TrinityThe Christian doctrine of the Trinity (Latin Trinitas lit triad from Latin trinus

threefold)[1] holds that God is one God but three coeternal consubstantialpersons[2] or hypostases[3]mdashthe Father the Son (Jesus Christ) and the Holy Spiritmdashas one God in three Divine Persons The three Persons are distinct yet are onesubstance essence or nature (homoousios)[4] In this context a nature is whatone is whereas a person is who one is[5] Sometimes differing views are referredto as nontrinitarian Trinitarianism contrasts with positions such as Binitarianism(one deity in two persons or two deities) and Monarchianism (no plurality ofpersons within God) of which Modalistic Monarchianism (one deity revealed inthree modes) and Unitarianism (one deity in one person) are subsets

While the developed doctrine of the Trinity is not explicit in the books thatconstitute the New Testament the New Testament possesses a triadicunderstanding of God[6] and contains a number of Trinitarian formulas[7] Thedoctrine of the Trinity was first formulated among the early Christians and fathers ofthe Church as early Christians attempted to understand the relationship betweenJesus and God in their scriptural documents and prior traditions[8]

Etymology

HistoryFrom the Ante-Nicene Fathers to NicaeaFirst seven ecumenical councils

First Council of NicaeaFirst Council of ConstantinopleCouncil of EphesusCouncil of ChalcedonSecond Council of ConstantinopleThird Council of ConstantinopleSecond Council of Nicaea

Middle Ages

TheologyTrinitarian baptismal formulaOne God in Three PersonsPerichoresisEconomic and immanent TrinityTrinity and loveTrinity and willPolitical aspect

Biblical backgroundJesus as God

In the New TestamentIn later Christian theology

Holy Spirit as GodIn the New Testament

Holy Trinity depicted by SzymonCzechowicz (1756ndash1758)Contents

In later Christian theology

Old Testament parallels

Artistic depictionsImage gallery

Nontrinitarianism

CriticismIslamJudaism

See also

Extended notes

Endnotes and referencesOther referencesBibliography

Further reading

External links

The word trinity is derived from Latin trinitas meaning the number three a triad tri This abstract noun is formed from theadjective trinus (three each threefold triple)[9] as the word unitas is the abstract noun formed from unus (one)

The corresponding word in Greek is τριάς meaning a set of three or the number three[10] The first recorded use of this Greekword in Christian theology was by Theophilus of Antioch in about the year 170 He wrote[11]

In like manner also the three days which were before the luminaries are types of the Trinity [Τριάδος] of God andHis Word and His wisdom And the fourth is the type of man who needs light that so there may be God the Wordwisdom man (Aut IIXV)

While the developed doctrine of theTrinity is not explicit in the booksthat constitute the New Testamentit was first formulated as earlyChristians attempted to understandthe relationship between Jesus andGod in their scriptural documentsand prior traditions[8] The NewTestament possesses a triadicunderstanding of God[6] andcontains a number of Trinitarianformulas[7] The Ante-NiceneFathers asserted Christs deity and spoke of Father Son and Holy Spirit eventhough their language is not that of the traditional doctrine as formalized in thefourth century Trinitarians view these as elements of the codified doctrine An early

Etymology

History

The earliest known depiction of theTrinity Dogmatic Sarcophagus AD350Vatican Museums

The Adoration of the Trinity byAlbrecht Duumlrer (1511)

From the Ante-NiceneFathers to Nicaea

Trinitarian formula appears towards the end of the first century where Clement ofRome rhetorically asks in his epistle as to why corruption exists among some in the

Christian community Do we not have one God and one Christ and one graciousSpirit that has been poured out upon us and one calling in Christ[13] Ignatius ofAntioch provides early support for the Trinity around 110 exhorting obedience toChrist and to the Father and to the Spirit[14] The pseudonymous Ascension ofIsaiah written sometime between the end of the first century and the beginning of

the third century possesses a proto-trinitarian view such as in its narrative of howthe inhabitants of the sixth heaven sing praises to the primal Father and his BelovedChrist and the Holy Spirit[15] Justin Martyr (AD 100ndashc 165) also writes in the

name of God the Father and Lord of the universe and of our Saviour Jesus Christand of the Holy Spirit[16] The first of the early church fathers to be recorded usingthe word Trinity was Theophilus of Antioch writing in the late 2nd century Hedefines the Trinity as God His Word (Logos) and His Wisdom (Sophia)[17] in the

context of a discussion of the first three days of creation following the earlyChristian practice of identifying the Holy Spirit as the Wisdom of God[18] The first

defense of the doctrine of the Trinity was in the early 3rd century by the early churchfather Tertullian He explicitly defined the Trinity as Father Son and Holy Spiritand defended his theology against Praxeas[19] though he noted that the majorityof the believers in his day found issue with his doctrine[20] St Justin and Clementof Alexandria used the Trinity in their doxologies and St Basil likewise in theevening lighting of lamps[21] Origen of Alexandria (AD 185-c 253) has often been interpreted as Subordinationist but some modernresearchers have argued that Origen might have actually been anti-Subordinationist[22][23]

Although there is much debate as to whether the beliefs of the Apostles were merely articulated and explained in the TrinitarianCreeds or were corrupted and replaced with new beliefs[24] all scholars recognize that the Creeds themselves were created inreaction to disagreements over the nature of the Father Son and Holy Spirit These controversies took some centuries to be resolved

Of these controversies the most significant developments were articulated in the first four centuries by the Church Fathers in reactionto Adoptionism Sabellianism and Arianism Adoptionism was the belief that Jesus was an ordinary man born of Joseph and Marywho became the Christ and Son of God at his baptism In 269 the Synods of Antioch condemned Paul of Samosata for hisAdoptionist theology and also condemned the term homoousios (ὁμοούσιος of the same being) in the modalist sense in which heused it[25]

Among the Non-Trinitarian beliefs the Sabellianism taught that the Father the Son and the Holy Spirit are essentially one and thesame the difference being simply verbal describing different aspects or roles of a single being[26] For this view Sabellius wasexcommunicated for heresy in Rome c 220

In the fourth century Arianism as traditionally understood[note 1] taught that the Father existed prior to the Son who was not bynature God but rather a changeable creature who was granted the dignity of becoming Son of God[27] In 325 the First Council ofNicaea adopted the Nicene Creed which described Christ as God of God Light of Light very God of very God begotten not madebeing of one substance with the Father and the Holy Ghost as the one by which was incarnate of the Virgin Mary[28][29] (theWord was made flesh and dwelled among us) About the Father and the Son the creed used the term homoousios (of one substance)to define the relationship between the Father and the Son After more than fifty years of debate homoousios was recognised as thehallmark of orthodoxy and was further developed into the formula of three persons one being

The Heavenly Trinity joined to theEarthly Trinity through theIncarnation of the Son by Murillo c1677[12]

First seven ecumenical councils

First Council of Nicaea

The Confession of the First Council of Nicaea the Nicene Creed said little about the Holy Spirit[30] At the First Council of Nicea(325) all attention was focused on the relationship between the Father and the Son without making any similar statement about theHoly Spirit

We believe in one God the Father Almighty Maker of all things visible and invisible And inone Lord Jesus Christ the Son of God begotten of the Father [the only-begotten that is ofthe essence of the Father God of God] Light of Light very God of very God begotten notmade being of one substance with the Father () And [we believe] in the Holy Ghost ()mdash Nicene Creed

Later at the First Council of Constantinople (381) the Nicene Creed would be expanded known as Niceno-ConstantinopolitanCreed by saying that the Holy Spirit is worshiped and glorified together with the Father and the Son (συμπροσκυνούμενον καὶσυνδοξαζόμενον) suggesting that he was also consubstantial with them

We believe in one God the Father Almighty Maker of heaven and earth and of all thingsvisible and invisible And in one Lord Jesus Christ the only-begotten Son of God begottenof the Father before all worlds (aeligons) Light of Light very God of very God begotten notmade being of one substance with the Father () And in the Holy Ghost the Lord andGiver of life who proceedeth from the Father who with the Father and the Son together isworshiped and glorified who spake by the prophets () mdash Niceno-ConstantinopolitanCreed[31]

The doctrine of the divinity and personality of the Holy Spirit was developed by Athanasius in the last decades of his life[32] Hedefended and refined the Nicene formula[30] By the end of the 4th century under the leadership of Basil of Caesarea Gregory ofNyssa and Gregory of Nazianzus (the Cappadocian Fathers) the doctrine had reached substantially its current form[30]

In the late 6th century some Latin-speaking churches added the words and from the Son (Filioque) to the description of theprocession of the Holy Spirit words that were not included in the text by either the Council of Nicaea or that of Constantinople[33]

This was incorporated into the liturgical practice of Rome in 1014[34]Filioque eventually became one of the main causes for theEast-West Schism in 1054 and the failures of the repeated union attempts

Gregory of Nazianzus would say of the Trinity No sooner do I conceive of the One than I am illumined by the splendour of theThree no sooner do I distinguish Three than I am carried back into the One When I think of any of the Three I think of Him as theWhole and my eyes are filled and the greater part of what I am thinking escapes me I cannot grasp the greatness of that One so as toattribute a greater greatness to the rest When I contemplate the Three together I see but one torch and cannot divide or measure outthe undivided light[35]

First Council of Constantinople

Council of Ephesus

Council of Chalcedon

Second Council of Constantinople

Third Council of Constantinople

Second Council of Nicaea

Middle Ages

Devotion to the Trinity centered in the French monasteries at Tours and Aniane where Saint Benedict dedicated the abbey church tothe Trinity in 872 Feast Days were not instituted until 1091 at Cluny and 1162 at Canterbury and papal resistance continued until1331[21]

Baptism is generally conferred with the Trinitarian formula in the name of theFather and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit[Mt 2819] Trinitarians identify thisname with the Christian faith into which baptism is an initiation as seen for examplein the statement of Basil the Great (330ndash379) We are bound to be baptized in theterms we have received and to profess faith in the terms in which we have beenbaptized The First Council of Constantinople (381) also says This is the Faith ofour baptism that teaches us to believe in the Name of the Father of the Son and ofthe Holy Spirit According to this Faith there is one Godhead Power and Being ofthe Father of the Son and of the Holy Spirit Matthew 2819 may be taken toindicate that baptism was associated with this formula from the earliest decades ofthe Churchs existence Other Trinitarian formulas found in the New Testamentinclude in 2 Corinthians 1313 1 Corinthians 124-6 Ephesians 44-6 1 Peter 12and Revelation 14-5[7][36]

Oneness Pentecostals demur from the Trinitarian view of baptism and emphasizebaptism lsquoin the name of Jesus Christrsquo the original apostolic formula[37] For thisreason they often focus on the baptisms in Acts Those who place great emphasis onthe baptisms in Acts often likewise question the authenticity of Matthew 2819 in itspresent form Most scholars of New Testament textual criticism accept theauthenticity of the passage since there are no variant manuscripts regarding theformula[38] and the extant form of the passage is attested in the Didache[39] and other patristic works of the 1st and 2nd centuriesIgnatius[40] Tertullian[41] Hippolytus[42] Cyprian[43] and Gregory Thaumaturgus[44]

Commenting on Matthew 2819 Gerhard Kittel states

This threefold relation [of Father Son and Spirit] soon found fixed expression in the triadic formulae in 2 Cor 1314and in 1 Cor 124ndash6 The form is first found in the baptismal formula in Matthew 2819 Did 7 1 and 3[I]t is self-evident that Father Son and Spirit are here linked in an indissoluble threefold relationship[45]

In Trinitarian doctrine God exists as three persons or hypostases butis one being having a single divine nature[46] The members of theTrinity are co-equal and co-eternal one in essence nature poweraction and will As stated in the Athanasian Creed the Father isuncreated the Son is uncreated and the Holy Spirit is uncreated andall three are eternal without beginning[47] The Father and the Sonand the Holy Spirit are not names for different parts of God but onename for God[48] because three persons exist in God as one

Theology

Trinitarian baptismal formula

The Baptism of Christ by Piero dellaFrancesca 15th century

One God in Three Persons

entity[49] They cannot be separate from one another Each person isunderstood as having the identical essence or nature not merelysimilar natures[50]

According to the Eleventh Council of Toledo (675) For when wesay He who is the Father is not the Son we refer to the distinction ofpersons but when we say the Father is that which the Son is theSon that which the Father is and the Holy Spirit that which theFather is and the Son is this clearly refers to the nature orsubstance[51]

The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) adds In God there is only aTrinity since each of the three persons is that reality mdash that is to saysubstance essence or divine nature This reality neither begets nor isbegotten nor proceeds the Father begets the Son is begotten and theholy Spirit proceeds Thus there is a distinction of persons but a unityof nature Although therefore the Father is one person the Sonanother person and the holy Spirit another person they are notdifferent realities but rather that which is the Father is the Son andthe holy Spirit altogether the same thus according to the orthodox and catholic faith they are believed to be consubstantial[52]

Perichoresis (from Greek going around envelopment) is a term used by somescholars to describe the relationship among the members of the Trinity The Latinequivalent for this term is circumincessio This concept refers for its basis toJohn 14ndash17 where Jesus is instructing the disciples concerning the meaning of hisdeparture His going to the Father he says is for their sake so that he might come tothem when the other comforter is given to them Then he says his disciples willdwell in him as he dwells in the Father and the Father dwells in him and the Fatherwill dwell in them This is so according to the theory of perichoresis because thepersons of the Trinity reciprocally contain one another so that one permanentlyenvelopes and is permanently enveloped by the other whom he yet envelopes(Hilary of Poitiers Concerning the Trinity 31)[53]

Perichoresis effectively excludes the idea that God has parts but rather is a simplebeing It also harmonizes well with the doctrine that the Christians union with theSon in his humanity brings him into union with one who contains in himself in theApostle Pauls words all the fullness of deity and not a part (See alsoDivinization (Christian)) Perichoresis provides an intuitive figure of what thismight mean The Son the eternal Word is from all eternity the dwelling place ofGod he is the Fathers house just as the Son dwells in the Father and the Spirit sothat when the Spirit is given then it happens as Jesus said I will not leave you asorphans for I will come to you[John 1418]

The term immanent Trinity focuses on who God is the term ldquoeconomic Trinityrdquo focuses on what God does According to theCatechism of the Catholic Church

The Shield of the Trinity or Scutum Fideidiagram of traditional medieval Western

Christian symbolism

The Father

The Son

The Holy Spirit

Perichoresis

A depiction of the Council of Nicaeain AD 325 at which the Deity ofChrist was declared orthodox andArianism condemned

Economic and immanent Trinity

The Fathers of the Church distinguish between theology (theologia) and economy (oikonomia) Theology refers tothe mystery of Gods inmost life within the Blessed Trinity and economy to all the works by which God revealshimself and communicates his life Through the oikonomia the theologia is revealed to us but conversely thetheologia illuminates the whole oikonomia Gods works reveal who he is in himself the mystery of his inmost beingenlightens our understanding of all his works So it is analogously among human persons A person discloseshimself in his actions and the better we know a person the better we understand his actions[54]

The whole divine economy is the common work of the three divine persons For as the Trinity has only one and thesame natures so too does it have only one and the same operation The Father the Son and the Holy Spirit are notthree principles of creation but one principle However each divine person performs the common work according tohis unique personal property Thus the Church confesses following the New Testament one God and Father fromwhom all things are and one Lord Jesus Christ through whom all things are and one Holy Spirit in whom all thingsare It is above all the divine missions of the Sons Incarnation and the gift of the Holy Spirit that show forth theproperties of the divine persons[55]

The ancient Nicene theologians argued that everything the Trinity does is done by Father Son and Spirit working in unity with onewill The three persons of the Trinity always work inseparably for their work is always the work of the one God The Sons willcannot be different from the Fathers because it is the Fathers They have but one will as they have but one being Otherwise theywould not be one God On this point St Basil said

When then He says I have not spoken of myself and again As the Father said unto me so I speak and The wordwhich ye hear is not mine but [the Fathers] which sent me and in another place As the Father gave mecommandment even so I do it is not because He lacks deliberate purpose or power of initiation nor yet because Hehas to wait for the preconcerted key-note that he employs language of this kind His object is to make it plain that Hisown will is connected in indissoluble union with the Father Do not then let us understand by what is called acommandment a peremptory mandate delivered by organs of speech and giving orders to the Son as to asubordinate concerning what He ought to do Let us rather in a sense befitting the Godhead perceive a transmissionof will like the reflexion of an object in a mirror passing without note of time from Father to Son[56]

According to Thomas Aquinas the Son prayed to the Father became a minor to the angels became incarnate obeyed the Father as tohis human nature as to his divine nature the Son remained God Thus then the fact that the Father glorifies raises up and exaltsthe Son does not show that the Son is less than the Father except in His human nature For in the divine nature by which He is equalto the Father the power of the Father and the Son is the same and their operation is the same[57]

Athanasius of Alexandria explained that the Son is eternally one in being with the Father temporally and voluntarily subordinate inhis incarnate ministry[58] Such human traits he argued were not to be read back into the eternal Trinity Likewise the CappadocianFathers also insisted there was no economic inequality present within the Trinity As Basil wrote We perceive the operation of theFather Son and Holy Spirit to be one and the same in no respect showing differences or variation from this identity of operation wenecessarily infer the unity of nature[59]

The traditional theory of appropriation consists in attributing certain names qualities or operations to one of the Persons of theTrinity not however to the exclusion of the others but in preference to the others This theory was established by the Latin Fathersof the fourth and fifth centuries especially by Hilary of Poitiers Augustine and Leo the Great In the Middle Ages the theory wassystematically taught by the Schoolmen such as Bonaventure[60]

Trinity and love

Augustine coupled the doctrine of the Trinity with anthropology Proceeding fromthe idea that humans are created by God according to the divine image he attemptedto explain the mystery of the Trinity by uncovering traces of the Trinity in thehuman personality[61] The first key of his exegesis is an interpersonal analogy ofmutual love In De trinitate (399 mdash 419) he wrote

We are now eager to see whether that most excellent love is properto the Holy Spirit and if it is not so whether the Father or the Sonor the Holy Trinity itself is love since we cannot contradict the mostcertain faith and the most weighty authority of Scripture which saysGod is love[62][63]

The Bible reveals it although only in the two neighboring verses 1 John 4816therefore one must ask if love itself is triune Augustine found that it is and consistsof three the lover the beloved and the love[64][65]

Reaffirming the theopaschite formula unus de trinitate passus est carne (meaningOne of the Trinity suffered in the flesh)[66] Thomas Aquinas wrote that Jesussuffered and died as to his human nature as to his divine nature he could not sufferor die But the commandment to suffer clearly pertains to the Son only in Hishuman nature () And the way in which Christ was raised up is like the way He suffered and died that is in the flesh For it says in1 Peter (41) Christ having suffered in the flesh () then the fact that the Father glorifies raises up and exalts the Son does notshow that the Son is less than the Father except in His human nature For in the divine nature by which He is equal to the Father[67]

In the 1900s the recovery of a substantially different formula of theopaschism took place at least unus de Trinitate passus est(meaning not only in the flesh)[68] Deeply affected by the atomic bombs event[69] as early as 1946 the Lutheran theologianKazoh Kitamori published Theology of the Pain of God[70] a theology of the Cross pushed up to the immanent Trinity This conceptwas later taken by both Reformed and Catholic theology in 1971 by Juumlrgen Moltmanns The Crucified God in the 1972 Preface tothe Second Edition of his 1970 German book Theologie der Drei Tage (English translation Mysterium Paschale) by Hans Urs vonBalthasar who took a cue from Revelation 138(Vulgate agni qui occisus est ab origine mundi NIV the Lamb who was slain fromthe creation of the world) to explore the God is love idea as an eternal super-kenosis[71] In the words of von Balthasar At thispoint where the subject undergoing the hour is the Son speaking with the Father the controversial Theopaschist formula has itsproper place One of the Trinity has suffered The formula can already be found in Gregory Nazianzen We needed acrucifiedGod[72]

The underlying question is if the three Persons of the Trinity can live a self-love (amor sui) as well as if for them with the conciliardogmatic formulation in terms that today we would call ontotheological it is possible that the aseity (causa sui) is valid If the Fatheris not the Son or the Spirit since the generatorbegetter is not the generatedbegotten nor the generationgenerative process and viceversa and since the lover is neither the beloved nor the love dynamic between them and vice versa Christianity has provided as aresponse a concept of divine ontology and love different from common sense (omnipotence omnibenevolence impassibilityetc)[73] a sacrificial martyring crucifying precisely kenotic concept

Benjamin B Warfield saw a principle of subordination in the modes of operation of the Trinity but was also hesitant to ascribe thesame to the modes of subsistence in relation of one to another While noting that it is natural to see a subordination in function asreflecting a similar subordination in substance he suggests that this might be the result of an agreement by Persons of the Trinity ndasha Covenant as it is technically called ndash by virtue of which a distinct function in the work of redemption is assumed by each[74]

A Greek fresco of Athanasius ofAlexandria the chief architect of theNicene Creed formulated at Nicaea

Trinity and will

According to Eusebius Constantine suggested the term homoousios at the Council of Nicaea though most scholars have doubted thatConstantine had such knowledge and have thought that most likely Hosius had suggested the term to him[75] Constantine laterchanged his view about the Arians who opposed the Nicene formula and supported the bishops who rejected the formula[76] as didseveral of his successors the first emperor to be baptized in the Nicene faith being Theodosius the Great emperor from 379 to395[77]

From the Old Testament the early church retained the conviction that God is one[78] The New Testament does not use the wordΤριάς (Trinity)[79] nor explicitly teach the Nicene Trinitarian doctrine but it contains several Trinitarian formulas Trinitarianformulas found in the New Testament include Matthew 2819 2 Corinthians 1313 1 Corinthians 124-5 Ephesians 44-6 1 Peter 12and Revelation 14-5[7][36] These passages provided the material with which Christians would develop doctrines of the Trinity[78]

Reflection by early Christians on passages such as the Great Commission Go therefore and make disciples of all nations baptizingthem in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit[Matt 2819] and Paul the Apostles blessing The grace of theLord Jesus Christ and the love of God and the fellowship of the Holy Spirit be with you all[2 Cor 1314] while at the same time theJewish Shema Yisrael Hear O Israel The Lord is our God the Lord alone[Deuteronomy 64] [80] has led some Christians to questionhow the Father Son and Holy Spirit are one Eventually the diverse references to God Jesus and the Spirit found in the NewTestament were brought together to form the doctrine of the Trinitymdashone God subsisting in three persons and one substance Thedoctrine of the Trinity was used to combat heretical tendencies of how the three are related and to defend the church against chargesof worshiping two or three gods[81]

The Comma Johanneum 1 John 57 is a disputed text which states For there are three that bear record in heaven the Father theWord and the Holy Ghost and these three are one However this passage is not considered to be part of the genuine text[82] andmost scholars agree that the phrase was a gloss[83]

In the letters of Paul the public corporate devotional patterns towards Jesus in theearly Christian community are reflective of Pauls perspective on the divine status ofJesus in what scholars have termed a binitarian pattern of devotion For Paul Jesusreceives prayer (1 Cor 12 2 Cor 128-9 1 Thess 311) the presence of Jesus isconfessionally invoked by believers (1 Cor 1622 Romans 109-13 Phil 210-11)people are baptized in Jesusrsquo name (1 Cor 611 Rom 63) Jesus is the reference inChristian fellowship for a religious ritual meal (the Lordrsquos Supper 1 Cor 1117-34 ndashin pagan cults the reference for ritual meals is always to a deity) and Jesus is thesource of continuing prophetic oracles to believers (1 Thess 415-17)[84]

In the four Gospels Jesus often receives προσκύνησις a Greek term that eitherexpresses the contemporary social gesture of bowing to a superior either on onesknees or in full prostration (in Matthew 1826 a slave performs προσκύνησις to hismaster so that he would not be sold after being unable to pay his debts) The termcan also refer to the religious act of devotion towards a deity While Jesus receivesπροσκύνησις a number of times in the Synoptic Gospels only a few can be said torefer to divine worship[85] This includes Matthew 2816-20 an account of theresurrected Jesus receiving worship from his disciples after proclaiming he has beengiven authority over the cosmos and his ever-continuing presence with the disciples

Political aspect

Biblical background

Jesus as God

God in the person of the Sonconfronts Adam and Eve by MasterBertram (d c1415)

In the New Testament

(forming an inclusio with the beginning of the Gospel where Jesus is given the name EmmanuelGod with us a name that alludesto the God of Israels continuing presence with his followers throughout the Old Testament (Gen 2815 Deut 201) and used in

reference to Jesus in the resurrection account)[86][87] Jesus receiving divine worship in the post-resurrection accounts is furthermirrored in Luke 2542[88][89]

The Gospel of John has been seen as especially aimed at emphasizing Jesus divinity presenting Jesus as the Logos pre-existent anddivine from its first words In the beginning was the Word and the Word was with God and the Word was God[John 11][90] TheGospel of John ends with Thomass declaration that he believed Jesus was God My Lord and my God[John 2028] [81] There is nosignificant tendency among modern scholars to deny that John 11 and John 2028 identify Jesus with God[91] John also portraysJesus as the agent of creation of the universe[92]

Some have suggested that John presents a hierarchy when he quotes Jesus as saying The Father is greater than I[1428] a statementwhich was appealed to by nontrinitarian groups such as Arianism[93] However Church Fathers such as Augustine of Hippo andThomas Aquinas argued this statement was to be understood as Jesus speaking in as to his human nature[94][95]

Prior Jewish theology held that the Spirit is merely the divine presence of God himself[96] whereas orthodox Christian theologyholds that the divine Spirit is a separate person of God himself This development begins early in the New Testament as the Spirit ofGod receives much more emphasis and description comparably than it had in earlier Jewish writing Whereas there are 75 referencesto the Spirit within the Old Testament and 35 identified in the non-biblical Dead Sea Scrolls the New Testament despite itssignificantly shorter length mentions the Spirit 275 times In addition to its larger emphasis and importance placed on the Spirit inthe New Testament the Spirit is also described in much more personalized and individualized terms than earlier[97] Larry Hurtadowrites

Moreover the New Testament references often portray actions that seem to give the Spirit an intensely personalquality probably more so than in Old Testament or ancient Jewish texts So for example the Spirit ldquodroverdquo Jesus intothe wilderness (Mk 112 compare ldquoledrdquo in Mt 41Lk 41) and Paul refers to the Spirit interceding for believers(Rom 826ndash27) and witnessing to believers about their filial status with God (Rom 814ndash16) To cite other examplesof this in Acts the Spirit alerts Peter to the arrival of visitors from Cornelius (1019) directs the church in Antioch tosend forth Barnabas and Saul (132ndash4) guides the Jerusalem council to a decision about Gentile converts (1528) atone point forbids Paul to missionize in Asia (166) and at another point warns Paul (via prophetic oracles) of troubleahead in Jerusalem (2111)[97]

In the New Testament the Spirit is not a recipient of devotion or worship as can be found in the Nicene Creed though there areaspects of the New Testament which describe the Spirit as the subject of religious ritual in Matthew 2819 and 2 Corinthians1313[98]

As the Arian controversy was dissipating the debate moved from the deity of Jesus Christ to the equality of the Holy Spirit with theFather and Son On one hand the Pneumatomachi sect declared that the Holy Spirit was an inferior person to the Father and Son Onthe other hand the Cappadocian Fathers argued that the Holy Spirit was equal to the Father and Son in nature or substance

In later Christian theology

Holy Spirit as God

In the New Testament

In later Christian theology

Although the main text used in defense of the deity of the Holy Spirit was Matthew 2819 Cappadocian Fathers such as Basil theGreat argued from other verses such as But Peter said Ananias why has Satan filled your heart to lie to the Holy Spirit and to keepback for yourself part of the proceeds of the land While it remained unsold did it not remain your own And after it was sold was itnot at your disposal Why is it that you have contrived this deed in your heart You have not lied to men but to God[Acts 53ndash4] [99]

Another passage the Cappadocian Fathers quoted from was By the word of the Lord the heavens were made and by the breath of hismouth all their host[Psalm 336] According to their understanding because breath and spirit in Hebrew are both רוח (ruach)Psalm 336 is revealing the roles of the Son and Holy Spirit as co-creators And since according to them[99] because only the holyGod can create holy beings such as the angels the Son and Holy Spirit must be God

Yet another argument from the Cappadocian Fathers to prove that the Holy Spirit is of the same nature as the Father and Son comesfrom For who knows a persons thoughts except the spirit of that person which is in him So also no one comprehends the thoughtsof God except the Spirit of God[1Cor 211] They reasoned that this passage proves that the Holy Spirit has the same relationship toGod as the spirit within us has to us[99]

The Cappadocian Fathers also quoted Do you not know that you are Gods temple and that Gods Spirit dwells in you[1Cor 316]

and reasoned that it would be blasphemous for an inferior being to take up residence in a temple of God thus proving that the HolySpirit is equal with the Father and the Son[100]

They also combined the servant does not know what his master is doing[John 1515] with 1 Corinthians 211 in an attempt to showthat the Holy Spirit is not the slave of God and therefore his equal[101]

The Pneumatomachi contradicted the Cappadocian Fathers by quoting Are they not all ministering spirits sent out to serve for thesake of those who are to inherit salvation[Hebrews 114] in effect arguing that the Holy Spirit is no different from other createdangelic spirits[102] The Church Fathers disagreed saying that the Holy Spirit is greater than the angels since the Holy Spirit is theone who grants the foreknowledge for prophecy[1Cor 128ndash10] so that the angels could announce events to come[99]

In addition the Old Testament has also been interpreted as foreshadowing theTrinity by referring to Gods word[Ps 336] his spirit[Isa 611] and Wisdom[Prov 91]

as well as narratives such as the appearance of the three men toAbraham[Gen 18][103] However it is generally agreed among Trinitarian Christianscholars that it would go beyond the intention and spirit of the Old Testament tocorrelate these notions directly with later Trinitarian doctrine[104]

Some Church Fathers believed that a knowledge of the mystery was granted to theprophets and saints of the Old Testament and that they identified the divinemessenger of Genesis 1672117 3111 Exodus 32 and Wisdom of the sapientialbooks with the Son and the spirit of the Lord with the Holy Spirit[104] OtherChurch Fathers such as Gregory Nazianzen argued in his Orations that therevelation was gradual claiming that the Father was proclaimed in the OldTestament openly but the Son only obscurely because it was not safe when theGodhead of the Father was not yet acknowledged plainly to proclaim the Son[105]

Genesis 18ndash19 has been interpreted by Christians as a Trinitarian text The narrativehas the Lord appearing to Abraham who was visited by three men[Gen 181ndash2] Thenin Genesis 19 the two angels visited Lot at Sodom The interplay between

Abraham on the one hand and the Lordthree menthe two angels on the other was an intriguing text for those who believed in asingle God in three persons Justin Martyr and John Calvin similarly interpreted it such that Abraham was visited by God who was

Old Testament parallels

Russian icon of the Old TestamentTrinity by Andrey Rublev between1408 and 1425

accompanied by two angels[106] Justin supposed that the God who visited Abraham was distinguishable from the God who remainsin the heavens but was nevertheless identified as the (monotheistic) God Justin appropriated the God who visited Abraham to Jesusthe second person of the Trinity

Augustine in contrast held that the three visitors to Abraham were the three persons of the Trinity[106] He saw no indication that thevisitors were unequal as would be the case in Justins reading Then in Genesis 19 two of the visitors were addressed by Lot in thesingular Lot said to them Not so my lord[Gen 1918 KJV] [106] Augustine saw that Lot could address them as one because they hada single substance despite the plurality of persons[note 2]

Some Christians interpret the theophanies or appearances of the Angel of the Lord as revelations of a person distinct from God whois nonetheless called God This interpretation is found in Christianity as early as Justin Martyr and Melito of Sardis and reflects ideasthat were already present in Philo[107] The Old Testament theophanies were thus seen as Christophanies each a preincarnateappearance of the Messiah[108]

The Trinity is most commonly seen in Christian art with the Spirit represented by a dove as specified in the Gospel accounts of theBaptism of Christ he is nearly always shown with wings outspread However depictions using three human figures appearoccasionally in most periods of art[109]

The Father and the Son are usually differentiated by age and later by dress but this too is not always the case The usual depiction ofthe Father as an older man with a white beard may derive from the biblical Ancient of Days which is often cited in defense of thissometimes controversial representation However in Eastern Orthodoxy the Ancient of Days is usually understood to be God theSon not God the Father (see below)mdashearly Byzantine images show Christ as the Ancient of Days[110] but this iconography becamerare When the Father is depicted in art he is sometimes shown with a halo shaped like an equilateral triangle instead of a circle TheSon is often shown at the Fathers right hand[Acts 756] He may be represented by a symbolmdashtypically the Lamb (agnus dei) or acrossmdashor on a crucifix so that the Father is the only human figure shown at full size In early medieval art the Father may berepresented by a hand appearing from a cloud in a blessing gesture for example in scenes of the Baptism of Christ Later in the Westthe Throne of Mercy (or Throne of Grace) became a common depiction In this style the Father (sometimes seated on a throne) isshown supporting either a crucifix[111] or later a slumped crucified Son similar to the Pietagrave (this type is distinguished in German asthe Not Gottes)[112] in his outstretched arms while the Dove hovers above or in between them This subject continued to be popularuntil the 18th century at least

By the end of the 15th century larger representations other than the Throne of Mercy became effectively standardised showing anolder figure in plain robes for the Father Christ with his torso partly bare to display the wounds of his Passion and the dove above oraround them In earlier representations both Father especially and Son often wear elaborate robes and crowns Sometimes the Fatheralone wears a crown or even a papal tiara

In the later part of the Christian Era in Renaissance European iconography the Eye of Providence began to be used as an explicitimage of the Christian Trinity and associated with the concept of Divine Providence Seventeenth-century depictions of the Eye ofProvidence sometimes show it surrounded by clouds or sunbursts[113]

Artistic depictions

Image gallery

Depiction of Trinity from

Saint Denis Basilica in

Paris (12th century)

Father The Holy Spirit

and Christ Crucified

depicted in a Welsh

manuscript

c 1390ndash1400

The Holy Trinity in an

angelic glory over a

landscape by Lucas

Cranach the Elder (d

1553)

God the Father (top) and

the Holy Spirit

(represented by a dove)

depicted above Jesus

Painting by Francesco

Albani (d 1660)

God the Father (top) the

Holy Spirit (a dove) and

child Jesus painting by

Bartolomeacute Esteban

Murillo (d 1682)

Pope Clement I prays to

the Trinity in a typical

post-Renaissance

depiction by Gianbattista

Tiepolo (d 1770)

Atypical depiction The

Son is identified by a

lamb the Father an Eye

of Providence and the

Spirit a dove painting by

Fridolin Leiber (d 1912)

13th-century depiction of

the Trinity from a Roman

de la Rose manuscript

A Christian version of the

Eye of Providence

emphasizing the triangle

representing the Trinity

Nontrinitarianism (or antitrinitarianism) refers to Christian belief systems that reject the doctrine of the Trinity as found in the NiceneCreed as not having a scriptural origin Nontrinitarian views differ widely on the nature of God Jesus and the Holy Spirit Variousnontrinitarian views such as Adoptionism Monarchianism and Arianism existed prior to the formal definition of the Trinity doctrinein AD 325 360 and 431 at the Councils of Nicaea Constantinople and Ephesus respectively[114] Following the final victory of

Nontrinitarianism

orthodoxy at Constantinople in 381 Arianism was driven from the Empire retaining a foothold amongst the Teutonic tribes Whenthe Franks converted to Catholicism in 496 however it gradually faded out[115] Nontrinitarianism was later renewed in theGnosticism of the Cathars in the 11th through 13th centuries in the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century and in some groupsarising during the Second Great Awakening of the 19th century Also binitarianism

Arianism was condemned as heretical by the First Council of Nicaea and lastly with Sabellianism by the Second EcumenicalCouncil (Costantinople 381 BCE)[116] Adoptionism was declared as heretical by the Ecumenical Council of Frakfurt convened bythe Emperor Charlesmagne in 794 for the Latin West Church[117]

Modern nontrinitarian groups or denominations include Christadelphians Christian Scientists The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Dawn Bible Students Iglesia ni Cristo Jehovahs Witnesses Living Church of God Oneness Pentecostals the SeventhDay Church of God Unitarian Universalist Christians United Church of God The Shepherds Chapel and Spiritism

Islam considers Jesus to be a prophet but not divine[118] and Allah to be absolutely indivisible (a concept known as tawhid)[119]

Several verses of the Quran state that the doctrine of the Trinity is blasphemous

They surely disbelieve who say Lo God is the Messiah son of Mary The Messiah (himself) said O Children ofIsrael worship God my Lord and your Lord Lo whoso ascribeth partners unto God for him God hath forbiddenparadise His abode is the Fire For evil-doers there will be no helpers They surely disbelieve who say Lo God isthe third of three when there is no Lord save the One Lord If they desist not from so saying a painful doom will fallon those of them who disbelieve Will they not rather turn unto God and seek forgiveness of Him For God isForgiving Merciful The Messiah son of Mary was no other than a messenger messengers (the like of whom) hadpassed away before him And his mother was a saintly woman And they both used to eat (earthly) food See how Wemake the revelations clear for them and see how they are turned away (Quran 572-75)

Interpretation of these verses by modern scholars has been varied Verse 573 has been interpreted as a potential criticism of Syriacliterature that references Jesus as the third of three and thus an attack on the view that Christ was divine[120] Some scholar suggestthat verse 573 is a reference to the Collyridians a small heretical group of Christians composed of women that venerated Maryabove usual standards by other sects of Christianity The existence of this group and their presence in Arabia in the Islamic period isnot clear[121] Another interpretation is that this passage should be studied from a rhetorical perspective so as not to be an error butan intentional misrepresentation of the doctrine of the Trinity in order to demonstrate its absurdity from an Islamic perspective[122]

Judaism traditionally maintains a tradition of monotheism to the exclusion of the possibility of a Trinity[118] In Judaism God isunderstood to be the absolute one indivisible and incomparable being who is the ultimate cause of all existence The idea of God asa duality or trinity is heretical mdash it is even considered by some polytheistic

Ayyavazhi TrinitySocial trinitarianismThree Pure OnesTrikaya the three Buddha bodiesTrimurtiTrinitarian Order

Criticism

Islam

Judaism

See also

Trinitarian universalismTrinity Sunday a day to celebrate the doctrineTriple deity an associated term in Comparative religion

1 Very little of Arius own writings have survived We depend largely on quotations made by opponents which reflectwhat they thought he was saying Furthermore there was no single Arian party or agenda but rather various critics ofthe Nicene formula working from distinct perspectives(see Williams Rowan Arius SPCK (2nd edn 2001) p95ff amppp247ff)

2 Augustine had poor knowledge of the Greek language and no knowledge of Hebrew So he trusted the LXXSeptuagint which differentiates between κύριοι[Gen 192] (lords vocative plural) andκύριε[Gen 1918] (lord vocativesingular) even if the Hebrew verbal formנא-אדני (na-adoni) is exactly the same in both cases

1 Definition of trinity in English (httpwwwoxforddictionariescomdefinitionenglishtrinity) Oxford Dictionaries -English

2 The Family Bible Encyclopedia (1972) p 3790

3 See Geddes Leonard (1911) Person (httpwwwnewadventorgcathen11726ahtm) In Herbermann CharlesCatholic Encyclopedia New York Robert Appleton

4 Definition of the Fourth Lateran Council quoted in Catechism of the Catholic Church sect253 (httpwwwvaticanvaarchiveENG0015_P17HTM1FT) Latin substantia essentia seu natura divina (DS 804 (httpcathoorg9phpd=bxwbpd))

5 Frank Sheed Theology and Sanity (httpwwwignatiusinsightcomfeatures2011fsheed_trinityts_may2011asp)Ignatiusinsightcom Retrieved 3 November 2013

6 Hurtado 2010 pp 99-110

7 Januariy 2013 p 99

8 Hurtado 2005 pp 644-648

9 Lewis and Short trinus (httpwwwperseustuftseducgi-binptextdoc=Perseus3Atext3A19990400593Aentry3D2349128) Perseustuftsedu Retrieved 2 January 2012

10 Liddell amp Scott A Greek-English Lexicon entry for Τριάς (httpwwwperseustuftseducgi-binptextdoc=Perseus3Atext3A19990400573Aentry3D23104807) retrieved 19 December 2006

11 WFulton in the Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics

12 The Heavenly and Earthly Trinities (httpwwwnationalgalleryorgukpaintingsbartolome-esteban-murillo-the-heavenly-and-earthly-trinities) on the site of the National Gallery in London

13 Ehrman Bart D The Apostolic Fathers Vol 1 Loeb Classical Library 2003 119 Ehrman further notes (fn 97)Clement is alluding to the Trinitarian formula in Ephesians 44-6 Also see 1 Clement 582

14 Ignatiuss Letter to the Magnesians Ch XIII (httpwwwearlychristianwritingscomtextignatius-magnesians-robertshtml)

15 Hurtado 2005 pp 595-599

16 First Apology LXI (httpwwwccelorgccelschaffanf01viiiiilxihtml) Ccelorg 13 July 2005 Retrieved3 November 2013

17 Theophilus Apologia ad Autolycum Book II Chapter 15

18 Theophilus To Autolycus 17 Cf Irenaeus Against Heresies 4201 3 Demonstration of the Apostolic Preaching 5

19 Tertullian Against Praxeas

20 Against Praxeas chapter 3 (httpwwwccelorgccelschaffanf03vixiiihtml) Ccelorg 1 June 2005 Retrieved19 March 2018

21 Mulhern Philip Trinity Holy Devotion To in (eds Bealmear et al) New Catholic Encyclopedia McGraw Hill 1967205

Extended notes

Endnotes and references

22 Ramelli Ilaria LE Origenrsquos anti-subordinationism and its heritage in the Nicene and Cappadocian line VigiliaeChristianae 651 (2011) 21-49

23 Barnard L W The Antecedents of Arius Vigiliae Christianae (1970) 172-188

24 The Encyclopedia Americana (1956) Vol XXVII p 294L

25 Catholic Encyclopedia articlePaul of Samosata (httpwwwnewadventorgcathen11589ahtm) Newadventorg 1February 1911 Retrieved 2 January 2012

26 Chadwick Henry The Early Church PelicanPenguin (1967) p87

27 Arianism in Cross FL amp Livingstone EA (eds) The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (1974)

28 Creeds of Christendom with a History and Critical notes Volume I The History of Creeds - Christian ClassicsEthereal Library (httpwwwccelorgccelschaffcreeds1iviiihtml) wwwccelorg

29 Anderson Michael The Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan Creed (httpwwwcreedsnetancientniceneghtm)wwwcreedsnet

30 Trinity Britannica Encyclopaedia of World Religions Chicago Encyclopaeligdia Britannica 2006

31 See Creeds of Christendom (httpwwwccelorgccelschaffcreeds1iviiihtml)

32 On Athanasius Oxford Classical Dictionary Edited by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth Third editionOxford New York Oxford University Press 1996

33 For a different view see eg Excursus on the Words πίστιν ἑτέραν (httpwwwccelorgccelschaffnpnf214xxvixihtml)

34 Greek and Latin Traditions on Holy Spirit (httpwwwewtncomlibraryCURIAPCCUFILQHTM) Retrieved18 January 2019

35 Gregory of Nazianzus Orations 4041

36 Fee 2002 p 52

37 Wolfgang Vondey Pentecostalism A Guide for the Perplexed (London New Delhi New York Sydney Bloomsbury2013) 78

38 Ferguson 2009 pp 134-135

39 71 3 online (httpwwwnewadventorgfathers0714htm)

40 Epistle to the Philippians 213 online (httpwwwccelorgccelschaffanf01vxviiiihtml)

41 On Baptism 86 online (httpwwwccelorgfathers2ANF-03anf03ndash49htmP11646_3280473) Against Praxeas262 online (httpwwwnewadventorgfathers0317htm)

42 Against Noetus 114 online (httpwwwnewadventorgfathers0521htm)

43 Seventh Council of Carthage online (httpwwwccelorgfathers2ANF-05anf05ndash124htmP9402_2932994)

44 A Sectional Confession of Faith 132 online (httpwwwccelorgfathers2ANF-06anf06ndash14htmP784_222567)

45 Kittel 3108

46 Grudem Wayne A 1994 Systematic theology an introduction to biblical doctrine Leicester England Inter-VarsityPress Page 226

47 Athanasian Creed (httpwwwccelorgcreedsathanasiancreedhtml) Ccelorg Retrieved 2 January 2012

48 Barth Karl and Geoffrey William Bromiley 1975 The doctrine of the word of God prolegomena to churchdogmatics being volume I 1 Edinburgh T amp T Clark Pages 348ndash9

49 Pegis 1997 p 307-309

50 For person see Richard De Smet A Short History of the Person available in Brahman and Person Essays byRichard De Smet ed Ivo Coelho (Delhi Motilal Banarsidass 2010)

51 Toledo-11 (httpswwwewtncomlibraryCOUNCILSTOLEDOHTM) THE ELEVENTH COUNCIL OF TOLEDO(675) Retrieved 11 January 2019

52 FOURTH LATERAN COUNCIL (1215) List of Constitutions 2 On the error of abbot Joachim (httpwwwewtncomlibrarycouncilslateran4htm) Retrieved 11 January 2019

53 NPNF2-09 Hilary of Poitiers John of Damascus | Christian Classics Ethereal Library (httpwwwccelorgccelschaffnpnf209iiviiiiihtml) Ccelorg 13 July 2005 Retrieved 2 January 2012

54 CCC sect236 (httpwwwvaticanvaarchiveccc_cssarchivecatechismp1s2c1p2htm)

55 CCC sect258 (httpwwwvaticanvaarchiveccc_cssarchivecatechismp1s2c1p2htm)

56 Basil the Great De Spiritu Sancto NPNF Vol 8 (httpwwwccelorgccelschaffnpnf208viiixhtml) Ccelorg 13July 2005 Retrieved 2 January 2012

57 Aquinas Thomas Summa Contra Gentiles Book Four Chapter 8 (httpsdhsprioryorgthomasContraGentiles4htm8) Retrieved 11 January 2019

58 Athanasius 329 (p 409)

59 Basil Letters NPNF Vol 8 1897 (p 32)

60 Sauvage George Appropriation The Catholic Encyclopedia (httpwwwnewadventorgcathen01658ahtm) Vol1 New York Robert Appleton Company 1907 20 October 2016

61 Stefon Matt (December 10 2015) Christianity - The Holy Trinity | Attempts to define the Trinity (httpswwwbritannicacomtopicChristianityThe-Holy-Trinityref67486) Encyclopaeligdia Britannica

62 Augustine (2002) 911 (httpsbooksgooglecomid=oc3woz7Oq7kCamppg=PA25ampdq=22We+are+now+eager+to+see+whether+that+most+excellent+love+is+proper+to+the+Holy+Spirit+and+if+it+is+not+so+whether+the+Father+or+the+Son+or+the+Holy+Trinity+itself+is+love+since+we+cannot+contradict+the+most+certain+faith+and+the+most+weighty+authority+of+Scripture+which+says+22God+is+love22) In Matthews Gareth B On the TrinityBooks 8mdash15 (httpsbooksgooglecomid=oc3woz7Oq7kCampprintsec=frontcover) Translated by Stephen McKennaCambridge University Press ISBN 978-0-5217-9665-1

63 (in Latin) Veluti nunc cupimus videre utrum illa excellentissima caritas proprie Spiritus Sanctus sit Quod si non estaut Pater est caritas aut Filius aut ipsa Trinitas quoniam resistere non possumus certissimae fidei et validissimaeauctoritati Scripturae dicentis Deus caritas est (httpswwwaugustinusitlatinotrinitatrinita_09htm)

64 Augustine (2002) 922 (httpsbooksgooglecomid=oc3woz7Oq7kCamppg=PA26ampdq=22three+things+the+lover+the+beloved+and+the+love22)

65 (in Latin) Tria ergo sunt amans et quod amatur et amor (httpswwwaugustinusitlatinotrinitatrinita_09htm)

66 Pool Jeff B (2011) [2009] Gods Wounds Evil and Divine Suffering Volume 2 (httpsbooksgooglecomid=duCjBQAAQBAJampprintsec=frontcover) Havertown Philadelphia Casemate Publishers p 398 (httpsbooksgooglecomid=duCjBQAAQBAJamppg=PA398ampdq=22theopaschite+formula2222unus+de+trinitate+passus+est+carne22)ISBN 978-0-22717360-2

67 Aquinas Thomas (1975) Summa Contra Gentiles Book 4 Salvation Chapter 4 (httpsbooksgooglecomid=fkIFDgAAQBAJampprintsec=frontcover) University of Notre Dame Pess ISBN 9780268074821 Quote (httpsbooksgooglecomid=fkIFDgAAQBAJamppg=PT91ampdq=22And+the+way+in+which+Christ+was+raised+up+is+like+the+way+He+suffered+and+died+that+is+in+the+flesh22)

68 (in Latin) DS 401 (httpcathoorg9phpd=bxobew) (Pope John II letter Olim quidem addressed to the senators ofConstantinople March 534)

69 Yewangoe 1987 p 273

70 Kitamori Kazoh (2005) Theology of the Pain of God (httpsbooksgooglecomid=b2NLAwAAQBAJampprintsec=frontcover) Translated by Graham Harrison from the Japanese Kami no itami no shingaku (httpsbooksgooglecomid=b2NLAwAAQBAJamppg=PP5) revised edition 1958 first edition 1946 Eugene Oregon Wipf and Stock ISBN 978-1-59752256-4

71 von Balthasar Hans Urs (2000) [1990 (httpsbooksgooglecomid=GiOmPwAACAAJ)] Preface to the SecondEdition (httpsbooksgooglecomid=k4hHDwAAQBAJamppg=PT7ampdq=22eternal+super-Kenosis22) MysteriumPaschale The Mystery of Easter (httpsbooksgooglecomid=k4hHDwAAQBAJampprintsec=frontcover) Translatedwith an Introduction by Aidan Nichols OP (2nd ed) San Francisco Ignatius Press ISBN 978-1-68149348-0

72 Hans 1992 p quote

73 Carson Donald Arthur (2010) [2000 (httpsbooksgooglecomid=bm16PwAACAAJ)] The Difficult Doctrine of theLove of God (httpsbooksgooglecomid=2rkESQAACAAJ) (reprint revised ed) London Inter-Varsity Pressp 10 ISBN 978-1-84474427-5 Quoted in Mabry Adam (2014) Life and Doctrine How the Truth and Grace of theChristian Story Change Everything (httpsbooksgooglecomid=VKveBgAAQBAJampprintsec=frontcover)Morrisville North Carolina Lulucom ISBN 978-1-31224685-0 If people believe in God at all today theoverwhelming majority hold that this Godis a loving beingthis widely disseminated belief in the love of God is setwith increasing frequency in some matrix other than biblical theology The result is that when informed Christians talkabout the love of God they mean something very different from what is meant in the surrounding culture (p 68) (httpsbooksgooglecomid=VKveBgAAQBAJamppg=PA68ampdq=22If+people+believe+in+God+at+all+today+the+overwhelming+majority+hold+that+this+God2222is+a+loving+being5BT5Dhis+widely+disseminated+belief+in+the+love+of+God+is+set+with+increasing+frequency+in+some+matrix+other+than+biblical+theology+The+result+is+that+when+informed+Christians+talk+about+the+love+of+God+they+mean+something+very+different+from+what+is+meant+in+the+surrounding+culture22)

74 Warfield Benjamin B Trinity sect 20 The Question of Subordination The International Standard BibleEncyclopaedia Vol 5 (James Orr ed) Howard-Severance Company 1915 pp3020-3021 (httpsbooksgooglecomid=HX4PAAAAYAAJamppg=PA3012)

75 Harvey Susan Ashbrook Hunter David G (4 September 2008) The Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Studies (httpsbooksgooglecomid=NgPI7Jt1HewCampq=Constantine+suggested+the+initial+use+of+the+term+homoousiosv=snippetampq=Constantine+suggested+the+initial+use+of+the+term+homoousiosampf=false) OUP OxfordISBN 9780199271566 ndash via Google Books

76 What Was Debated at the Council of Nicea (httpancienthistoryaboutcomcsgodsreligionpaa082499htm)

77 Philip Schaff History of the Christian Church Volume III Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity fifth edition revisedsect27 (httpwwwccelorgccelschaffhcc3iiivixvhtml)

78 Rusch William G (1980) Introduction (httpswwwquestiacomlibrary119008634the-trinitarian-controversy) InRusch William G The Trinitarian Controversy Minneapolis Fortress Press(subscription required) p 2

79 Neither the word Trinity nor the explicit doctrine appears in the New Testament the New Testament establishedthe basis for the doctrine of the Trinity(Encyclopaeligdia Britannica Online article Trinity) (httpwwwbritannicacomebarticle-9073399Trinity)

80 Trinity (httpwwwbritannicacomebarticle-9073399Trinity) Britannicacom Retrieved 2 January 2012

81 The Oxford Companion to the Bible (ed Bruce Metzger and Michael Coogan) 1993 p 782ndash3

82 See for instance the note in 1 Jn 57ndash8

83 Bruce M Metzger The Text of the New Testament Its Transmission Corruption and Restoration 2d ed OxfordUniversity 1968 p101

84 Hurtado 2005 pp 134-152

85 Kupp David D Matthews Emmanuel Divine presence and Gods people in the first gospel Vol 90 CambridgeUniversity Press 2005 226

86 Hays Richard Reading Backwards Figural Christology and the Fourfold Gospel Witness Baylor University Press2014 44-45

87 Hurtado 2005 pp 337-338

88 Hurtado 2005

89 ldquoIs ldquoHigh Human Christologyrdquo Sufficient A Critical Response to JR Daniel Kirkrsquos A Man Attested by Godrdquo Bulletin forBiblical Research 274 (2017) 516-519 Also see Hurtadorsquos Lord Jesus Christ pg 345

90 The Presentation of Jesus in Johns Gospel (httpwwwbbccoukdnah2g2A29321381) Bbccouk Retrieved2 January 2012

91 Brown Raymond E The Anchor Bible The Gospel According to John (XIIIndashXXI) pp 1026 1032

92 Hoskyns Edwyn Clement (ed Davey FN) The Fourth Gospel Faber amp Faber 1947 p142 commenting on withouthim was not any thing made that was made[John 13]

93 Simonetti Manlio Matthew 14ndash28 New Testament Volume 1b Ancient Christian Commentary on ScriptureIntervarsity Press 2002 ISBN 978-0-8308-1469-5

94 St Augustine of HippoDe Trinitate Book I Chapter 3

95 Aquinas Thomas Summa Contra Gentiles Book Four Chapter 8 (httpsdhsprioryorgthomasContraGentiles4htm8) Retrieved 11 January 2019

Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Online Trinity

96 Goodman Roberta and Blumberg Sherry Teaching about God and Spirituality A Resource for Jewish SettingsBehrman House 1990 36

97 Hurtado 2018 amp 62

98 Hurtado 2018 amp 64

99 St Basil the GreatOn the Holy Spirit Chapter 16

100 St Basil the Great On the Holy Spirit Chapter 19

101 St Basil the Great On the Holy Spirit Chapter 21

102 Catholic Encyclopedia article Pneumatomachi (httpwwwnewadventorgcathen12174ahtm) Newadventorg 1June 1911 Retrieved 2 January 2012

103 The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3) articleTrinity doctrine of the

104 Catholic Encyclopedia article The Blessed Trinity (httpwwwnewadventorgcathen15047ahtm) Newadventorg1 October 1912 Retrieved 2 January 2012

105 Gregory Nazianzen Orations 3126

106 Watson Francis Abrahamrsquos Visitors Prolegomena to a Christian Theological Exegesis of Genesis 18-19 (httpjsrshantivirginiaeduback-issuesvol-2-no-3C297-september-2002-a-harmony-of-opposing-voicesabrahams-visitors-prolegomena-to-a-christian-theological-exegesis-of-genesis-18-19)

107 Hurtado 2005 p 573-578

108 Bakers Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology Angel of the Lord (httpwwwstudylightorgdicbedviewcgin=33) Studylightorg Retrieved 2 January 2012

109 See below and G Schiller Iconography of Christian Art Vol I 1971 Vol II 1972 (English trans from German) LundHumphries London figs I5ndash16 amp passim ISBN 0-85331-270-2 and ISBN 0-85331-324-5

110 Cartlidge David R and Elliott JK Art and the Christian Apocrypha pp 69ndash72 (illustrating examples) Routledge2001 ISBN 0-415-23392-5 ISBN 978-0-415-23392-7 Google books (httpsbooksgooglecombooksid=o0LBvOMYArYCamppg=PA240ampdq=Dura+Europas+Christianampas_brr=3ampei=RZLkSebpF5KKNbePpZoNPPA53M1)

111 G Schiller Iconography of Christian Art Vol II 1972 (English trans from German) Lund Humphries London figsI5ndash16 amp passim ISBN 0-85331-270-2 and ISBN 0-85331-324-5 pp 122ndash124 and figs 409ndash414

112 G Schiller Iconography of Christian Art Vol II 1972 (English trans from German) Lund Humphries London figsI5ndash16 amp passim ISBN 0-85331-270-2 and ISBN 0-85331-324-5 pp 219ndash224 and figs 768ndash804

113 Potts Albert M (1982) The Worlds Eye (httpsbooksgooglecombooksid=rFvu92GyDQoCamplpg=PA68amppg=PA68v=onepageampqampf=false) University Press of Kentucky pp 68ndash78 ISBN 978-0813131306

114 von Harnack Adolf (1 March 1894) History of Dogma (httpwwwccelorgccelharnackdogma1iiiiiiiihtml)Retrieved 15 June 2007 [In the 2nd century] Jesus was either regarded as the man whom God hath chosen inwhom the Deity or the Spirit of God dwelt and who after being tested was adopted by God and invested withdominion (Adoptionist Christology) or Jesus was regarded as a heavenly spiritual being (the highest after God) whotook flesh and again returned to heaven after the completion of his work on earth (pneumatic Christology)

115 Cross FL (1958) The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church London OUP p 81

116 Olson 1999 p 173

117 Meens 2016 p 64

118 Glasseacute Cyril Smith Huston (2003) The New Encyclopedia of Islam Rowman Altamira pp 239ndash241 ISBN 978-0759101906

119 Encyclopedia of the Quran Thomas David 2006 Volume V Trinity

120 S Griffith Christians and Christianity

121 Sirry 2014 p 47

122 Zebiri 2006 p 274

Other references

Alfeyev Hilarion (2013) The Trinitarian Teaching of Saint Gregory Nazianzen In Stewart M The Trinity EastWestDialogue SpringerBates Matthew W (2015) The Birth of the Trinity Oxford University Press ISBN 9780191045875Hurtado Larry (2018) Observations on the Monotheism Affirmed in the New Testament In Beeley ChristopherWeedman Mark The Bible and Early Trinitarian Theology Catholic University of America PressISBN 9780813229959Fee Gordon (2002) Paul and the Trinity The experience of Christ and the Spirit for Pauls Understanding of GodIn Davis Stephen The Trinity An Interdisciplinary Symposium on the Trinity Oxford University PressISBN 9780199246120Ferguson Everett (2009) Baptism in the Early Church History Theology and Liturgy in the First Five CenturiesEerdmans ISBN 9780802827487Hans Balthasar (1992) Theo-drama Theological Dramatic Theory Vol 3 Dramatis Personae Persons in ChristIgnatius Press ISBN 9780814622810Hurtado Larry (2005) Lord Jesus Christ Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity Eerdmans ISBN 978-0-8028-3167-5Hurtado Larry (2010) God in New Testament Theology Abingdon Press ISBN 9781426719547Januariy Archimandrite (2013) The Elements of Triadology in the New Testament In Stewart M The TrinityEastWest Dialogue SpringerMeens Rob (2016) Religious Franks Religion and Power in the Frankish Kingdoms Studies in Honour of Maykede Jong Oxford University Press ISBN 9780719097638Olson Roger (1999) The Story of Christian Theology Twenty Centuries of Tradition amp Reform InterVarsity PressISBN 9780830815050Pegis Anton (1997) Basic writings of Saint Thomas Aquinas Hackett Pub ISBN 9780872203808Sirry Munim (2014) Scriptural Polemics The Quran and Other Religions Oxford University PressISBN 9780199359370Yewangoe Andreas (1987) Theologia Crucis in Asia Asian Christian Views on Suffering in the Face ofOverwhelming Poverty and Multifaceted Religiosity in Asia Rodopi ISBN 9789062036103Zebiri Kate (2006) Argumentation In Rippin Andrew The Blackwell Companion to the Quran Wiley BlackwellISBN 9781405178440

Emery Gilles OP Levering Matthew eds (2012) The Oxford Handbook of the Trinity ISBN 978-0199557813Holmes Stephen R (2012) The Quest for the Trinity The Doctrine of God in Scripture History and ModernityISBN 9780830839865Dolezal James Trinity Simplicity and the Status of Gods Personal Relations International Journal of SystematicTheology 16 (1) (2014) 79ndash98Fiddes Paul Participating in God a pastoral doctrine of the Trinity (London Darton Longman amp Todd 2000)Johnson Thomas K What Difference Does the Trinity Make (Bonn Culture and Science Publ 2009)La Due William J The Trinity guide to the Trinity (Continuum International Publishing Group 2003 ISBN 1-56338-395-0 ISBN 978-1-56338-395-3)Letham Robert (2004) The Holy Trinity In Scripture History Theology and Worship ISBN 9780875520001OCollins Gerald (1999) The Tripersonal God Understanding and Interpreting the Trinity ISBN 9780809138876Olson Roger E Hall Christopher A (2002) The Trinity ISBN 9780802848277Phan Peter C ed (2011) The Cambridge Companion to the Trinity ISBN 978-0-521-87739-8So Damon W K Jesus Revelation of His Father A Narrative-Conceptual Study of the Trinity with SpecialReference to Karl Barth (Milton Keynes Paternoster 2006) ISBN 1-84227-323-XHillar Marian From Logos to Trinity The Evolution of Religious Beliefs from Pythagoras to Tertullian (CambridgeUniversity Press 2012)Tuggy Dale (Summer 2014) Trinity (History of Trinitarian Doctrines) Stanford Encyclopedia of PhilosophyFeazell J and Morrison M (2013) Youre Included mdash Complete List of Trinitarian Conversations 108 InterviewsWith 25 Theologians Ray S Anderson Douglas A Campbell Elmer Colyer Gerrit Scott Dawson Cathy DeddoGary W Deddo Gordon Fee Trevor Hart George Hunsinger Christian Kettler C Baxter Kruger John E McKennaJeff McSwain Steve McVey Paul Louis Metzger Paul Molnar Roger Newell Cherith Fee Nordling Robin ParryAndrew Purves Andrew Root Alan Torrance David Torrance Robert T Walker William Paul Young 4th ed ebookGrace Communion International pp 1ndash1279Webb Eugene In Search of The Triune God The Christian Paths of East and West (Columbia MO University ofMissouri Press 2014)

Bibliography

Further reading

Trinity Entry at the Stanford Encyclopedia of PhilosophyA Formulation and Defense of the Doctrine of the Trinity A brief historical survey of patristic Trinitarian thoughtDoctrine of the TrinityTrinity Article at TheopediaEastern Orthodox Trinitarian TheologyDoctrine of the Trinity Reading Room Extensive collection of on-line sources on the Trinity (Tyndale Seminary)

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