relations between “Northern” and “Southern” providers more horizontal.

Pivotal countries Provides financial support to South-South co-operation.

Strengthens technical capacity for implementing South-South co-operation.

Creates opportunities for networking and knowledge-sharing with providers of development co-operation.

Beneficiary countries

Facilitates communication and networking with pivotal countries.

Provides additional technical and financial support from providers of development co-operation to South-South co-operation.

24 – HOW TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION CONTRIBUTES TO DEVELOPMENT


However, there is a general perception that high transaction costs are one of the main drawbacks of triangular co-operation. For providers of development co-operation, transaction costs increase due to greater difficulty in planning and arranging the co-operation activities as well as in involving staff from headquarters and two country offices. For the pivotal and beneficiary countries, transaction costs rise due to difficulties in co-ordinating with providers of development co-operation and international organisations (e.g. on planning, implementing and monitoring). Besides transaction costs, pivotal and beneficiary countries also identify other challenges, notably that providers of development co-operation’s policies and priorities tend to take precedence over those of the beneficiary countries whose policies and priorities are not sufficiently respected.

Improving triangular co-operation

There is an increasing debate on how to make the most out of the benefits and address the challenges of triangular co-operation. These debates often happen in meetings on South-South and triangular co-operation involving governments, non-governmental actors and academia.5

Overall, the conclusions from the different workshops, seminars and conferences that have taken place since 2009 underscored the common ground in the principles underpinning South-South and North-South co-operation. There is notably recognition of the importance of ownership, with developing countries driving demand for co-operation projects, as well as recognition of the need for transparency and better accountability among the different partners involved.6 Ownership is particularly emphasised: the impact of triangular co-operation can improve if all partners “own” the activity and are involved from its inception. This helps to promote two-way learning, as well as guaranteeing that the project is in line with the beneficiary country’s development plans and priorities. Ideally, the process should be driven by the beneficiary country.

These meetings also highlighted the benefits of establishing institutional frameworks for triangular co-operation, which can reduce transaction costs. For example, a room document from the 17th session of the UN High-level Committee on South-South Co-operation mentions that “for South-South co-operation as well as triangular co-operation to have its intended impact, it is necessary to improve overall system-wide policy frameworks, governance, coordination, structures, mechanisms, and dedicated resources” (UN, 2012a). Similarly, a seminar on “Triangular co-operation: Lessons Learned and Management Challenges” organised by the SEGIB in 2010, recommended that “triangular co-operation projects must be systematised in order to build on lessons learned, capitalise on the knowledge generated and strengthen ongoing discussions. Concerning triangular co-operation management, all project phases (identification, formulation, monitoring and evaluation) need to be standardised because three different bureaucracies are involved. For this purpose, the various stakeholders must create and agree on definitions, methodologies, procedures, indicators and standards, and give visibility to transaction costs for triangular co-operation projects” (SEGIB, 2011). Regular consultations on policy and programmes help with jointly tackling the problems (SU/SSC, 2009).

HOW TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION CONTRIBUTES TO DEVELOPMENT – 25


Other ways of reducing transaction costs and making triangular co-operation more effective were discussed during these meetings:

Establish a single, leading national interlocutor or focal point in the provider of development co-operation, pivotal country and beneficiary country involved in triangular co-operation for smoother and quicker co-ordination.

Strengthen co-operation agencies and executing units in providers of development co-operation, pivotal countries and beneficiary countries, and build interagency co-ordination capacity to conduct triangular co-operation.

Ensure that both pivotal countries and providers of development co-operation have well-defined objectives and a strategy for triangular co-operation that takes into account the needs and demands of beneficiary countries.

Create guidelines agreed upon by all parties using a standard template.

Set up a clear country framework with minimal documents and signatures for conducting triangular co-operation.

Use a project structure with a clear division of roles, based on the comparative advantages of each of the partners involved, ensuring close co-ordination and communication.

Some providers of development cooperation have made progress in reducing transaction costs. Spain has streamlined its procedures while Japan has standardised procedures, prepared operational guidelines and increased delegation of authority to country offices (SU/SSC, 2009).

There are also diverging views on some issues. For example, regarding the respective roles of the partners involved in triangular co-operation, some favour establishing a clear division of responsibilities whereas others stress the need for flexibility, believing that a strict division of responsibilities should not be applied beforehand.

26 – HOW TRIANGULAR CO-OPERATION CONTRIBUTES TO DEVELOPMENT


NOTES

5 A non-exhaustive list of these seminars and workshops:

“Triangular Co-operation: Towards Horizontal Partnerships, But How?”, seminar organized by the Asian Development Bank Institute, the Gemeinschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) and the Task Team on South-South Co-operation, in Bali, 28 February-1 March 2011;

“The role of South-South and triangular co-operation in development”, jointly organized by JICA, SU/SSC and the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN ESCAP), in Bangkok, 20 May 2011;

“Teaming Up for South-South and Capacity Development: the Role of Triangular Co-operation”, High Level Event on South-South Co-operation and Capacity Development, in Bogota, 24-26 March 2010;

“Triangular Co-operation in the Context of Aid Effectiveness, Experiences and Views of EU donors”, workshop organized by Spanish Agency for International development Co-operation (AECID), in Madrid, 8-10 March 2010;

“Triangular Co-operation: Lessons Learned and Management Challenges”, seminar-workshop co-organised by SEGIB’s Ibero-American Programme to Strengthen South-South Co-operation, JICA, GIZ, AECID in Santo Domingo, 25-26 July 2010.

6 For a further reading on the similarities and complementarities between North-South and South-South co-operation, see Tortora, P. (2011), “Common Ground between South-South and North-South Co-operation Principles”, Issues Brief, OECD Development Co-operation Directorate, www.oecd.org/dataoecd/43/43/49245423.pdf

CONCLUSIONS – 27


CONCLUSIONS

Drawing on recent available literature, this report shows that triangular co-operation is attracting increasing attention from the international development co-operation community, particularly because it provides an opportunity to combine the efforts of both North-South and South-South co-operation. It constitutes a bridge between these two forms of co-operation based on a set of common principles. Furthermore, triangular co-operation is involving an increasingly wide and diverse range of partners and is taking place in different regions and in various sectors. Triangular co-operation is also becoming part of the development co-operation policies of the providers of development cooperation and the strategies of international organisations.

Current international debate shows that triangular co-operation can contribute substantially to development, even if there are still challenges to achieving its full potential. Triangular co-operation promotes mutual learning and sharing of successful development experiences among all partners, drawing on the financial and technical support of providers of development cooperation and international organisations. However, a lack of institutional frameworks and an expectation of high transaction costs may discourage partners from entering into such arrangements. They may also hamper the results of triangular co-operation.

Finding solutions to these challenges is fundamental in order to make triangular co-operation more effective and enhance its impact. In particular, there is a need to clarify the characteristics of triangular co-operation and to better understand how to build on its benefits and minimise its challenges. Looking further ahead, partners could focus on:

Building consensus on the characteristics of triangular co-operation.

Regularly tracking minimal statistics and information on triangular co-operation (in in-coming and out-going aid reporting).

Evaluating triangular co-operation, to help understand its advantages and draw more lessons on how to meet its challenges.

Sharing lessons on how to deal with transaction costs, particularly examining which types of institutional frameworks and arrangements can help reduce these costs.

Strengthening development co-operation management capacities in developing countries.

Moving this agenda forward should be a joint effort by all partners in triangular co-operation. Each partner can contribute their own perspective and comparative advantage to collectively promote better and more effective triangular co-operation.

ANNEX 1 – 29


ANNEX 1: Triangular Co-operation in International Agreements

International agreement Reference to Triangular co-operation

Buenos Aires Plan of Action (UN, 1978)

Paragraph 45: “The entire United Nations development system must be permeated by the spirit of TCDC and all its organisations should play a prominent role as promoters and catalysts of TCDC.”

Paragraph 60: “Recommendation 35: Support by developed countries for technical co-operation among developing countries.

Developed countries and their institutions should give their full support to TCDC initiatives by inter alia:

(a) Increasing their voluntary contributions to the operational programmes of the United Nations development system in order to permit a greater quantum of multilateral technical co-operation funds to be devoted to supporting TCDC;

(b) Providing financial support on a voluntary basis to technical co-operation between two or more developing countries and to institutions in developing countries that have a TCDC outreach potential;

(c) Accelerating the process of untying their aid resources, so as to make possible more rapid progress in the promotion and strengthening of TCDC;

(d) Giving, in their economic and technical co-operation activities, due priority to inter-country projects and programmes at the bilateral, sub-regional, regional and interregional levels which promote TCDC;

(e) Making qualitative improvements, if they have not yet done so, in their policies and procedures related to technical co-operation, in order to be able to support TCDC activities and projects at the request of participating developing countries so as to contribute to the greater reliance by those countries on resources available locally or in other developing countries.”

Accra Agenda for Action (OECD, 2008)

Paragraph 19, item b): “We acknowledge the contributions made by all development actors, and in particular the role of middle-income countries as both providers and recipients of aid. We recognise the importance and particularities of South-South co-operation and acknowledge that we can learn from the experience of developing countries. We encourage further development of triangular co-operation.”

Nairobi Outcome Document of the United Nations High-Level Conference on South-South Co-operation (UN, 2009)

Paragraph 15: “We recognize the value of the increasing support provided by developed countries, international organisations and civil society to developing countries, upon their request, in improving their expertise and national capacities through triangular co-operation mechanisms, including direct support or cost-sharing arrangements, joint research and development projects, third-country training programmes and support for South-South centres, as well as by providing the necessary knowledge, experience and resources, so as to assist other developing countries, in accordance with their national development priorities and strategies.”

Paragraph 20, item b): “[We] Invite developed countries to support South-South co-operation through triangular co-operation, including for capacity development.”

Paragraph 20, item d): “[We] Also encourage developing countries to enhance their national coordination mechanisms, as appropriate, in order to improve South-South and triangular co-operation (…)”

Bogota Statement Towards Effective and Inclusive Development Partnerships (TTSSC, 2010a)

Section 2, item c. ii: “There is room to improve complementarities and promote synergies between partner countries and traditional donors, including through triangular co-operation, by reducing transaction costs and engaging in mixed modalities that combine capacities, know-how, and resources from the North and the South.”

30 – ANNEX 1


International agreement Reference to Triangular co-operation

Busan Partnership for Effective Development Co-operation (OECD, 2011)

Paragraph 30: “(…) South-South and triangular co-operation have the potential to transform developing countries’ policies and approaches to service delivery by bringing effective, locally owned solutions that are appropriate to country contexts.”

Paragraph 31: “(…) We will strengthen the sharing of knowledge and mutual learning by:

a) Scaling up – where appropriate – the use of triangular approaches to development co-operation.

b) Making fuller use of South-South and triangular co-operation, recognising the success of these approaches to date and the synergies they offer

(…)

d) Supporting efforts to strengthen local and national capacities to engage effectively in South-South and triangular co-operation.”

G20 Progress Report Of The Development Working Group (G20, 2012)

Paragraph 54: “We recognize that to achieve economic growth, action must be taken to help vulnerable populations manage risks and the impact of external shocks, such as economic crises and natural disasters. To that end, we reaffirm our 2011 Cannes commitment to support the implementation or expansion of national social protection floors in LICs, on a demand-driven basis, including through coordinated North-South, South-South and Triangular co-operation, and we welcome the IOs’ efforts to progress this initiative.”

Paragraph 65: “We recognize the importance of Knowledge Sharing (KS) activities, through North-South, South-South and Triangular Co-operation, accepting that there is no “one-size-fits-all” model of development.”

ANNEX 2 – 31


ANNEX 2: Some Different Definitions of Triangular Co-operation

Institution / Author Definition

UN – ECOSOC (2008) “Triangular development co-operation has been interpreted as OECD/DAC donors or multilateral institutions providing development assistance to Southern governments to execute projects/programmes with the aim of assisting other developing countries.”

UN-DESA (2009) “Triangular co-operation is Northern donors, multilateral institutions or Southern partners providing co-operation to one Southern partner country to execute projects/programmes with the aim of assisting a third Southern partner country.”

Nairobi Outcome Document on South-South Co-operation (UN, 2009)

“Triangular co-operation is support provided by developed countries, international organisations and civil society to developing countries, upon their request, in improving their expertise and national capacities through triangular co-operation mechanisms, including direct support or cost-sharing arrangements, joint research and development projects, third-country training programmes and support for South-South centres, as well as by providing the necessary knowledge, experience and resources, so as to assist other developing countries, in accordance with their national development priorities and strategies.”

Special Unit for South-South Co-operation, UNDP (n.d.)

Describes a “triangular South-South co-operation” as an activity that “can be the initiative of one or more Southern countries that wish to cooperate with one another. In order to leverage additional financial, technical or logistical resources, such countries can ask for the support of a Northern donor as the third partner. Alternatively, a Northern donor can identify a developing country willing to provide technical co-operation to other Southern partners and whose initiative will meet the Northern donor's priorities and interests. The Northern donor offers to support South-South co-operation through a triangular approach in order to ensure the effectiveness of the intended co-operation activity. The Northern donor will make financial and sometimes technical support to the co-operation programme.”

ANNEX 3 – 33


ANNEX 3: Triangular Co-operation in Policies of International Organisations

Institution Framework

FAO FAO does not explicitly refer to triangular co-operation in its policies. However, its South-South co-operation programme is established through tripartite agreements among pivotal countries, recipient countries and the FAO, and mainly focuses on technical agreements. By the end of 2011, the organisation had 47 South-South co-operation projects supported by 1500 agricultural experts and technicians. Under its Strategic Alliance Framework with China, the FAO signed new tripartite agreements in 2011 with China for implementation in Liberia and Senegal to support food security initiatives. These activities were financed through the USD 30-million FAO-China Trust Fund. Under other agreements signed in 2010, Vietnamese experts are helping with irrigation activities, rice cultivation, fishing, beekeeping and food processing in Chad (FAO, n.d.).

ILO At its 100th

session in June 2011, the International Labour Conference placed particular emphasis on South-South and triangular co-operation as a means of achieving the organisation’s objectives. In March 2012, the ILO Governing Body adopted a South-South and triangular co-operation strategy. It will allow the ILO to have greater institutional capacity to identify and implement South-South and triangular co-operation with a view to establishing and implementing an initiative on South-South co-operation (ILO, 2012).

UNDP Adopted in 2008, the UNDP strategic plan (2008-2011) provides a results-oriented strategy to promote and accelerate sustainable human development, including the Millennium Development Goals, through South-South and triangular co-operation (UNDP, 2008).

UNEP UNEP has included South-South and triangular co-operation as a key modality of its medium-term strategy (2010-2013) and established a focal point to oversee implementation. The UNEP regularly promotes triangular co-operation, but it recognises, however, that “[in] terms of financial investment and frequency, it is clear that South-South and triangular co-operation are still rather the exception than the rule in the Convention on Biological Diversity. Increasing and enhancing South-South and triangular co-operation is, therefore, a critical element for the success of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020.” The vision of the multi-year plan released in May 2012 is: “By 2020, effective South-South and triangular co-operation will be used in the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, as a complement to North-South co-operation and in support of the Convention’s Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and the Millennium Development Goals, in order to enhance human well-being, promote development and eradicate poverty” (UNEP, 2010).

ANNEX 4 – 35


ANNEX 4: Indicative List of Triangular Co-operation Activities7

Provider of development cooperation/ International organisation

Pivotal country

Project Beneficiary

country

AGRICULTURE

Food and Agriculture Organization

China Support to food security initiatives Liberia, Senegal

Food and Agriculture Organization

Vietnam Support to irrigation activities, rice cultivation, fishing, beekeeping and food processing

Chad

Japan Argentina Improvement of animal health Bolivia

Japan Argentina Strengthening of microbiology and food science laboratories

Paraguay

Japan Brazil International course on agro-forestry systems technology

Pan-Amazon countries

Japan Brazil Promoting agricultural development in Mozambique’s tropical savannah

Mozambique

Japan Mexico Strengthening production of sesame seeds for small farmers

Paraguay

United Kingdom China Sharing China’s experience in agriculture Malawi, Uganda

United States Brazil Improvement of food security Haiti

United States Brazil Increase the productivity of vegetable crops, and agro-processing techniques

Mozambique

United States India Promoting food security Kenya, Liberia, Malawi

CONSTRUCTION

Japan Mexico Enhancement of the construction technology

El Salvador

EDUCATION

United States China Improvement of higher education facilities Liberia

ENERGY GENERATION AND SUPPLY

United States Brazil Biofuels implementation, technical support for the development of biofuels blending legislation

El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras

36 – ANNEX 4


FISHING

Canada Brazil Aquaculture and Amazonian fish Bolivia

Islamic Development Bank

Malaysia Capacity development for marine fisheries Bangladesh

FORESTRY

United States Brazil Expertise-sharing in forest inventory Peru

GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Germany Brazil Environmental technology centre Peru

Germany India Clean Development Mechanism China

Germany Mexico Environmental promoter network RED GIRESOL

Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala

Germany South Africa

Fire management coordination project Tanzania

Japan China Training courses in environmental protection ASEAN countries

United Kingdom China Sharing of China’s experience with preparing for and responding to natural disasters

Bangladesh, Nepal

GOVERNMENT AND CIVIL SOCIETY

Canada South Africa

Strengthening of public sector capacities in post-conflict countries

Rwanda, Burundi, South Sudan

Germany Brazil Strengthening of general procedures Uruguay


Development of a post-conflict reconstruction and development strategy

Democratic Republic of Congo


Development of an investigation manual and training support

Tanzania, Kenya


Organisation of a national anti-corruption summit

Democratic Republic of Congo

Germany, Sweden Colombia Sharing municipal development experiences Guatemala

Japan Chile Inclusive rehabilitation of persons with disabilities

Bolivia

Norway South Africa

Lessons sharing in conflict resolutions, reconciliation and prevention

Burundi

Spain Chile Public sector capacity building project Paraguay

Spain Mexico Strengthening public administration Central American countries

Sweden South Africa

Police training and capacity building Rwanda

ANNEX 4 – 37


HEALTH

Australia China Project on malaria Papua New Guinea

Japan Argentina Institutional strengthening and development of diagnostic methods for epidemiological surveillance, prevention, control and eradication of household animal diseases

Paraguay

Japan Brazil Training for capacity building of Josina Machel Hospital

Angola

Japan Sri Lanka Programme of Quality Improvement of Health Services by 5S-KAIZEN-TQM Approach

Tanzania

Pan American Health Organisation

Argentina Common regulations for medicines for the Anglophone Caribbean countries

Caribbean Community countries

Pan American Health Organization

Cuba Technical co-operation project between countries on health issues

Ecuador

INDUSTRY


Malaysia Capacity development for small enterprises and microfinance schemes

Indonesia


Malaysia Capacity development for palm oil industries Sierra Leone

MINERAL RESOURCES AND MINING


Malaysia Capacity development for oil and mineral exploitation

Mauritania

OTHER SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND SERVICES

International Labour Organisation

Brazil Child labour eradication project Ecuador

Japan Argentina Strengthening of statistics information generation at the regional level for monitoring progress towards the Millennium Development Goal's

Bolivia

Spain Argentina Quantification of public spending targeted to children

Haiti

United Kingdom Brazil Enhancement of social protection programmes

Kenya

United States Brazil Counternarcotics co-operation: measure excess coca cultivation and progress in coca eradication targets

Bolivia

United States Brazil Combat child labour Ecuador, Bolivia and Paraguay, Lusophone Africa

38 – ANNEX 4


POPULATION POLICIES/PROGRAMMES AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

Germany Brazil Sub regional South-South co-operation on HIV/AIDS

Paraguay, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Uruguay

United States Brazil Monitoring, evaluating and civil society strengthening on HIV/Aids

Mozambique

TRANSPORT

Germany Singapore Human resource capacity development and civil aviation safety

Afghanistan

WATER AND SANITATION

Germany Brazil Co-operation in water and sanitation resources

Bolivia

Germany Brazil Environmental protection and sustainable development of the Guarani Aquifer System

Paraguay

New Zealand China Improve water mains system in Rarotonga Cook Islands

Spain Brazil Water resources and sanitation project Bolivia

Spain Mexico Rehabilitation of water supply systems Haiti

SECTORS NOT SPECIFIED

World Bank China Knowledge-sharing events African countries

7 This list of triangular co-operation activities is indicative and was prepared based on the examples found in the literature consulted (see bibliography).

BIBLIOGRAPHY – 39


BIBLIOGRAPHY

Providers of development co-operation

AECID (Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo) (2010), “La

Cooperación Triangular Española en América del Sur”, presentation at workshop The European Union’s Triangular Co-operation in the Context of Aid Effectiveness, AECID, Madrid, 8 March, www.dev-practitioners.eu/fileadmin/Redaktion/GroupsFolders/Division_of_Labour/triangular_co-operation/AECID_Cooperacion_Triangular_America_del_Sur.pdf

AECID (2010), “Triangular Co-operation in the Context of Aid Effectiveness – Experiences and Views of EU Donors”, Concept note of Workshop organised by AECID, Madrid, 8-10 March, http://ec.europa.eu/development/icenter/files/europa_only/featured_triangular_co-operation_concept_note_20100309.pdf

BTC (Belgian Technical Co-operation) (2010), “Un Exemple de Coopération Triangulaire (ou Nord-Sud-Sud)", published on Blogco-operation.be, 23 September, http://blogco-operation.be/2010/09/23/un-exemple-de-co-operation-triangulaire-ou-nord-sud-sud/

CIDEAL (Centro de Investigación y Cooperación para el Desarrollo) (2011), Reflexiones Prácticas Sobre Cooperación Triangular, CIDEAL, Madrid, www.cideal.org/docs/COOP%20_TRIANGULAR_OnLine.pdf

GIZ (Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit) (2011), “Trilateral Co-operation”, South African-German Development Co-operation, http://south-africa.german-development-co-operation.org/trilateral-co-operation

GTZ (Gesellchäft für Technische Zusammenarbeit) (2010), “Triangular Co-operation in Practice – GTZ’s Experience”, presentation by Dr. Ulrich Müller, 16 March, http://api.ning.com/files/eXUcGJnS-REJLoWY2kC9lgFu*5riNm7VyFDdyQ3STEa1knItj*1JFpV0ucWYaWizvg3ZOaglearVVSUSbdupbBuSYhNZHZFI/GTZ_TriCoopinPractice.pdf

Government of the Kingdom of Denmark and Government of the Federative Republic of Brazil (2012), “Memorandum of Understanding on a Partnership for Development Dialogue and Co-operation between the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Denmark and the Brazilian Agency for Co-operation of the Ministry of External Relations of the Federative Republic of Brazil”, Brasília, 12 March, www.um.dk/da/~/media/UM/Danish-site/Documents/Danida/MoU%20dev%20en.ashx

Government of the Kingdom of Sweden and Government of the Federative Republic of Brazil (2012), “Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of the Kingdom of Sweden and the Government of the Federative Republic of Brazil on

40 – BIBLIOGRAPHY


Partnership and Dialogue on Global Development”, Brasília, 29 August, www.regeringen.se/content/1/c6/19/79/27/c3aeaf9b.pdf

JICA (Japan International Co-operation Agency) (2012), An Overview of South-South and Triangular Co-operation, JICA.

JICA (n.d), Partnership Program: Challenge to Inclusive and Dynamic Development through Triangular Co-operation with New Partners, JICA, www.jica.go.jp/english/operations/thematic_issues/south/pdf/pp_ssc.pdf

USA White House (2010), “US Global Development Policy”, Factsheet, The United States White House, Washington D.C., 22 September, www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2010/09/22/fact-sheet-us-global-development-policy

USA White House (2012), “The United States and Brazil: Trilateral Co-operation”, Factsheet, The United States White House, Washington D.C., 9 April, www.state.gov/p/wha/rls/fs/2012/187613.htm

Pivotal countries

AGCI (Agencia de Cooperación Internacional de Chile) (2012), Estudio de la Cooperación Triangular Chilena Gestionada, AGCI, www.agci.cl/attachments/article/655/Cooperaci%C3%B3n_Triangular_otorgada_por_Chile.pdf

Government of Argentina (2010), South-South and Triangular Co-operation of Argentina, Journal No. 10, Special Bicentenary edition, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship, www.foargentina.cancilleria.gov.ar/upload/publicaciones/revistafoar2010en.pdf

Government of Argentina (n.d.), “Argentina in the South-South and Triangular Co-operation”, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship, www.5fmmfocalae.com.ar/userfiles/Coop1-i.pdf

Government of Mexico (2010), “Mexican Offer for Co-operation and Sustainable Development Promotion – Triangular Co-operation”, The 2010 Mexico Report on International Co-operation, Secretariat of Foreign Relations, http://dgctc.sre.gob.mx/pdf/The-2010-Mexico-Report-on-International-Co-operation.pdf

Government of South Africa (2011), “Establishment of SADPA (South African Development Partnership Agency)”, presentation to the NCOP Select Committee on Trade and International Relations. DIRCO (Department of International Relations and Co-operation), 3 August, www.safpi.org/sites/default/files/110803sadpa-edit.pdf

Government of Uruguay (2011), “Transaction Costs and the Effectiveness Agenda in Triangular Development Aid”, presentation at workshop Triangular Co-operation: Towards Horizontal Partnerships, But How?, Bali, Indonesia, 28 February-1March, www.auci.gub.uy/pdfs/indonesia.pdf

BIBLIOGRAPHY – 41


Regional organisations

AU (African Union) (2011), Aid Reform for Africa’s Development, Final Draft African Consensus and Position on Development Effectiveness, Addis Ababa, 30 September, www.nepad.org/system/files/FINAL%20DRAFT%20-%20AFRICAN%20CONSENSUS%20%20POSITION%20ON%20DEVELOPMENT%20EFFECTIVENESS%20Sept%202011v3.pdf

Organisation de la Francophonie (2011) “South-South and Triangular Co-operation: Competition or Complementarity for Development Effectiveness?”, concept note for high-level panel organised during the 2011 European Development Days, Warsaw, 15 December, www.eudevdays.eu/sites/default/files/hlp-Liliana%20Pasecinik-attachment/EDD%20concept%20note%20SCC%20EN%20et%20FR.pdf

SEGIB (Secretaría General Iberoamericana) (2011), “Systematizing, Bilateral and Triangular Horizontal South-South Co-operation”, Report on South-South Co-operation in Ibero-America, SEGIB, Madrid, pp. 115-136, http://segib.org/news/files/2011/11/Coop-South-South-2011.pdf

International organisations

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation) (n.d), South-South Co-operation, www.fao.org/spfs/South-South-spfs/ssc-spfs/en/

G20 (Group of 20) (2012), “2012 Progress Report of the Development Working Group”, www.presidencia.gob.mx/documentos/g20/2012_Progress_Report_Of_The_Development_Working_Group.pdf

ILO (International Labour Organisation) (2010) “Brazil, US and ILO to Expand Fight against Child Labour in Post-Earthquake Haiti – First ILO North-South-South ‘Triangular Agreement’”, Press release, 15 June, www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/press-and-media-centre/news/WCMS_141747/lang--en/index.htm

ILO (2012), “South-South and Triangular Co-operation: the Way Forward”, Room document for the 313th Session of the ILO Governing Body, Geneva, 1 February, www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---relconf/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_172577.pdf

OECD (Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development) (2008), Accra Agenda for Action, 3rd High-Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness, Accra, Ghana, 2-4 September, www.oecd.org/dataoecd/11/41/34428351.pdf

OECD (2009), Triangular Co-operation and Aid Effectiveness – Can Triangular Co-operation Make Aid More Effective?, paper prepared for the Policy Dialogue on Development Co-operation, Mexico City, 28-29 September, www.oecd.org/dataoecd/63/37/46387212.pdf

42 – BIBLIOGRAPHY


OECD (2011), Busan Partnership for Effective Development Co-operation, 4th High Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness, Busan, Korea, 29 November-1 December, www.aideffectiveness.org/busanhlf4/images/stories/hlf4/OUTCOME_DOCUMENT_-_FINAL_EN.pdf

OECD (2013), Triangular Co-operation: What can we learn from a survey of actors involved?, 2013 Report, OECD Development Co-operation Directorate, April 2013.

Special Unit for South-South Co-operation (SU/SSC), UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) (n.d), “Triangular Co-operation: How Triangular Co-operation Works”, Online Handbook on South-South Co-operation, SU/SSC, UNDP, http://handbook.southsouthconference.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=59&Itemid=120

Special Unit for South-South Co-operation (SU/SSC), UNDP (2009), “Triangular Co-operation”, Enhancing South-South and Triangular Co-operation, SU/SSC, UNDP, New York, http://southsouthconference.org/wp content/uploads/2009/10/E_Book.pdf

Special Unit for South-South Co-operation (SU/SSC), UNDP (2011), “The Role of South-South and Triangular Co-operation in Development”, Luncheon forum, 67th session of the UN ESCAP, Bangkok, 20 May, www.unescap.org/pdd/calendar/SSC_20Jun11/Summary_SSCForum.pdf

Task Team on South-South Co-operation (TT-SSC) (2010a), Bogota Statement – Towards Effective and Inclusive Development Partnerships, High Level Event on South-South Co-operation and Capacity Development, Bogota, 25 March, www.oecd.org/dataoecd/1/23/45497536.pdf

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