ThisprojecthasreceivedfundingfromtheEuropeanUnion’sSeventhFrameworkProgramme(FP7)forresearch,technologicaldevelopmentanddemonstrationundergrantagreementno.613034.

IMPACT WORKING PAPER NO. 06/2015

Meta-AnalysisofSROIStudies–IndicatorsandProxies

RuthSimsaMichaelHerndlerMarionTotter

Recommendedcitationinformation:

Simsa,R.,Herndler,M.&Totter,M.(2015)“Meta-AnalysisofSROIStudies–IndicatorsandProxies”,TSIWorkingPaperSeriesNo.6.SeventhFrameworkProgramme(grantagreement613034),EuropeanUnion.Brussels:ThirdSectorImpact.

IMPACT

Content1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................1

2 TheoreticalBackground...................................................................................................12.1ImpactMeasurement..................................................................................................................12.2MethodologyofSROI...................................................................................................................22.3IndicatorsandProxies................................................................................................................4

3 SelectedSROIs......................................................................................................................5(1)FinancialLiteracy(„ThreeCoins“).........................................................................................5(2)Socialcaféforintegration(“Connection”)...........................................................................6(3)Start-uphelp-living......................................................................................................................6(4)Assistedliving................................................................................................................................6(5)MobileCare.....................................................................................................................................6(6)Inpatientcare................................................................................................................................7(7)Firewoodsocialenterprise.......................................................................................................7(8)Firebrigades..................................................................................................................................7(9)Integrativebusinesses................................................................................................................8(10)Socialtheatre...............................................................................................................................8(11)Supportfortraffickedwomen...............................................................................................9(12)SupportforStreetChildren....................................................................................................9(13)Upcyclingsocialenterprise....................................................................................................9(14)Debtcounselling.......................................................................................................................10

4 Analysisoftheconsensus-basedsetofindicators:IndicatorsandProxiesusedinSROIs............................................................................................................................104.1 Humanresourceimpacts.....................................................................................................114.2 Economicimpacts...................................................................................................................134.3 Civicengagement,empowerment,advocacyandcommunitybuilding...............154.4 Innovation.................................................................................................................................174.5 Well-beingandqualityoflife..............................................................................................18

5 Discussionofthemostimportantresults................................................................215.1 Coreproblemsofconsensusbasedsetofindicators..................................................215.2 Impactindicatorsregardingvolunteers.........................................................................235.3 SuggestedsetofindicatorsforTSI....................................................................................24

References.................................................................................................................................25

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1 IntroductionThegoalofthisworkingpaperistopresenttheresultsofameta-analysisofexistingSROIstudies.Itwillanalysetheindicatorsused,anditwillbuildontheconsensus-basedsetofindicatorsofimpactmeasurementoftheTSI-project.Thisfivedimensionsare(1)well-beingandqualityoflife,(2)innovation,(3)civicengagement,empowerment,advocacyandcommunitybuildingand(4)economicaswellas(5)humanresourceimpacts.Wewillanalyse,ifthesedimensionsandrelatedfieldsofIndicatorscanbefoundinSROI-analysisandinformaboutconcreteindicatorsandproxiesused.Weanalyseatotalof14SROIstudies,ofwhich13hadbeenperformedbytheNPO-CompetenceCenterofVienna.

Firstwewillinformaboutthetheoreticalbackgroundandtheimportanceofimpactmeasurement,thenwewilldescribethemethodology,particularlySROIanalysis.InanextsteptheselectedSROIswillbepresentedinordertoinformabouttheiraims,fieldofinterestandevaluationresults.Theanalysiswilldocumentresultsregardingindicatorsandproxiesused.TheTSI-teamselectedfieldsofindicatorsforeachdimensionsandwewillanalyse,whichindicatorsandproxiesarebeingusedforeachofthesefieldsofindicatorsinexistingSROIstudies.Thismaybehelpfultogetclosertothetestingofindicatorsandmayserveasabasisforfurtherrecommendationsaimingatimprovingpracticesofimpactmeasurementbyshowingblindspots.Thissettingmaybeappropriatetofueldiscussionsandconsiderationsofstrengthsandweaknessesofindicatorsused.Recommendationsfortheimprovementofindicators,graspingmulti-facettedaspectsofimpactmorecomprehensivelyareattempted,thuscontributingtothegoalsoftheTSI-project.

TheMethodologicalGuidelineforImpactAssessment(Simsaet.al.2014)introducedthestateoftheartofimpactmeasurement.ThisframeworkwillserveasabasisforfurtherimprovementoftheuseofindicatorsbySROIstudies.

2 TheoreticalBackground2.1ImpactMeasurement

Economicevaluationgainedinimportancetoshoweffectivenessandefficiencyofresourceallocation.ToanincreasingextentTSOhavetolegitimizetheiroperating(likeresourcedeployment)andprovethesocialimpacttheyhave(ArvidsonandLyon2014),as

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trustandappreciationbysocietyisnotenoughtoattractfunding.Butashighlightingachievementsischallengingforthissector,anelaboratedmethodologyandwell-foundedtheoryarerequired,forTSOsdonotlimitthemselvesoncontrastinginputsandoutputs,butaimatkeepinganeyeonimpact,thatisarguedtobethemoreappropriatedimensiontograspthepositiveeffectsofadvocacyorservicesrenderedbyNPOs.Morethan40approacheshavebeendevelopedinordertomeasuresocialimpact(Stevenson2010et.al),allyieldingspecificbenefitsbutalsoraisedifficultiesandproblemsregardingmethodology.

Besidesdifferentdefinitionsof“impact”,thatleadtocontradictingunderstandings,furtherconfusionisduetothevaryinguseoftermsrelevantforsocialimpactmeasurement,likeimpact,outcome,effect,socialreturn,socialvalue,performance(Maas2008:75).TheTSI-projectwillconsiderimpactasreferringtochangesthatcanbeattributedtotheactivitiesoftheprogram,organisationorthesector;asClarkstates:„Byimpactwemeantheportionofthetotaloutcomethathappenedasaresultoftheactivityoftheventure,aboveandbeyondwhatwouldhavehappenedanyway“(Clarketal.2004).

Impactoccursonvariousscales,butscientificresearchregardingthemacrolevelisofteninsufficientorlacking.Thedifficultyliesisintheheterogeneityofthesectorandthechallengeofmonetizationoftheeffectsofnonprofitactivities.Asitishardertomeasureimpactthanoutputoroutcomes,thoughtfulindicatorsarerequired,especiallywhenthemacrolevelshallbetakenintoaccount.

2.2MethodologyofSROISROIisaninstrumentofcausalcontributionanalysisandoneofmanymethodsofsocialimpactmeasurement,developedinordertodemonstratetheactualsocialvalue,tryingtomeasure„theimmeasurable“.TodayitisappliedinthePrivateaswellasinthePublicandThirdSector.Ithasastrongstakeholderorientation.

SROIisadvantageousbecauseofitslegitimatingqualitiesandthepotentialofimprovingefficientandeffectiveresourceallocation(Maier,Schoberetal.2014).Furthermore,itturnedouttobeapropercommunicationmechanismbymakingthecommunicationofvalueeasier,supportsNPOs´rationaldecision-makingprocessandcanserveasamanagementtoolhelpingtoimproveperformance(Lawlor2008).SROIallowsestimatingsocialvaluecreation(Kara2013:22-24)byquantifyingqualitativeissuesandmonetizing

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theminordertoallowcomparison.SROIisanappropriateinstrumentforaninternalcontrol(Manetti(2014)thatallowstoevaluatetheorganisation´soverallperformancecoherentlyandrationally.Furthermore,ithelpstoreducecomplexity,butofcourseitcanbebroughtintoquestionifitisreasonabletomonetizethingsthatareusuallyconsideredaspriceless.Forthisreason,acomprehensivemonetizationiscrucial,asthequalityofresultsdependsuponpracticalandtechnicalconsiderations.

SROIrelatesbenefitstothearisingcostsinordertounderstand,measureandreportthevaluecreatedbyanorganisation’sintervention.Toputitmoreprecisely,itcontraststhenetpresentvalueofbenefitswithnetpresentvalueofinvestment(Lawlor2008)andexpressestheimpactwithasinglenumber,thiswayofferingcomprehensibledataalsoforstakeholders(Lawlor2008).TheSROIiscalculatedasratioofthetotalimpactandtotalinvestments.Astheratiocanbeseenasaleverageeffectofacertainproject,showingthesocialbenefitcreatedby1€invested,higherSROIscoresrepresentbetterresultsofprojects.However,thecomprehensivecomparabilityofratiosislimitedduetoSROImethodology.

TheNewEconomicForum(nef)1emphasizestonotrestrictvalueonnumbersbuttokeepinmindsupplementalinformation,butthissuggestioncanbecriticizedaswellthisforitsimplicitassumptionthatfurtherinformationwasn´tsomethingthatshouldbeconsideredasanessentialpartofanalysis,buthavingrathera„supplemental“character(Hall2014).FurtherdevelopmentofSROIinaresponsibleandmeaningfulwayisstillanabsolutepriority(Maier,Schoberetal.2014)tofacethepartlyinherentlimitations.Animprovementofindicatorscanhelptograspdimensionsofinterestmoreadequately,andmayhelptoovercomerestrictionsregardingqualityassurance,standardizationorhelpdealingmorepreciselywithcausalityandtemporalityaswell(Maier,Schoberetal.2014).

Forthemeta-analysisofSROIsweused14studiesofwhich13werecarriedoutbytheNPO-CompetenceCenterofVienna.Theyapplythemodelsetoutbynef,whichprovidesaframeworkforassayingactionslongingforchangebyanalyzingthecause-and-effectchainofinputs,outputs,outcomes,andimpactsandthatreflectsstronglyuponthecapacitiesandprioritiesoftherespectiveorganisation.Itallowstakingintoconsiderationwhatwouldhavehappenedanyway(‘deadweight’),anyunintendednegativeconsequencesanddisplacedbenefits(‘displacement’)aswelltheextenttowhichoutcomescanbeattributedtotherespectiveorganisation´sactivities(‘attribution’).

Thedesigntakesintoaccount:1TheirmodelisprovidingorientationfortheanalysedSROIstudiesconductedbytheNPO-CompetenceCenter(Vienna)aswell

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- Inputs,includingallresourcesinvested2,likehumanorfinancialresourcesetc.,- Activities,whichareactionsoftheorganisationthataimatgoal-achievement,

whichleadto- Outputs,asdirectandtangibleproductsfromtheactivitythatcanbemeasured

directly,and- Outcomes,referringtochangesoccurringforthestakeholdersasaresultfromthe

activity.Theymayincludelonger-termormoresignificantresults,whichcanbebothnegative3andpositive.Obviously,aforward-lookingperspectiveisindispensable.

- Deadweightmeanstheextenttowhichoutcomeswouldhavehappenedanywayandhastobesubtractedfromtheoutcome.

- Impactisreferredtoasthepartofthoseoutcomesthatisattributabletorespectiveorganisation’sactivities(Lawlor2008),coveringtheshareoftotaloutcomeaboveandbeyondwhatwouldhavehappenedanyway(Clarketal.2004)

2.3IndicatorsandProxies

Measuringimpactisachallengingtaskandmayrequireanextensivecollectionofdataderivingfrome.g.stakeholdersororganisationsobtainedviaadditionalresearchlikeinterviewsorquestionnaires.

FindingtherightsetofindicatorsthatallowmeasurementinanappropriatewayisanimportantaswellastrickypartoftheSROIprocess.ForitisobviousthatthewholeprocessofconductingSROI-analysisisguidedbydiverseconsiderations,weinsistthatmakingtheproceedingtransparentisessentialtomitigatearbitrarinessregardingconsiderationsofwhattoincludeandthecreationofindictorsandproxies.

2Withthisinvestmentthevalueoftheimpactistobecompared3thathavetobesubtractedfromthecreatedvalue

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AgreatdealofattentioninSROIsisgiventooutcomeindicators,whichcanbebothqualitativeandquantitative.Asinsomecasesitturnsouttobecomplicatedtomeasureoutcomes,itmaybenecessarytousemorethanoneindicatorandadvisabletocombineobjectiveandsubjectiveorself-reportedindicators,inviewofcomplementation(Lawlor2008).Indicatorshavetobematchedtooutcomes;thiscanturnouttobeaneasyorfairlydifficultpurpose.Subsequenttothis,financialvaluesandproxieshavetobeidentifiedinordertoexpressindicatorsinfinancialterms.ThisistermedasmonetizationandarguedtobeasensitiveaspectofSROI-analysis.

Sometimesmonetizationdemandsmorethoughtfulnesssinceitisajugglingactbetweengettingdata,calculatingcostsandbeingasaccurateaspossible.Ifnodataisavailable,proxiesarereferredto,offeringavaluethatcanberegardedasclosetothedesiredindicator.Thiswayitispossibletoincludefurtheroutcomesforwhichnodatacanbefound,wherebyconductingasensitivityanalysesmayberequiredtoavoidarbitrariness.

3 SelectedSROIs

(1)FinancialLiteracy(„ThreeCoins“)2014;EnaPervan,EvaMore-Hollerweger;SROI:1,14or1,08(dependingonfuturescenario)

Theorganisation“ThreeCoins”,astart-upofyoungpeopleforyoungpeople,aimsatfinancialliteracybasedonaninnovativelearningmodelthatwasincorporatedinthedesignofanonlinegame;thistrainingwithoutmoralizingaspectsshallbemoreattractivefortheyoungandhelptotrainunderstandingoffinance.Thispreventionworkhelpsimpartingknowledgetotheyoungandissuitabletoreachthetargetgroup;besidesnewskillslearnt,betterhealthconditions,well-beingandimpedimentofsocialexclusion(duetoindebtedness)arefurtherbenefitsresultingfromtheseactivities.Stakeholdersbenefittingarethescientificcommunity,debtcounsellingandemployeesofthreecoins.

EvaluationischallengingduetothefactthatfuturescenarioswereneededtoanticipateandgetanideaabouttheImpactthatcanbemeasuredonlyinthefuture.Highinvestmentsareascribedtosoftwaredevelopmentandwilleffectinthefuture.

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(2)Socialcaféforintegration(“Connection”)2014;EnaPervan,OliviaRauscher;SROI:3.28

Theproject“TheConnection”wasoneoftwowinnersoftheprizeforinnovation“IdeengegenArmut”(ideastofightpoverty)in2012.Theassociationwasfoundin2010andaimsfortheintegrationofyoungpeoplewithmigrationbackgroundinthejobmarket.Theyoungshallgathertheirfirstworkexperiencestheretoincreasetheiremployability.Therefore,theemploymentinthecaféislimited.Theprojectprovideslanguageclassesfortheiremployees,inordertoreducethelinguisticdeficits.Since201215youngpeoplewereemployedinthecaféand16mentorsassistedthem.

(3)Start-uphelp-living2012;OliviaRauscher,InaPervan-AlSoqauer;SROI:4.41

Thissuccessfulprojectsupportspeopleinriskofpovertytogetaccesstohousing,byprovidingarepayablemicrocredit(2000Euro),aimingatempowermentofpeoplewhoareconsideredashavingfullandequalrightsandobligations.103adultsand101childrenwerestakeholdersthattookadvantagefromthese81credits.Sensitivitystudyshowthatifitwasconsideredthatchildrenunderbetterlivingconditionsachievehighereducation,theSROI-scorewouldevenbehigher,namely9,11Euro.

(4)Assistedliving2013;InaPervan-AlSoquaer,ChristianSchober,NatašaPerić,TobiasGosch;SROI:2.32

Theorganisationwasfoundin2006andprovidesalternativeformsofassistedlivingandshelteredhousingforelderlypeopleinStyria.209personslivedinhousesoftheorganisationand27employeesassistedthemin2012.Thegoaloftheorganisationistoenableelderlypeopletopreservetheirindependenceandsocialintegrationbycreatingadequatehousingsituationsandofferstoincreasetheirqualityoflife.

(5)MobileCare2012;ChristianSchober,DorisSchober,NatašaPerić,EnaPervan;SROI:3.70

Theimpactandbenefitofgovernment-fundedmobilecareinViennawithfocusonmeaningfulmeasurementandmonetisationofdiverseimpactsandoverallsocialbenefitistobeevaluated.Vienna’smobilecareprovidesawiderangeofservicesfordependent

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people,wherebystakeholdersbenefittingtohighextentarehospitals,clients,Vienna´sgeneralpublicandrelatives.Gooddataallowedreasonablemonetisationofimpacts.Asresultsshow,theyoperateeffectively.

(6)Inpatientcare2015;EnaPervan,ChristianSchober,ClaudiaMüller;LowerAustriaSROI:2.93;StyriaSROI:2.95

ThisanalysisaimedatdemonstratingtheeconomicimpactandbenefitofcarefacilitiesinLowerAustriaandStyriaforrelevantstakeholders,withfocusonmeaningfulmeasurementandmonetisationofdiverseimpacts.Ittouchesonarangeimportantsocialfields,thereforeidentifyingsuitableindicatorsisachallengingundertaking.Aspeoplegetolder,thenecessityoftheprovisioncare-servicesisraising,andthereisatendencytoprefermobilecareservices;asresultsshow,inpatientcarewasevaluatedasbeingveryeffective.

(7)Firewoodsocialenterprise2012;OliviaRauscher,SelmaSprajcer;SROI:0.98

TheFirewoodsocialenterpriseisaprojectthatfightsagainstpovertyaimingatskillingunemployed,particularlyyoungpeople,furtherprovidingdeprived/vulnerablepeoplewithfirewoodfreeofcost(collectedbyyoungpeopleinprovidedwoods)andraisingawarenessforthesignificanceofwood–especiallywithregardtoenvironmentprotection.Ascanbeseen,diversestakeholdersareinvolved.Theprojectisbaseduponagoodconcept,butlacksadequateoperationalimplementation,whichexplainsthelowscoreofSROI.

Furtherbenefitsfortargetedyoungpeople-besidesskilling-aretheimpactondimensionslikesocialrelations,goodhealthoroutdooractivities.Thoseprovidedwithfirewoodbenefitfromcostsavings.

(8)Firebrigades2012;ChristianSchoberEvaMore-Hollerweger,OliviaRauscher,InaPervan-AlSoqauer;SROI:10.2

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ThisstudyreflectsupontheFirefightingsystemofUpperAustria,takingintoaccounttheirmanifoldprofessionaltasksandactivities(know-how,resources).Variousstakeholdersareidentified,likesocietyanddiversebeneficiarieslikeindustryorthepublicdomain,insurance(companies)andmore.

ThehighSROI-scoreisinpracticelikelytobeevenhigherduetoconservativeestimationandunderestimationofsubsequentcosts(thatwouldhavebeentoohardtograsp);itisparticularlyowedtotheireffortsthatpreventdamage(topeopleandobjects),besidesthat,theyincreasefeelingofsafetyandalsosocialcapitalplaysarole.Theyhaveamonopolystatusofcourseanddasresultsshow,theycanbeclassifiedashighlyprofitablewithregardtoimpactingonsociety.

(9)Integrativebusinesses2010;OliviaRauscher;ChristianSchober;SROI:1.29

InthefocusofthisstudywereeightbusinessesinAustria;dataanalysisconsideredinterviews,researchaswellasdocumentanalysis,wherebyweaknessisstatedbecauseofthesmallnumberofcases.Regardingstakeholders,peoplewithdisabilitiesarethosewhobenefitthemost,buttakingintoaccountthecomparisonofinvestmentandattributableprofits,itturnsoutthatinstitutionslikefederalstatesandsocialinsurancesbenefittoahighextent.TheSROIscoreisshapedbycostsarisingduetoanexpectedunemploymentofhandicappedpeople(ifthesebusinesseswouldnotexist).

(10)Socialtheatre2006;KarlLeathem;SROI:4.25

Lawnmowersisatheatreprojectprovidingpossibilitiesforpeoplewithlearningdisabilities.Thetheatreisrunbypeoplewithlearningdisabilitiesandaimsforabetterlifeforsimilarpeople.Theprojectwasfoundedin1986andbecameanindependentcharitablecompanyin2001.Thekeyobjectivesoftheprojectnotonlyrevolvearoundtheworkwithpeoplewithlearningdisability,providingemployment,mentoring,adviceandskills,butalsoincludeadvocacywork.

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(11)Supportfortraffickedwomen2013;InaPervan-AlSoqauer,EnaPervan,OliviaRauscher;SROI:2.44

TheNGOFootprintstandsupagainstthehumanrightsviolationoftraffickinginwomen,providingsupportforaffectedwomen,raisingawarenessfortheirrightsandhelpimprovinglivingconditionsandaimsatintegrationintosociety-thiswaytakingintoaccountnonmonetaryaspects.Duringtheevaluativeperiodof2012,47womenandgirlshavebeensupported.Activitiesoftheorganisationaree.g.Germanandsports-classesorcharitydinner.Italsoincludesraisingawarenessofthetopicoftrafficking.Mainstakeholdersareaffectedwomenthattakeadvantageofprovidedservices,furthermoree.g.stafforinstitutionslikesocialinsurancesorpublicdomain(costsavings).Obviouslyweareconfrontedwitharangeofaspectsthatareinneedofmeaningfulindicatorsthatenabletomeasurefieldsofinterest.Datawasobtainedbyinterviewsandparticipantobservation.

(12)SupportforStreetChildren2011;OliviaRauscher,ChristianSchober,InaPervanAlSoqauer,EvaMoreHollerweger;SROI:3.47

CasaAbrahamisahouseoflivingandformationbuiltwithprizemoneyandrunbytheorganisationConcordia(providingdiverseservicesthatarenottakenintoaccount)targetingstreetschildrenandchildren/youngpeoplefromnecessitousfamiliesorbrokenhomesinRomaniabypromotingandofferingeducationandskillinginordertolabourmarketintegration.Theyhaveacapacityofworkingwithamaximumof48childrenoryoungpeople.Theanalysisaimsattakingintoaccountlong-term-effectaswell,thatistobeseenasindispensablebutalsoaparticularchallengeinthiscase;e.g.thevalueofeducationandintegrationinthelabourmarketwasprojectedtoretirement-age.Theproject´soutcomeiseducationalattainment.Besideseducationandskilling,theyoungfurtherbenefitfrombetterhealthconditions,mentalstabilityandrecreationalactivities.SensitivityanalysisshowsanevenhigherSROI-ratioof9,ifcapacitywasfullyutilized.

(13)Upcyclingsocialenterprise2011;ChristianSchober,OliviaRauscher;SROI:0.97

Theprojectcombinesecologicalgoalsbyrepairingoldwashingmachinesandsocialgoalsbydoingthatwithunemployed.Stakeholders,whotakeadvantageoftheprojectaretoalargeextentformerunemployedthataretrainedandengagedforupcyclingdefective

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machines,andcustomerswhopurchaserepairedwashingmachineanddishwasher.Furthermore,societybenefitsbecauseofenvironmentprotectionandsodoinstitutionsthatarerelatedtoemploymentincome.Althoughtheproject´sunderlyingconceptishighlypromising,theoperationalsuccessturnedouttobeunsatisfactory-providinganexplanationforthelowSROI-score.Besidesbenefitduetoregularincome,theemployedreportanincreaseinstabilityoftheirlife,betterhealthandacquiredskills.(14)Debtcounselling2013;EvaMore-Hollerweger,InaPervan-AlSoqauer,EnaPervan;SROI:5.3

Thisstudyaimedatmonetizingtheimpactofstate-approvedbutprivatedebtcounselling.Themostimportantstakeholderswere,ofcourse,theclients.Besidestheoutputconsistingofconsultingservicesandprovisionofinformation,theoutcomeincludesanincreaseofwell-being,betterhealthaswellassocialrelationships;skillstomanagemoneyresponsiblyandeasingtofindajobareimportantefforts.Ascanbeseen,diversedimensionsareaffected.Datawasgatheredbyinterviewsandquantitativesurvey-(questionnaires).Duetogooddata,quantificationandmonetisingwaseasytocarryout.

4 Analysisoftheconsensus-basedsetofindicators:IndicatorsandProxiesusedinSROIs

AsaresultofliteratureresearchanddiscussionsamongsttheinternationalTSIpartners,theTSIprojectregardsfivedomainsascrucialimpactfieldsandthereforeimportantforimpactmeasurement:“humanresourceimpacts”,“economicimpacts”,“civicengagement,empowerment,advocacy&communitybuilding”,“innovation”and“well-beingandqualityoflife”(Simsaetal.2014:27).ForeachofthedomainstheTSIpartnersagreedondifferentfieldsofindicatorsusedinouranalysis.Thefollowingchapterintroducesthescopesofthedomainsandindicatorfieldsandpresentstheresultsofthemeta-analysisof14SROIs.

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4.1 HumanresourceimpactsAccordingtothepreliminaryresearchresultsoftheTSIproject,fivefieldsofindicatorswereproposed:“educationandskills”,“motivation(intrinsic,extrinsic)”,“paymentandcareerperspective”,“self-fulfilandvaluabledoing”aswellas“interpersonalrelationships”.

Theindicatorsusedinthedomainhumanresourceimpactswerederivedfromliteratureandconstructs,e.g.jobsatisfaction(materialandimmaterialincentives,cf.intrinsicandextrinsicsourcesofsatisfaction).Asusedconstructsformeasuringjobsatisfactionoftenincludeareasofwell-beingorhealth,indicatorshavepartlybeenassignedtothedomain“well-beingandqualityoflife”oftheTSIproject.Mostoftheindicatorsintroducedfocusonthemicrolevelandthereforearenotsuitableasaggregates.However,specificmacroindicatorsareyettobedefined(Rochesteretal.2010,Ockenden2007:19-30,EuropeanFoundationfortheImprovementofLivingandWorkingConditions2007:4,OECD2009:122,Torita2008:2084-2085,CIVICUS2012,Simsaetal.2014:33-35).

Table1:Domain"HRImpacts”inSROIs

Fieldofindicators

FactorsusedinSROI4

ProxiesusedinSROIformonetization5

Sumofcodings6

NumberofSROI7

HRImpactsEducationandskills

EnhancedcompetencesandknowhowHigher

Costsof:workshops,trainings,certificates,courses,privatetutoring,consultancy,estimatedlossofearningsbycourseparticipation

62 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,10,11,12,13,14

4Thisusuallyiscalled“indicator”,accordingtothenotionsoftheTSI–project.However,theterm“factor”ismoreappropriate,asindicatorsareusedtobedirectlymeasureable.Ase.g.“enhancedcompetencesandknowhow”cannotbequantifieddirectly,SROIanalystsuseproxiestoestimateandmonetize the impacts of those factors. Therefore, proxies get close of being indicators forimpactmeasurement.5Costsofinterventionswithcomparableoutcomesarefrequentlyusedproxiesformonetizationofcertainfactors.AsSROIshaveaneconomicperspective,thisapproachiswidelycommon.6Weusedacomputer-basedprogramforqualitativetextanalysis,calledMaxQDA.Thenumberofcodingsrepresentshowoftenthelistedfactorsofthefieldwereusedintotal.7ThepurposeofthecolumnistokeeptrackofwhichindicatorsandproxieswereusedinwhichSROI.Therefore,thenumbersmatchthefiguresoftheselectedSROIs,wedescribedearlier.

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education/practicalexperienceOrganisationalknowledgeContributiontosocialcapital

Differencesbetweenincome(wagesoflower/highereducated)CostsofexternalexpertsCostsofknowledgetransfer,expertise

Motivation(intrinsic,extrinsic)

Highermotivation/allegianceofstaff

Costsof:workshops,recruitmentofmoremotivatedstaff

3 1,14

Paymentandcareerperspective

Additionalincome/fulltimejobIntegrationintoemployment

WagesDifferencesbetweenwageandunemploymentbenefits

25 1,2,4,5,6,7,8,9,11,12,13,14

Self-fulfilmentand„valuableactivity“

Positivefeeling AveragedonationofAustrianperyear,costsofayear´ssubscriptionfor“Augustin”(streetmagazineofsociallydeprived/unemployed),DifferencesbetweenaveragewagesinTSIsandFPOs

26 1,2,4,5,6,7,8,11,14

Interpersonalrelationships

Socialnetwork/bettersocialrelationsBetter

Approximatespendinginsparetime,membershipfeesforassociations,churchcontribution,costsof:dinnerwithfriends,systemicfamilytherapy

23 1,2,4,5,6,7,8,11,14

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communicationbetweenstakeholders

Costsofcommunicationefforts(time*hourlywages)

Astable1shows,thevastmajorityofindicatorsusedinSROIsareinthefield“educationandskills”.Sincethemethodfocusesonastakeholderperspective,impactsaremeasuredonindividualandorganisationallevels.OnlythecontributionofTSIstoformsofsocialcapital,monetisedascostsofexpertise,representsamacroimpact.WhileSROIsuseindicatorsfor“paymentandcareerperspective”,“self-fulfilmentandvaluableactivity”aswellas“interpersonalrelationships”,themethodtendstoneglectimpactsinthefieldof“motivation”.Itcanbearguedthatthetrade-offbetweennecessaryeffortstodeterminemotivationalimpactsforSROIresearcherandtheexpectedscalesoftheimpactofindicators,leadstoanunderexposureofthisfield.

Itshallbenoticedthatthisdomainbearssomeproblemsofselectivity,as“enhancedcompetencesandknowhow”cannotbeclearlyassignedto“educationandskills”or“paymentandcareerperspective”.However,thisdoesnotaffectthescopeofthedomainitself.

4.2 EconomicimpactsFieldsofindicatorsconcerningthisdomainare“contributionofTStoGDP”,“relativegrowthofTStoGDP”,“shareofvolunteers”and“hoursvoluntarilyworked”.Thefield“othereconomicimpact”wasintroducedinordertograsptheeconomicimpactonthemicro-andmacro-level.AstheyfocusonmacrolevelswithoutexceptionandtheSROImethodhasastrongstakeholderperspective,thereforeoftenunderexposingmacroimpacts,resultsofouranalysisarelimited.However,theparadoxicalspecificsofthisdomainarediscussedfollowedbythefindings(MonzonandChaves2008:569,Salamon2010:187-189,201,CIVICUS2012,Davisteretal.2004,Simsaetal.2014:32-33).

Table2:Domain"EconomicImpacts"inSROIs

Fieldof Indicators ProxiesusedinSROIfor Sumof Number

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indicators usedinSROI monetization codings ofSROIEconomicImpactContributionofTStoGDP

Additionalincome/fulltimejobAdditionalorders/profit/clientsAdditionaltaxrevenuegeneratedAdditionalfunding

WagesAdditionalsales(costsformaterial,servicespurchased,otherexpenses),higherpossiblerentalincome,costsofclientacquisitionWagetax,municipaltax,socialsecuritycontributions,othercontributionsReceivedfunding

111 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14

RelativegrowthofTStoGDP

None None 0

Shareofvolunteers

None None 0

Hoursvoluntarywork

None None 0

Othereconomicimpact8

Costsavings:unemploymentbenefits,healthexpenditure,administrativecosts,personnelcosts,othercosts

Averageunemploymentbenefits,estimatedhealthexpenditures(drugwithdrawal,hospitalstay),administrativeeffort*hourlywage,hoursvoluntarywork*wageSavedsubsidies

92 1,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14

8Thisfieldofimpactwasaddedinordertograspeconomicimpactonthemicro-andmesolevel.

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TaxsavingsLowerprices

Differencebetweenactualpriceandaveragemarketprice

Asthedimension“economicimpact”focusesthemacrolevel,therearehardlyanyimpactsrecordedinSROIs,becausethismethodstronglyfocusesonthemicro/mesolevel.Evaluation-based/stakeholder-orientedimpactmeasurement,likeSROI,oftendoesnotconsideraggregates,suchascontributiontoGDPorsharesofvolunteers.Impactsofvolunteersarelocatedinthefields“HR”or“well-beingandqualityoflife”.

Astable2shows,therearetwosplitcategoriesofindicatorsonly.Additionalincomeofseveralstakeholders,whichweassignedaspartof“contributiontoGDP”,actuallyincreasestheGDP.Anothertypeofindicatorsissavedcosts,whichwereferredtoas“othereconomicimpact”,infactdecreasestheGDP.However,forSROIevaluations,theybothareconsideredasimpacts,sincesavedfinancialsourcesofstakeholdersareofuseforthem,whilemacro-economiceffectsarenotconsidered.

Duetothedualityofindicatorsused,anotheraspectofthedomain“economicimpacts”canbediscussed.Thedecisionofwhichindicatorstobeused,dependsonthedefinitionofGDP,asitcanbeaccountedindifferentways(productionaccount,expenditureapproachorincomebreakdown).Intermsof“contributiontoGDP”,theSROIsshowindicatorsassignedtoanincomebreakdown,whilethefield“othereconomicimpacts”oftenismeasuredbysavings,referringtotheexpenditureapproach.Accordingtothecalculationmethod,coherentindicatorsshouldbeused.

4.3 Civicengagement,empowerment,advocacyandcommunitybuildingAccordingtoliterature,therearedifferentkeyareastomeasurecivicengagement,alsoreferredtoasactivecitizenship.Whilecommunitybuilding(cf.“communitylife”Mascherinietal.2009:12and“communityaction”&“communityspirit”CommunitiesandLocalGovernments2011)isregardedasacommonareaofthisdomain,differentadditionalfieldsofindicatorsareadded,e.g.“participation”(extent,form,field,frequency),“democraticvalues”,“trust”and“empowerment”(CIVICUS2012,TheUrbanInstitutes.a.,Simsaetal.2014:31-32).

Table3:Domain"Civicengagementandempowerment“inSROIs

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Fieldofindicators

IndicatorsusedinSROI

ProxiesusedinSROIformonetization

Sumofcodings

NumberofSROI

CivicengagementandempowermentParticipation(extent,form)

None None 0

Participation(field,frequency)

None None 0

Democraticvalues,participationandinclusion

IntegrationofunemployedContributiontocommonwelfareSocialIntegration

DifferencebetweenaveragewagesandunemploymentbenefitsAveragedonationofAustrianperyearApproximatespendinginsparetime

15 3,8,9,11

Communityaction

Socialnetwork/bettersocialrelations

Approximatespendinginsparetime,membershipfeesforassociations,churchcontribution,costsof:dinnerwithfriends,systemicfamilytherapy

12 2,3,4,6,7,8

Trust PositiveImage

Costsofanewspaperarticle,TVairtime

3 3,7,13

Empowerment None None 0 Asthemethodshowsablindspotregardingmacrolevels-wediscussedthisearlier-SROIstendtouselessimpactindicatorsforthisdomain,comparedto“HRImpacts”or“EconomicImpacts”.Itisarguedthattheimpactmeasurementforthestakeholder“society”istooelaborateforanalyststoevaluate.Therefore,thisstakeholderoftenisexcludedfromfurtherresearchinSROIs.

However,regardingtheindicatorfieldsofTSI,mostindicatorsusedforthisdomain(seetable3)cannotbestrictlyseparatedfromotherfields.Itwouldbeentirelypossibleto

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assign“Integrationofunemployed”and“Contributiontocommonwelfare”to“EconomicImpacts”,“Socialintegration”and“Socialnetwork/bettersocialrelations”toeither“HRImpacts”or“Well-beingandqualityoflife”.Solelythefield“Trust”ishardtoabandon,butonlythreecodingswerefoundinouranalysis.

Nonetheless,thedomain“Civicengagementandempowerment”isofhighimportancetoimpactmeasurementoftheTSonmacrolevels,asthedomainincludesimpactsofTSIsfulfillingtheirsocietalfunctions.

4.4 InnovationTheconceptsofinnovationrevolvearoundfewaspects:HRassourceofinnovativeforces,financesasrequiredbasisforinnovationandorganisationalinnovationsystems.ThefieldsoftheTSIprojectare:“HRrelevantindicators”,“scienceandresearch”and“investmentsinR&DbyFPOs”(OEDC2010a:3,OECD2010b,EuropeanCommission2014:10,Simsaetal.2014:29-30).

Table4:Domain"Innovation”inSROIs

Fieldofindicators

IndicatorsusedinSROI

ProxiesusedinSROIformonetization

Sumofcodings

NumberofSROI

InnovationHRrelevantindicators

EnhancedcompetencesandknowhowHighereducation/practicalexperienceOrganisationalknowledgeContribution

Costsof:workshops,trainings,certificates,courses,privatetutoring,consultancy,estimatedlossofearningsbycourseparticipationDifferencesbetweenincome(wagesoflower/highereducated)Costsofexternalexperts

62 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,10,11,12,13,14

18

tosocialcapital

Costsofknowledgetransfer,expertise

Scienceandresearch

Knowledgeproductionandexperimentalresearch

Personnelcosts(hoursworked*hourlywagesofresearchassistant)

1 1

InvestmentsinR&DbyFPOs

None None 0

AstheTSIproject´sfieldofindicators“educationandskills”includesmostHRimpactsofSROIs,e.g.educationandtrainingsofemployees,thefield“HRrelevantindicators”showsnonewindicators(cf.tables1&4).Therefore,thedomain„innovation“showsalreadyknownproblemswithselectivity.Wesuggesttorethinkthedomain“innovation”andthefieldsofindicators.Theapplicationofspecificindicators,e.g.numberofinnovativeproducts/socialinnovations/patents,hastobediscussedbytheTSIpartners,asfurthersuggestionswouldexceedthedefinedlimitsofthisanalysis.

4.5 Well-beingandqualityoflifeAsmostTSOsare“providersofcollectiveandindividualservices”(Simsaetal.2014:27),mostoftheimpactsofTSIsstemfromservices.However,thedomainwell-beingincludesmoresubjectivefactors,e.g.feelingofsecurity,aswell.Mostconstructsusedformeasuringwell-beingorthequalityoflifeconsiderthosefactors,e.g.OECD´s“BetterLifeIndex”.Thehealthstatusofindividualsortheaveragelifeexpectationonmacrolevelareincludedaswell.Theproject“BeyondGDP”alsotakesmoreenvironmentalaspects,e.g.exposuretoairpollution,intoaccount.TheTSIprojectconsiders“incomeandwealth”,“livingconditions(materialandecological)”,“well-being(jobsatisfaction,health,mental)”,“satisfaction(job,life)”and“lifeexpectancyandhealthyyears”asfieldsofimpactindicators(OECD2011:16-19,EUROSTAT2014,Simsaetal.2014:27-29).

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Table5:Domain"Well-beingandqualityoflife”inSROIs

Fieldofindicators

IndicatorsusedinSROI

ProxiesusedinSROIformonetization

Sumofcodings

NumberofSROI

Well-beingandqualityoflifeIncomeandwealth

Additionalincome/fulltimejobExpendituressaved

Wages,rentalincome,revenuesofownerCostsoftransport,lowerprice,cleaningcosts

49 1,2,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14

Livingconditions(material,ecological)

Additionalincome/fulltimejobBetterresidentialsituationFeelingofsafetyBetterlivingconditions

Wages,increaseofwage,rentalincome,revenuesofownerCostsofmobilelivingassistance,cleaningpersonnelCostsofnursinginsuranceCostsofpsychotherapy,fitnessentermembership,averagespendinginsparetime

25 3,4,5,6,10,11,12,13,14

Well-being(jobsatisfaction,health,mental)

FeelingofsafetyBetterlivingconditionsIndependent

CostsofnursinginsuranceCostsofpsychotherapy,fitnessentermembership,averagespendinginsparetime,subsequentcostsofburn-out,

63 1,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14

20

livingInterestingsparetimeactivitiesSocialnetwork/bettersocialrelations

CostsofpersonalcareCostsofsportcourse,musiccourse,membershipfeeofsportclubApproximatespendinginsparetime,membershipfeesforassociations,churchcontribution,costsof:dinnerwithfriends,systemicfamilytherapy

Satisfaction(job,life)

Socialnetwork/bettersocialrelationsSelf-confidencePositivefeelingLiberation(lesstimepressure)Stabilityinlife

Approximatespendinginsparetime,membershipfeesforassociations,churchcontribution,costsof:dinnerwithfriends,systemicfamilytherapyCostsoftrainingAveragedonationofAustrianperyear,costsofayear´ssubscriptionfor“Augustin”(streetmagazineofsociallychallenged)Costsofrecreationcourse,Differencesbetweencostsforholidaysinoff/highseasonCostsofdrugwithdrawal,medications,hospitalstay,follow-upcostsofcrime

67 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,13,14

Lifeexpectancy

Betterphysical

Costsofpsychotherapy,follow-upcostsofdiv.injuries,

32 1,4,5,6,8,11,12,

21

andhealthyyears

conditionsandmentalstateEnhancedlifeexpectancy

infections,intoxications,membershipfeeforsportclub,fitnesscentreValueofhealthyyear(QALY)*qualityoflife*enhancedlifeexpectancy(years)

13,14

Astable5shows,“well-beingandqualityoflife”isthecoredomainofimpactsmeasuredbySROIs,asthelevelofthedimensionfocusesmoreonmicrolevelsandthereforeismorecompatiblewiththeSROIperspective.However,thehighquantityofcodingsalsostemsfromtheblurringbetweentheseparatefieldsofindicators.Wewanttostresstheintersectionsbetween“well-being(job-satisfaction)”and“satisfaction(job)”,“Well-being(health,mental)”and“lifeexpectancyandhealthyyears”aswellas“incomeandwealth”and“livingconditions(material)”,astheaggregationofoverlappingfieldsmayleadtooverestimationsormorecomplexity.

Asaresult,wewouldsuggestreconsideringthespecificfieldsofthisdomainandwouldrecommendtoreplacetheformerfieldswiththreenewones:“wealth”(livingconditions(material,ecological)andincome),“satisfaction”(jobandlife)and“healthstatus”(mental,physical,lifeexpectancy,healthyyears),inordertoavoidstatisticaldifficulties,morecomplexityandblurring.

5 DiscussionofthemostimportantresultsAccordingtosomeaspectsshowninouranalysis,wewanttodiscussthreecoreproblemsoftheconsensus-basedsetofindicatorsoftheTSI:1)blurring,2)blindspotsand3)aggregationofdata.Asfarastheresultsofourmeta-analysissuffice,wewilldiscussconcreteimpactindicatorsforthefields,especiallyforvolunteering.

5.1 CoreproblemsofconsensusbasedsetofindicatorsFirst,oneoftherecurringproblemsregardingtheanalysisareintersectionsbetweendomainsandwithindomains.Inordertoavoidfurthercomplexity,thereisaneedfor

22

selectivefieldsofindicators.Therefore,wedidsuggestdifferentsolutions,e.g.anewstructureofthefieldsofindicatorsregardingthedomain"Well-beingandqualityoflife".Accordingtothe"methodologicalguidelineforimpactassessment"(Simsaetal.2014),impactmeasurementconsiders2ndlevelimpactsaswell,whichareoftennotrepresentedinSROIs.Asimpactsinscopeofaspecificdomaintendtohavespillovereffectsonseveraldomains,e.g.additionalincomeon1stlevelenablingindividualstoimprovetheirmateriallivingconditionsorincreasetheirpossibilitiesforsocialintegration,wewanttostressthenecessityforenunciateddefinitionsofthescopesofthedomainsandfields.TheanalysisshowedseveralindicatorsusedinSROIs,whichhadtobeassignedtodifferentdomainsatthesametime.

Second,asfarasthestakeholderperspectiveofSROIswascompatiblewiththeconsensus-basedsetofindicatorsweidentifiedtwoblindspots.Thedomain"Innovation"isunderexposedregardingthenumberofindicatorsfoundinSROIs.ThisobviouslydoesnotonlystemfromourselectionofSROIs,butfromshortcomingsinthedefinitionandtheoreticalfoundationofthedomain.EcologicalimpactsareonlymeasuredandmonetizedonmicrolevelsinSROIs,duetoalackofastakeholder"Environment".Regardingtheconsensusbasedsetofindicators,environmentalimpactsaresolelyinscopeofthefield"livingconditions(ecological)",referringtothedomain"Well-beingandqualityoflife".EnvironmentseemstohavenovalueinSROIs,aslongasnospecificstakeholderisharmed.AstheTSIaimstoidentifymorespecificindicators,wewouldsuggestfocusingonmacroindicators,e.g.contributiontoqualityofwaterandair,reductionofpollutionandCO2-emissions.

Third,asanestimateddeadweightofanorganisationisusedtoderiveitsimpactfromitsoutcome,effortsneedtobetakenforanimpactaggregation.Deadweighttakesthealternativescenario“whatwouldhavehappenedanyway”intoaccountbysubtractingthisoutcomefromtheproject-related.Therefore,asthereoftenisalackofcontrolgroupsandbenchmarkdata,SROIanalystsestimatethedeadweightbasedontheirindividualassumptions.

RegardingDeadweight,SROIsmethodologytendstofavourprogramsprovidingnicheproducts,asthedeadweightofirreplaceablegoodsandservicesislower(Weisbrod1986,Kingma1997).Accordingly,thesubstitutabilityofthewholeTShastobetakenintoaccount,whenmeasuringitscontributiontoGDP.Therefore,thereisaneedforatheoreticaleconomicfoundationtoestimatethedeadweightoftheTS.Assumingthealternativescenario"ThereisnoTS",weneedtoassessmacro-economiceffects,e.g.crowdingouteffects,intheshort,midandlongterm.IfincaseFPOsorthestatefulfilled

23

thesocietaltasksoftheTS,wewouldconsiderahigherdeadweightofthesector.However,asthestakeholdersandclientsofTSIsareoftendeprivedordisadvantagedpeopleandtherefore,themarketfore.g.socialserviceshasfewincentivesforFPOstoengage,wedonotassumethedeadweightoftheTStobe100percent.

Furthermore,regardingimpactsoftheTS,thereisnoadequatenationaldataavailabletoaggregateyet.Appropriatestatisticalsystems(satelliteaccountofTS)needtobeestablishedinnationalstatisticsanddataofimpactrelevantindicatorshavetobegathered.SuitableindicatorsofspecificTSimpactsareyettobefound,asitspurposediffersfromusualoutcomeindicators.

5.2 ImpactindicatorsregardingvolunteersOuranalysisofSROIsshowsalackofindicatorsinseveralfields.AsvolunteeringisseenasacrucialpartoftheTS,adiscussionofthisfindingisnecessary.Wewanttostress,thelackofimpactindicatorsforvolunteeringisduetothemethodologyofSROIsandtheconsensus-basedsetofindicatorsofTSIproject.

AccordingtothelogicofSROIs,voluntaryworkassuchisnotanimpact,astheimpactsareassignedtodifferentstakeholders,whichbenefitfromTSactivitiesdirectly.Obviously,volunteerscontributetotheimpactofTSIs,astheyenabletheorganisationstoimplementitsprojects.However,thedelimitedpresentationofprovidedbenefitsforstakeholdersbyvolunteersisnotpartofSROIs.RegardingSROIsdealingwithvolunteersasstakeholders,weassignedusedindicatorsforimpactmeasurementtootherfields,e.g.HRimpacts.

Aseparatemeasurementofvolunteeringimpactsneedstoovercomeatwofoldbarrier.First,asimpactisnotdirectlymeasured,butcalculatedbysubtractingdeadweightfromoutcome,appropriateoutcomeindicatorsneedtobedeveloped.Atpresent,mostofthegatheredandavailabledataareinputrelatedindicators,e.g.hoursvoluntarilyworked,andtherefore,notsuitableforimpactmeasurement.Second,thedeadweightregardingvolunteeringhastobeevaluated.Whatwouldhavehappenedtotheoutcomewithouttheengagementofvolunteersandwhichshareofaproject´soutcomedidvolunteersgenerate?Asthiswasnotapartofourmeta-analysis,thereisaneedforfurtherempiricalresearch.

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5.3 SuggestedsetofindicatorsforTSIFinally,wepresentthesuggestedstructureofthedomainsandfieldsofindicators:HRImpacts Educationandskills Motivation(intrinsic,extrinsic) Paymentandcareerperspective Self-fulfilmentand“valuableactivity” InterpersonalrelationshipsEconomicImpact ContributionofTStoGDP RelativegrowthofTStoGDP Shareofvolunteers Hoursvoluntarywork OthereconomicimpactCivicengagementandempowerment Participation(extent,form,field,frequency) Democraticvalues,participationandinclusion Communityaction Trust EmpowermentInnovation HRrelevantindicators Scienceandresearch InvestmentsinR&DbyFPOsWell-beingandqualityoflife Wealth(livingconditions[material,ecological],income) Satisfaction(job,life) Healthstatus(mental,physical,lifeexpectancy,healthyyears)

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