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Typical structure of a scientific structure of a scientific paperpaper

((IMRADIMRAD structure)structure)Title AbstractIntroduction (What did you study? Why did you study this?)Materials and Methods (How did you do?)Results (What did you find?)Discussion (What does it mean?)AcknowledgementsReferences

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A bad beginning makes a badending.

— Euripides

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The order of ideas in research paper normally follows the pattern G-S-G

General

Specific

General

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SpecificSpecific

General

1st stage: ?2nd stage: ?3rd stage: ?4th stage: ?5th stage: ?6th stage: ?

Order of

Ideas

The introduction usually has from The introduction usually has from fourfour to to sixsix stagesstages((moves) moving from the general to the more moves) moving from the general to the more

specific:specific:

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The introduction usually has from The introduction usually has from fourfour to to sixsix stagesstages((moves) moving from the general to the more moves) moving from the general to the more

specific:specific:

SpecificSpecific

1st stage: establishing a contextGeneral

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Useful expressions: Useful expressions: 11stst stagestage

establishing a contextInjury is the main cause of death in people under fifty years old.The cell population types constituting multicellularorganisms can be roughly classified, based on their kinetics, into three main groups: ….Paleoecology shows that vegetation has continually changed with climate.Clean water is a basic human need. During the past forty years, computers have becomeessential tools in many walks of life.

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Some “skeletal” examplesSome “skeletal” examplesRecently, there has been growing interest in …Recently, there has been growing interest in …The possibility of … has generated wide interest in …The possibility of … has generated wide interest in …The development of … is a classic problem in …The development of … is a classic problem in …The development of … has led to the hope that …The development of … has led to the hope that …The … has become a favorite topic for analysis …The … has become a favorite topic for analysis …Knowledge of … has a great importance for …Knowledge of … has a great importance for …The study of … has become an important aspect of …The study of … has become an important aspect of …A central issue in … is …A central issue in … is …The … has been extensively studied in recent yearsThe … has been extensively studied in recent yearsMany investigators have recently turned to …Many investigators have recently turned to …The relationship between … has been investigated by many The relationship between … has been investigated by many researchers.researchers.Many recent studies have focused on …Many recent studies have focused on …

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The introduction usually has from The introduction usually has from fourfour to to sixsix stagesstages((moves) moving from the general to the more moves) moving from the general to the more

specific:specific:

SpecificSpecific

1st stage: establishing a context

2nd stage: reviewing the literature

General

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Tense patterns in reportingTense patterns in reporting

1. Past – single study and researcher as agent –Jones (1998) investigated the causes of bark beetle outbreaks

2. Present perfect – area of inquiry – There have been several investigations into the causes of bark beetle outbreaks (Brie 1966, Jones 1998)

3. Present – reference to current knowledge (but not direct reference to research activity) – The causes of bark beetle outbreaks appear to be complex (Brie 1966, Jones 1998)

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What is the difference?What is the difference?

Smith (1993) Smith (1993) found found that the number of that the number of fires fires was was correlated most closely with ….correlated most closely with ….

Smith (1993) Smith (1993) found found that the number of that the number of fires fires is is correlated most closely with ….correlated most closely with ….

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CitationalCitational PresentPresent

Plato argues that …Confucius says …The Bibles says …The constitution states … …

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33RDRD StageStage: : establishing a gapestablishing a gap

Here you signal to the reader that literature Here you signal to the reader that literature review is finished. Your review should point a review is finished. Your review should point a gap in the literature, i.e. an important research gap in the literature, i.e. an important research area not investigated by other authors because:area not investigated by other authors because:

TheyThey overlooked or ignoredoverlooked or ignored this area, orthis area, orThere There isis conflictconflict about the area, orabout the area, orYour area is Your area is a kind of extensiona kind of extension or or continuationcontinuationof other researchof other research

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The introduction usually has from The introduction usually has from fourfour to to six six stagesstages((moves) moving from the general to the more moves) moving from the general to the more

specific:specific:

SpecificSpecific

1st stage: establishing a context

2nd stage: reviewing the literature

3rd stage: establishing a research gap

General

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Some “negative” verbs: Some “negative” verbs: ““However, previous research field has …However, previous research field has …

1.1. concentrated on …concentrated on …2.2. disregarded …disregarded …3.3. failed to consider …failed to consider …4.4. ignored …ignored …5.5. been limited to …been limited to …6.6. misinterpreted …misinterpreted …

7.7. neglected to consider …neglected to consider …8.8. overestimated …overestimated …9.9. overlooked …overlooked …10.10. been restricted to …been restricted to …11.11. suffered from … suffered from … 12.12. underestimated underestimated

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Some “negative” adjectives:Some “negative” adjectives:““Nevertheless, these attempts to establish a link Nevertheless, these attempts to establish a link between secondary smoke and lung cancer are at between secondary smoke and lung cancer are at

present …present …

controversial controversial incompleteincompleteinconclusiveinconclusivemisguided misguided unconvincingunconvincingquestionablequestionableunsatisfactoryunsatisfactory

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Note the use of Note the use of no/noneno/none ofof

NoNo studies/data/calculations …studies/data/calculations …NNone of these one of these studies/findings/calculationsstudies/findings/calculations

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What is the difference in the What is the difference in the following pairs of sentences?following pairs of sentences?

He has little research experience/ He has a He has little research experience/ He has a little research experiencelittle research experience

The department has few computers/ The The department has few computers/ The department has a few computersdepartment has a few computers

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Negative openingsNegative openingsHowever,However, ……

little … ?little … ? few … ?few … ?

information, attention, researcher, research, data, attempt, work, study, investigation

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The introduction usually has from four to six stages The introduction usually has from four to six stages moving from the general to the more specific:moving from the general to the more specific:

SpecificSpecific

1st stage: establishing a context

2nd stage: reviewing the literature

3rd stage: establishing a research gap

4th stage: stating the purpose

General

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Divide sentences into two groupsDivide sentences into two groups

1.1. The aim of the present paper is to give …The aim of the present paper is to give …2.2. This paper reports on the results obtained …This paper reports on the results obtained …3.3. In this paper we give preliminary results for ..In this paper we give preliminary results for ..4.4. The main purpose of the experiment reported here was The main purpose of the experiment reported here was

to …to …5.5. This study was designed to evaluate …This study was designed to evaluate …6.6. The present work extends the use of the last model by The present work extends the use of the last model by

……7.7. We now report the interaction between …We now report the interaction between …8.8. The primary focus of this paper …The primary focus of this paper …9.9. The aim of this investigation was to test …The aim of this investigation was to test …10.10. It is the purpose of the present paper to provide …It is the purpose of the present paper to provide …

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RemarksRemarks

Note: Note: uses of this, the present, hereuses of this, the present, hereSwitch from the impersonal to the Switch from the impersonal to the personal by using personal by using wewe or or II“We present the results of three “We present the results of three experiments in this paper” experiments in this paper” oror “In this “In this paper we present the results of three paper we present the results of three experiments” experiments” ??????????

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Tense in Purpose StatementsTense in Purpose Statements

Present or Past (was or is ) ???Present or Past (was or is ) ???

It depends on how you refer to It depends on how you refer to your work:your work:

if you work is if you work is the textthe text then you must use then you must use present tensepresent tense because when you write, “The aim because when you write, “The aim of the paper was to …,”of the paper was to …,”

if you work is if you work is the investigationthe investigation then you either then you either waswas or or isis, and there is a tendency to use , and there is a tendency to use is is

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44thth stage: stating the purpose of the stage: stating the purpose of the researchresearch

This paper This paper exploresexplores the question of how the question of how browsing affects the regeneration ofbrowsing affects the regeneration of……The aim of the present study The aim of the present study was to determinewas to determinewhether… and to observe the response of…whether… and to observe the response of…This study This study attempts to give a partial answer to attempts to give a partial answer to questionquestion posed in the introduction: does posed in the introduction: does vegetation grow differently under artificial snow?vegetation grow differently under artificial snow?In this paper In this paper we report on the resultswe report on the results of survey of survey conducted to determine the…conducted to determine the…A thorough review of the research and theory A thorough review of the research and theory related to this phenomenon is obviously beyond related to this phenomenon is obviously beyond the scope of this study the scope of this study