Two-Way Bilingual EducationTwo-Way Bilingual EducationConserving and Developing Conserving and Developing

Language ResourcesLanguage Resources

James CrawfordJames CrawfordInstitute for Language and Education PolicyInstitute for Language and Education Policy

www.elladvocates.orgwww.elladvocates.org

February 21, 2008February 21, 2008

Bilingual EducationBilingual EducationKey Factors to ConsiderKey Factors to Consider

Student characteristicsStudent characteristics– academic & language skillsacademic & language skills– sociolinguistic patternssociolinguistic patterns

School capacitySchool capacity– research knowledgeresearch knowledge– program designprogram design– staff qualificationsstaff qualifications

Language attitudesLanguage attitudes– parent & community supportparent & community support– government policiesgovernment policies

Politics vs. PedagogyPolitics vs. PedagogyAmerican ContradictionsAmerican Contradictions

Research increasingly shows benefits of Research increasingly shows benefits of bilingual educationbilingual education– academic, linguistic, social, economicacademic, linguistic, social, economic

Policies are moving toward monolingual, Policies are moving toward monolingual, English Only educationEnglish Only education– anti-immigrant politics on the riseanti-immigrant politics on the rise

Despite decline, bilingual education Despite decline, bilingual education remains widespread, relative to most remains widespread, relative to most countriescountries– 15% of 5m English learners vs. 37% in 199215% of 5m English learners vs. 37% in 1992

English Language LearnersEnglish Language LearnersA Growing Population, 1992-2006A Growing Population, 1992-2006

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

5.5

'92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00 '01 '02 '03 '04 '05 '06

Source: NCELA (2007)

(millions)

Bilingual Education in U.S.Bilingual Education in U.S.Declining Enrollments, 1992-2006Declining Enrollments, 1992-2006

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

1991-92 2001-02 2005-06*

*Estimate; Source: Zehler et al. (2003)

(perc

enta

ges)

BE Non-BE

Language PoliciesLanguage PoliciesU.S. Attitudes toward DiversityU.S. Attitudes toward Diversity

Pretend that it Pretend that it doesn’t existdoesn’t exist– ““sink or swim” treatment – no special help sink or swim” treatment – no special help

See it as See it as temporary problemtemporary problem– ““transitional” bilingual education transitional” bilingual education

Treat it as a Treat it as a threatthreat– English Only requirements in several statesEnglish Only requirements in several states

Recognize it as a Recognize it as a resourceresource– ““developmental” and two-way bilingual developmental” and two-way bilingual

educationeducation

Immigration & LanguageImmigration & LanguageRecent GrowthRecent Growth

U.S. Foreign-Born Population, 1960 – 2006U.S. Foreign-Born Population, 1960 – 2006

5 4.76.2

7.9

11.112.5

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2006

(percen

tag

e)

Immigration & LanguageImmigration & LanguageHistoric PatternsHistoric Patterns

U.S. Foreign-Born Population, 1850 – 2006U.S. Foreign-Born Population, 1850 – 2006

02468

10121416

1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2006

(perc

en

tag

e)

Language DiversityLanguage DiversityContradictory TrendsContradictory Trends

Rapid increase in speakers of non-English Rapid increase in speakers of non-English languageslanguages– 400+ languages reported in 2000 Census400+ languages reported in 2000 Census– immigration is main factor in growth in immigration is main factor in growth in

minority-language speakers, especially minority-language speakers, especially SpanishSpanish

Rapid acquisition of English by immigrantsRapid acquisition of English by immigrants– Anglicization at record rates, historicallyAnglicization at record rates, historically– rapid loss of heritage languagesrapid loss of heritage languages

Demographic ChangeDemographic ChangeIncreasing Bilingualism, 1980 – 2006 Increasing Bilingualism, 1980 – 2006

Speakers of Languages Other Than English at Home Speakers of Languages Other Than English at Home and English-Speaking Ability (percentages, age and English-Speaking Ability (percentages, age 5+)5+)

19801980 19901990 20002000 20062006 ChangeChange

English onlyEnglish only 89.089.0 86.286.2 82.182.1 80.380.3 +20%+20%

Other languageOther language 11.011.0 13.813.8 17.917.9 19.619.6 +138%+138%

Speaks English “very Speaks English “very well”well”

6.16.1 7.87.8 9.89.8 10.910.9 +138%+138%

… … less than “very less than “very well”well”

4.84.8 6.16.1 8.18.1 8.78.7 +138%+138%

Source: U.S. Census BureauSource: U.S. Census Bureau

Language UsageLanguage UsageSecond-Generation Immigrant YouthSecond-Generation Immigrant Youth

English & Heritage-Language Proficiency English & Heritage-Language Proficiency Ages 13-15 (percentages)Ages 13-15 (percentages)

Source: Portes & Hao (2002)Source: Portes & Hao (2002)

Knows EnglishKnows English Knows HLKnows HL Prefers Prefers EnglishEnglishWellWell Very Very

WellWellWellWell Very Very

WellWell

Latin Latin AmericanAmerican

94.794.7 65.165.1 60.660.6 21.421.4 71.071.0

Asian, PacificAsian, Pacific 90.390.3 57.957.9 20.120.1 8.88.8 73.673.6

OtherOther 99.099.0 84.284.2 33.733.7 7.87.8 83.583.5

TotalTotal 93.693.6 64.164.1 44.344.3 16.116.1 72.372.3

Bilingual EducationBilingual EducationHistoric EvolutionHistoric Evolution

Widespread in 19Widespread in 19thth century America century America– authorized by law in 12 states, including Ohio authorized by law in 12 states, including Ohio

(1839), Louisiana (1847) (1839), Louisiana (1847) – non-English groups had local majoritiesnon-English groups had local majorities– 1900: 4% in German-English1900: 4% in German-English

RationaleRationale– language, cultural maintenancelanguage, cultural maintenance– English-speaking teachers unavailableEnglish-speaking teachers unavailable

Mostly eliminated by 1919Mostly eliminated by 1919– coercive assimilation, immigration restrictioncoercive assimilation, immigration restriction– English-only instruction lawsEnglish-only instruction laws

Bilingual EducationBilingual EducationModern EraModern Era

1967: Bilingual Education Act1967: Bilingual Education Act– civil-rights basiscivil-rights basis– ““transitional” goals: English, academics in Englishtransitional” goals: English, academics in English

1974: 1974: Lau v. NicholsLau v. Nichols decision decision– addressing diverse needsaddressing diverse needs– trial and error in program designtrial and error in program design

1980s: “developmental” bilingual education1980s: “developmental” bilingual education– goals: academics in English, bilingualism/biliteracygoals: academics in English, bilingualism/biliteracy– research found superior resultsresearch found superior results

1990s: rapid growth of two-way models1990s: rapid growth of two-way models

ResearchResearchFindings on 2Findings on 2ndnd Language Language

AcquisitionAcquisition ‘‘Comprehensible input’ hypothesis Comprehensible input’ hypothesis

(Krashen)(Krashen)– use of L2 for communication vs. sink or swimuse of L2 for communication vs. sink or swim

Interdependence hypothesis (Cummins)Interdependence hypothesis (Cummins)– L1 supports L2L1 supports L2– transfer of knowledge & skillstransfer of knowledge & skills

Academic language, conversational Academic language, conversational languagelanguage– 4-9 years for L2 learners to catch up4-9 years for L2 learners to catch up– ‘‘age on arrival’ studiesage on arrival’ studies

Which Programs Work Which Programs Work Best?Best?

Findings of 3 Major ReviewsFindings of 3 Major Reviews Bilingual models are consistently more Bilingual models are consistently more

effective than all-English modelseffective than all-English models– the more rigorous the study, the more the more rigorous the study, the more

positive effects for bilingual programspositive effects for bilingual programs Larger positive effects are documented Larger positive effects are documented

in ‘developmental’ bilingual educationin ‘developmental’ bilingual education– one-way & two-way support English, heritage one-way & two-way support English, heritage

language, AND academic achievement in language, AND academic achievement in EnglishEnglish

– bilingualism & biliteracybilingualism & biliteracy

Sources: Rolstad, Mahoney & Glass (2005), Slavin & Cheung Sources: Rolstad, Mahoney & Glass (2005), Slavin & Cheung (2005), August & Shanahan (2006)(2005), August & Shanahan (2006)

Evolution of Two-Way BEEvolution of Two-Way BEProgram Experience in Canada, U.S.Program Experience in Canada, U.S.

French immersionFrench immersion– English speakers in QuebecEnglish speakers in Quebec– alternative to traditional foreign-language teachingalternative to traditional foreign-language teaching– goal: fluent bilingualism at no cost to academicsgoal: fluent bilingualism at no cost to academics

Developmental (one-way) bilingual educationDevelopmental (one-way) bilingual education– ‘‘gradual exit’ model for language-minority studentsgradual exit’ model for language-minority students– goal: academic progress at no cost to bilingualism goal: academic progress at no cost to bilingualism

Two-way bilingual modelsTwo-way bilingual models– 90/10 vs. 50/50 use of languages90/10 vs. 50/50 use of languages

Growth of Two-Way BEGrowth of Two-Way BE 1962 – 20071962 – 2007

Profile of Two-Way BEProfile of Two-Way BE Program DataProgram Data

Relatively few programsRelatively few programs– 332 in entire U.S., most in elementary schools332 in entire U.S., most in elementary schools– Spanish, French, Korean, Cantonese, Mandarin, Spanish, French, Korean, Cantonese, Mandarin,

Navajo, Japanese, German Navajo, Japanese, German StudentsStudents

– no enrollment data; estimate: 50-75,000no enrollment data; estimate: 50-75,000– class differences between majority/minority class differences between majority/minority

speakersspeakers Sociolinguistic contextSociolinguistic context

– bilingual homes, communitiesbilingual homes, communities– English-dominant communitiesEnglish-dominant communities

Profile of Two-Way BEProfile of Two-Way BE Program VariationsProgram Variations

90/10 or 80/20 model90/10 or 80/20 model– minority language for academics in early yearsminority language for academics in early years– English phased in to 50/50 by year 4 or 5English phased in to 50/50 by year 4 or 5

50/50 model50/50 model– parent concernsparent concerns– parity of languages in all grades parity of languages in all grades

Language arts instructionLanguage arts instruction– heterogeneous grouping: some programs heterogeneous grouping: some programs

separate groups for L1 language-arts classesseparate groups for L1 language-arts classes TeachersTeachers

– in 50% of programs, teachers are fully bilingualin 50% of programs, teachers are fully bilingual– most alternate between classes, maximizing most alternate between classes, maximizing

staffstaff

Research on Two-Way BEResearch on Two-Way BE Limited DataLimited Data

Few conclusive studies Few conclusive studies – most do not control for socioeconomic variablesmost do not control for socioeconomic variables– selection biasselection bias

Promising resultsPromising results– minority language speakers do well minority language speakers do well

academically, acquire native-like Englishacademically, acquire native-like English– English speakers excel academically but may English speakers excel academically but may

reach less than native-like oral proficiency in L2reach less than native-like oral proficiency in L2– no clear advantage for 90/10 or 50/50 for no clear advantage for 90/10 or 50/50 for

minority group; 90/10 superior for majority minority group; 90/10 superior for majority groupgroup

Two-Way Bilingual Two-Way Bilingual EducationEducation

Student OutcomesStudent Outcomes Academic achievementAcademic achievement

– superior for language-majority but lag in L1superior for language-majority but lag in L1– relative advantage for language minority grouprelative advantage for language minority group

Bilingualism, biliteracyBilingualism, biliteracy– oral proficiency gains greater for minority grouporal proficiency gains greater for minority group

Positive attitudes toward cultural diversityPositive attitudes toward cultural diversity– also: toward target language, other language also: toward target language, other language

groupgroup For minority language group:For minority language group:

– greater self-esteem, academic expectationsgreater self-esteem, academic expectations– fewer identity conflictsfewer identity conflicts

Two-Way Bilingual Two-Way Bilingual Education Education

ChallengesChallenges Making instruction comprehensibleMaking instruction comprehensible

– varying L2 proficiency, academic levelvarying L2 proficiency, academic level– ‘‘immersion,’ sheltered instructionimmersion,’ sheltered instruction

Ensuring parent/community supportEnsuring parent/community support– explaining program goalsexplaining program goals– responding to misunderstandings, fears, responding to misunderstandings, fears,

prejudicesprejudices Dealing with power relationshipsDealing with power relationships

– serving both groups equitablyserving both groups equitably– ensuring equal status of languagesensuring equal status of languages

Two-Way Bilingual Two-Way Bilingual Education Education

Principles for SuccessPrinciples for Success Long-term approachLong-term approach

– 4-6 years to achieve goals4-6 years to achieve goals

Parity of languages, language groupsParity of languages, language groups– at least 50% usage of minority at least 50% usage of minority

languagelanguage– peer modelspeer models– maximizing interaction among language maximizing interaction among language

groupsgroups

Two-Way Bilingual Two-Way Bilingual Education Education

Principles for SuccessPrinciples for Success Additive bilingual environmentAdditive bilingual environment

– ‘‘empowerment’ approachempowerment’ approach– respect for both languagesrespect for both languages– languages as resourceslanguages as resources– cooperative learning, group workcooperative learning, group work

Two-Way Bilingual Two-Way Bilingual Education Education

Principles for SuccessPrinciples for Success Professional development of staffProfessional development of staff

– planning/training yearplanning/training year– theories of second-language theories of second-language

acquisitionacquisition– language education pedagogylanguage education pedagogy– assessmentassessment– partnerships with institutions, partnerships with institutions,

expertsexperts

Two-Way Bilingual Two-Way Bilingual Education Education

Principles for SuccessPrinciples for Success Curriculum & instructionCurriculum & instruction

– challenging academicallychallenging academically– tailored to students’ language level tailored to students’ language level – teachers with native-like proficiencyteachers with native-like proficiency– L2 taught primarily through L2 taught primarily through

academics, combined with some academics, combined with some direct instructiondirect instruction

– initial literacy in minority languageinitial literacy in minority language– L1 language artsL1 language arts

Two-Way Bilingual Two-Way Bilingual Education Education

Principles for SuccessPrinciples for Success AssessmentAssessment

– authentic, understood by staffauthentic, understood by staff– academic vs. language academic vs. language

assessmentassessment– multiple indicatorsmultiple indicators– diagnostic role for individual diagnostic role for individual

studentsstudents– serves program planning, goalsserves program planning, goals

Two-Way Bilingual Two-Way Bilingual Education Education

Principles for SuccessPrinciples for Success Effective leadershipEffective leadership

– training in theory, pedagogytraining in theory, pedagogy– staff support, coordination staff support, coordination – planning, curriculum developmentplanning, curriculum development– integration within larger schoolintegration within larger school– ambassador for program to parents, ambassador for program to parents,

communitiescommunities

Two-Way Bilingual Two-Way Bilingual Education Education

Principles for SuccessPrinciples for Success Parent involvementParent involvement

– program goals, expectationsprogram goals, expectations– student performance datastudent performance data– out-of-school supportout-of-school support– resolving conflictsresolving conflicts

Two-Way Bilingual Two-Way Bilingual Education Education

Principles for SuccessPrinciples for Success Program evaluationProgram evaluation

– monitoring student progressmonitoring student progress– rectifying mistakesrectifying mistakes– considering parent/community considering parent/community

viewsviews– redesigning programredesigning program

Bilingualism Bilingualism Benefits for IndividualsBenefits for Individuals

Cognitive advantagesCognitive advantages– metalinguistic awarenessmetalinguistic awareness– executive control, working memoryexecutive control, working memory– limiting effects of aginglimiting effects of aging

Career opportunitiesCareer opportunities– need for bilingual skills, higher incomesneed for bilingual skills, higher incomes

Social adjustmentSocial adjustment– identity construction, educational identity construction, educational

aspirationsaspirations Family relationships Family relationships

– minimizing conflictsminimizing conflicts

Bilingualism Bilingualism Benefits for SocietyBenefits for Society

Economic edgeEconomic edge– trade, development assistancetrade, development assistance

Cultural vitalityCultural vitality– enhancing arts, learning, expressionenhancing arts, learning, expression

Ethnic harmonyEthnic harmony– protecting rights, limiting conflictsprotecting rights, limiting conflicts

National securityNational security– dealing with a dangerous worlddealing with a dangerous world

Global understandingGlobal understanding– climate change, public health, educationclimate change, public health, education

ResourcesResources

Institute forInstitute for L Language and Education anguage and Education PolicyPolicy

www.elladvocates.orgwww.elladvocates.org

Center for Applied LinguisticsCenter for Applied Linguisticswww.cal.org/twiwww.cal.org/twi

California Association for Bilingual California Association for Bilingual EducationEducation

www.bilingualeducation.org/2waycabewww.bilingualeducation.org/2waycabe

Dual Language of New MexicoDual Language of New Mexicowww.dlenm.orgwww.dlenm.org